Kinetics and energetics of trehalose transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Key amino acid residues of the AGT1 permease required for maltotriose consumption and fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae

AIMS

The AGT1 gene encodes for a general α-glucoside-H⁺ symporter required for efficient maltotriose fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In the present study, we analysed the involvement of four charged amino acid residues present in this transporter that are required for maltotriose consumption and fermentation by yeast cells.

METHODS AND RESULTS

By using a knowledge-driven approach based on charge, conservation, location, three-dimensional (3D) structural modelling and molecular docking analysis, we identified four amino acid residues (Glu-120, Asp-123, Glu-167 and Arg-504) in the AGT1 permease that could mediate substrate binding and translocation. Mutant permeases were generated by site-directed mutagenesis of these charged residues, and expressed in a yeast strain lacking this permease (agt1∆). While mutating the Arg-504 or Glu-120 residues into alanine totally abolished (R504A mutant) or greatly reduced (E120A mutant) maltotriose consumption by yeast cells, as well as impaired the active transport of several other α-glucosides, in the case of the Asp-123 and Glu-167 amino acids, it was necessary to mutate both residues (D123G/E167A mutant) in order to impair maltotriose consumption and fermentation.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results obtained with mutant proteins, molecular docking and the localization of amino acid residues, we propose a transport mechanism for the AGT1 permease.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Our results present new insights into the structural basis for active α-glucoside-H⁺ symport activity by yeast transporters, providing the molecular bases for improving the catalytic properties of this type of sugar transporters.

Interaction of storage carbohydrates and other cyclic fluxes with central metabolism: A quantitative approach by non-stationary 13C metabolic flux analysis

13C labeling experiments in aerobic glucose limited cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae at four different growth rates (0.054; 0.101, 0.207, 0.307 h-1) are used for calculating fluxes that include intracellular cycles (e.g., storage carbohydrate cycles, exchange fluxes with amino acids), which are rearranged depending on the growth rate. At low growth rates the impact of the storage carbohydrate recycle is relatively more significant than at high growth rates due to a higher concentration of these materials in the cell (up to 560-fold) and higher fluxes relative to the glucose uptake rate (up to 16%). Experimental observations suggest that glucose can be exported to the extracellular space, and that its source is related to storage carbohydrates, most likely via the export and subsequent extracellular breakdown of trehalose. This hypothesis is strongly supported by 13C-labeling experimental data, measured extracellular trehalose, and the corresponding flux estimations.

Secretion of the acid trehalase encoded by the CgATH1 gene allows trehalose fermentation by Candida glabrata

The emergent pathogen Candida glabrata differs from other yeasts because it assimilates only two sugars, glucose and the disaccharide trehalose. Since rapid identification tests are based on the ability of this yeast to rapidly hydrolyze trehalose, in this work a biochemical and molecular characterization of trehalose catabolism by this yeast was performed. Our results show that C. glabrata consumes and ferments trehalose, with parameters similar to those observed during glucose fermentation. The presence of glucose in the medium during exponential growth on trehalose revealed extracellular hydrolysis of the sugar by a cell surface acid trehalase with a pH optimum of 4.4. Approximately ∼30% of the total enzymatic activity is secreted into the medium during growth on trehalose or glycerol. The secreted enzyme shows an apparent molecular mass of 275 kDa in its native form, but denaturant gel electrophoresis revealed a protein with ∼130 kDa, which due to its migration pattern and strong binding to concanavalin A, indicates that it is probably a dimeric glycoprotein. The secreted acid trehalase shows high affinity and activity for trehalose, with Km and Vmax values of 3.4 mM and 80 U (mg protein)(-1), respectively. Cloning of the CgATH1 gene (CAGLOK05137g) from de C. glabrata genome, a gene showing high homology to fungal acid trehalases, allowed trehalose fermentation after heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Novel starters for old processes: use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from artisanal sourdough for craft beer production at a brewery scale

The deliberate inoculation of yeast strains isolated from food matrices such as wine or bread, could allow the transfer of novel properties to beer. In this work, the feasibility of the use of baker's yeast strains as starters for craft beer production has been evaluated at laboratory and brewery scale. Nine out of 12 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from artisanal sourdoughs metabolized 2 % maltose, glucose and trehalose and showed growth rates and cell populations higher than those of the brewer's strain Safbrew-S33. Analysis of allelic variation at 12 microsatellite loci clustered seven baker's strains and Safbrew-S33 in the main group of bread isolates. Chemical analyses of beers produced at a brewery scale showed significant differences among the beers produced with the baker's strain S38 or Safbrew-S33, while no significant differences were observed when S38 or the brewer's strain Safbrew-F2 was used for re-fermentation. The sensory profile of beers obtained with S38 or the brewer's yeasts did not show significant differences, thus suggesting that baker's strains of S. cerevisiae could represent a reservoir of biodiversity for the selection of starter strains for craft beer production.

Role of periplasmic trehalase in uptake of trehalose by the thermophilic bacterium Rhodothermus marinus

Trehalose uptake at 65 degrees C in Rhodothermus marinus was characterized. The profile of trehalose uptake as a function of concentration showed two distinct types of saturation kinetics, and the analysis of the data was complicated by the activity of a periplasmic trehalase. The kinetic parameters of this enzyme determined in whole cells were as follows: Km = 156 +/- 11 microM and Vmax = 21.2 +/- 0.4 nmol/min/mg of total protein. Therefore, trehalose could be acted upon by this periplasmic activity, yielding glucose that subsequently entered the cell via the glucose uptake system, which was also characterized. To distinguish the several contributions in this intricate system, a mathematical model was developed that took into account the experimental kinetic parameters for trehalase, trehalose transport, glucose transport, competition data with trehalose, glucose, and palatinose, and measurements of glucose diffusion out of the periplasm. It was concluded that R. marinus has distinct transport systems for trehalose and glucose; moreover, the experimental data fit perfectly with a model considering a high-affinity, low-capacity transport system for trehalose (Km = 0.11 +/- 0.03 microM and Vmax = 0.39 +/- 0.02 nmol/min/mg of protein) and a glucose transporter with moderate affinity and capacity (Km = 46 +/- 3 microM and Vmax = 48 +/- 1 nmol/min/mg of protein). The contribution of the trehalose transporter is important only in trehalose-poor environments (trehalose concentrations up to 6 microM); at higher concentrations trehalose is assimilated primarily via trehalase and the glucose transport system. Trehalose uptake was constitutive, but the activity decreased 60% in response to osmotic stress. The nature of the trehalose transporter and the physiological relevance of these findings are discussed.

Further study of theHansenula polymorpha MALlocus: characterization of the α-glucoside permease encoded by theHpMAL2gene

The HpMAL2 gene of the MAL gene cluster of Hansenula polymorpha codes for a permease similar to yeast maltose and alpha-glucoside transporters. Genomic disruption of HpMAL2 resulted in an inability of cells to grow on maltose, sucrose, trehalose, maltotriose and turanose, as well as a lack of p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-glucopyranoside (PNPG) transport. PNPG uptake was competitively inhibited by all these substrates, with Ki values between 0.23 and 1.47 mM. Transport by HpMal2p was sensitive to pH and a protonophore carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), revealing its energization by the proton gradient over the cell membrane. Although HpMAL2 was responsible for trehalose uptake, its expression was not induced during trehalose growth. A maltase disruption mutant did not grow on maltotriose and turanose, whereas it showed normal growth on trehalose, demonstrating the dispensability of maltase for intracellular hydrolysis of trehalose. In a Genolevures clone pBB0AA011B12, the promoter region and the N-terminal fragment of the putative transactivator of MAL genes is located adjacent to HpMAL2. A reporter gene assay showed that expression from that promoter was induced by maltose and sucrose, repressed by glucose, and derepressed during glycerol and trehalose growth. Therefore, we presume that the gene encodes a functional regulator.

Trehalose transporter 1, a facilitated and high-capacity trehalose transporter, allows exogenous trehalose uptake into cells

Trehalose is potentially a useful cryo- or anhydroprotectant molecule for cells and biomolecules such as proteins and nucleotides. A major obstacle to application is that cellular membranes are impermeable to trehalose. In this study, we isolated and characterized the functions of a facilitated trehalose transporter [trehalose transporter 1 (TRET1)] from an anhydrobiotic insect, Polypedilum vanderplanki. Tret1 cDNA encodes a 504-aa protein with 12 predicted transmembrane structures. Tret1 expression was induced by either desiccation or salinity stress. Expression was predominant in the fat body and occurred concomitantly with the accumulation of trehalose, indicating that TRET1 is involved in transporting trehalose synthesized in the fat body into the hemolymph. Functional expression of TRET1 in Xenopus oocytes showed that transport activity was stereochemically specific for trehalose and independent of extracellular pH (between 4.0 and 9.0) and electrochemical membrane potential. These results indicate that TRET1 is a trehalose-specific facilitated transporter and that the direction of transport is reversible depending on the concentration gradient of trehalose. The extraordinarily high values for apparent Km (>or=100 mM) and Vmax (>or=500 pmol/min per oocyte) for trehalose both indicate that TRET1 is a high-capacity transporter of trehalose. Furthermore, TRET1 was found to function in mammalian cells, suggesting that it confers trehalose permeability on cells, including those of vertebrates as well as insects. These characteristic features imply that TRET1 in combination with trehalose has high potential for basic and practical applications in vivo.

Expression, purification, and characterization of recombinant Metarhizium anisopliae acid trehalase in Pichia pastoris

The mature peptide of Metarhizium anisopliae acid trehalase (ATM1) (EC3.2.1.28) was successfully expressed in Pichia pastoris at high levels under the control of AOX1 promoter. The recombinant ATM1 (reATM1) was secreted into culture medium. After 48-h 0.5% methanol induction, the activity of reATM1 in the culture supernatant reached the peak, 5.35 U/mg. Enzyme with a histidine sequence appended to the C terminus was still active and was purified using metal-chelate affinity chromatography. The yield of purified reATM1 was 2.5 mg from 1L supernatant. The purified reATM1 exhibited a molecular mass of approximately 170 kDa on SDS-PAGE. The optimum temperature and pH of reATM1 were 30 degrees C and 6.0, respectively, and the K(m) and V(max) values for reATM1 were 2.6 mM and 0.305 mmol/min/mg, respectively. Studies showed that the enzymatic properties of reATM1 were similar to those of the native ATM1.

Characterisation of an acid trehalase produced by the thermotolerant fungus Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis: biochemical properties and immunochemical localisation

An acid trehalase from Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis was purified to apparent homogeneity. The molecular weight by SDS-PAGE (60 kDa) or Sephacryl S-200 filtration (105 kDa) suggested a homodimer. The carbohydrate content was 72%. Endoglycosidase H digestion resulted in one sharp band of 51.5 kDa in SDS-PAGE. pH and temperature optima were 4.5 and 45 degrees C, respectively. The isoelectric point was 6.69 and activation energy was 1.14 kcal mol(-1). The enzyme was stable for 1 h at 50 degrees C and decayed at 60 degrees C (t50 of 1.3 min.). Apparent KM for trealose was 0.2mM. Immunolocalisation studies showed the enzyme tightly packed at the surface of the cells.

Two distinct pathways for trehalose assimilation in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae can synthesize trehalose and also use this disaccharide as a carbon source for growth. However, the molecular mechanism by which extracellular trehalose can be transported to the vacuole and degraded by the acid trehalase Ath1p is not clear. By using an adaptation of the assay of invertase on whole cells with NaF, we showed that more than 90% of the activity of Ath1p is extracellular, splitting of the disaccharide into glucose. We also found that Agt1p-mediated trehalose transport and the hydrolysis of the disaccharide by the cytosolic neutral trehalase Nth1p are coupled and represent a second, independent pathway, although there are several constraints on this alternative route. First, the AGT1/MAL11 gene is controlled by the MAL system, and Agt1p was active in neither non-maltose-fermenting nor maltose-inducible strains. Second, Agt1p rapidly lost activity during growth on trehalose, by a mechanism similar to the sugar-induced inactivation of the maltose permease. Finally, both pathways are highly pH sensitive and effective growth on trehalose occurred only when the medium was buffered at around pH 5.0. The catabolism of trehalose was purely oxidative, and since levels of Ath1p limit the glucose flux in the cells, batch cultures on trehalose may provide a useful alternative to glucose-limited chemostat cultures for investigation of metabolic responses in yeast.

Molecular analysis of maltotriose transport and utilization by Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Efficient fermentation of maltotriose is a desired property of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for brewing. In a standard wort, maltotriose is the second most abundant sugar, and slower uptake leads to residual maltotriose in the finished product. The limiting factor of sugar metabolism is its transport, and there are conflicting reports on whether a specific maltotriose permease exists or whether the mechanisms responsible for maltose uptake also carry out maltotriose transport. In this study, radiolabeled maltotriose was used to show that overexpression of the maltose permease gene, MAL61, in an industrial yeast strain resulted in an increase in the rate of transport of maltotriose as well as maltose. A strain derived from W303-1A and lacking any maltose or maltotriose transporter but carrying a functional maltose transport activator (MAL63) was developed. By complementing this strain with permeases encoded by MAL31, MAL61, and AGT1, it was possible to measure their specific transport kinetics by using maltotriose and maltose. All three permeases were capable of high-affinity transport of maltotriose and of allowing growth of the strain on the sugar. Maltotriose utilization from the permease encoded by AGT1 was regulated by the same genetic mechanisms as those involving the maltose transcriptional activator. Competition studies carried out with two industrial strains, one not containing any homologue of AGT1, showed that maltose uptake and maltotriose uptake were competitive and that maltose was the preferred substrate. These results indicate that the presence of residual maltotriose in beer is not due to a genetic or physiological inability of yeast cells to utilize the sugar but rather to the lower affinity for maltotriose uptake in conjunction with deteriorating conditions present at the later stages of fermentation. Here we identify molecular mechanisms regulating the uptake of maltotriose and determine the role of each of the transporter genes in the cells.

Characterization of the putative maltose transporters encoded by YDL247w and YJR160c

The maltose permease family of Saccharomyces cerevisiae comprises five proteins, three of which are characterized, MAL31, MAL61 and AGT1 and two putative permeases, YDL247w (MPH2) and YJR160c (MPH3). The two uncharacterized permeases share 100% identity and have 75% identity with MAL31 and MAL61 and 55% identity with AGT1. Characterization of the genes YDL247w and YJR160c confirmed that they encode alpha-glucoside permeases capable of transporting maltose, maltotriose, alpha-methylglucoside and turanose. Analysis of the promoter regions identified regulatory elements, binding sites for the transcriptional activator, Malx3p and the inhibitory protein, Mig1p. Further analysis of the flanking sequences located blocks of identity covering five open reading frames, indicating that this region was involved in chromosomal block duplication. The members of the maltose permease family are proteins that have strongly overlapping but nevertheless distinct functions, which is a selective advantage for yeast, as it reflects successful adaptation to the variety of environmental conditions to which the yeast cells are exposed; such adaptability is very important in an industrial context.

Induction of trehalase in Arabidopsis plants infected with the trehalose-producing pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae

Various microorganisms produce the disaccharide trehalose during their symbiotic and pathogenic interactions with plants. Trehalose has strong effects on plant metabolism and growth; therefore, we became interested to study its possible role in the interaction of Arabidopsis thaliana with Plasmodiophora brassicae, the causal agent of clubroot disease. We found that trehalose accumulated strongly in the infected organs (i.e., the roots and hypocotyls) and, to a lesser extent, in the leaves and stems of infected plants. This accumulation pattern of trehalose correlated with the expression of a putative trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (EC 2.4.1.15) gene from P. brassicae, PbTPS1. Clubroot formation also resulted in an induction of the Arabidopsis trehalase gene, ATTRE1, and in a concomitant increase in trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28) activity in the roots and hypocotyls, but not in the leaves and stems of infected plants. Thus, induction of ATTRE1 expression was probably responsible for the increased trehalase activity. Trehalase activity increased before trehalose accumulated; therefore, it is unlikely that trehalase was induced by its substrate. The induction of trehalase may be part of the plant's defense response and may prevent excess accumulation of trehalose in the plant cells, where it could interfere with the regulation of carbon metabolism.

Trehalose-hydrolysing enzymes of Metarhizium anisopliae and their role in pathogenesis of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta

Trehalose is the main haemolymph sugar in most insects including the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, and is potentially a prime target for an invading pathogenic fungus. There was considerably more trehalose-hydrolysing activity in the haemolymph of caterpillars infected with Metarhizium anisopliae than in controls. This appeared to be due primarily to additional isoforms; one of which could also hydrolyse maltose and was designated an alpha-glucosidase. A comparable isoform was identified in in vitro culture of the fungus, supporting a fungal origin for the in vivo enzyme. The in vitro fungal enzyme, alpha-glucosidase-1 (alpha-gluc-1), was purified to homogeneity and partially characterised. A study with the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin and C14 trehalose suggested that extracellular hydrolysis is important for fungal mobilisation of trehalose. Haemolymph glucose increases significantly during mycosis of tobacco hornworm larvae by M. anisopliae, consistent with the hydrolysis of trehalose by extracellular fungal enzymes. The implications for the host insect are discussed.

Molecular cloning, characterisation, and expression of a neutral trehalase from the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae

A neutral trehalase gene (NTH1) was isolated from a lambdaEMBL3 genomic library of the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. Sequencing of the gene revealed extensive homology with other fungal neutral trehalases. The NTH1 gene exists as a single copy in the genome. Two STREs exist in the 5'UTR of NTH1, which may mediate transcriptional activation of the NTH1 gene in response to various stresses. The NTH1 gene encodes a protein of 737 amino acids with a calculated M(r) of 83.1kDa. A cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-dependent phosphorylation consensus site and a putative calcium binding site were found in the amino-terminal domain of NTH1, consistent with a regulatory enzyme. Expression of the trehalase cDNA was achieved in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Southern blot analysis of RT-PCR products indicated that the neutral trehalase gene is transcribed in vitro in cell-free haemolymph of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta and in vivo in the early stage of infection.

Colorimetric determination of active alpha-glucoside transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Fermentation of alpha-glucosides (maltose, maltotriose) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells is a critical phase in the processes of brewing and breadmaking. Utilization of alpha-glucosides requires the active transport of the sugar across the cell membrane and, subsequently, its hydrolysis by cytoplasmic glucosidases. Although transport activities are usually assayed using radiolabeled substrates, we have developed a simple, cheap and reliable colorimetric assay for the determination of alpha-glucoside uptake using p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-glucopyranoside (pNPalphaG) as substrate. Our results show that pNPalphaG is actively transported by S. cerevisiae cells by a H+-symport mechanism, which depends on the electrochemical proton gradient across the plasma membrane. pNPalphaG uptake is mediated by the AGT1 alpha-glucoside permease, which has a high affinity (Km=3 mM) for this chromogenic substrate. This simple colorimetric uptake assay can be used to analyze the expression and regulation of the AGT1 permease in S. cerevisiae cells.

Kinetics of active alpha-glucoside transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

alpha-Glucosides are the most abundant fermentable sugars in the industrial applications of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the active transport across the plasma membrane is the rate-limiting step for their metabolism. In this report we performed a detailed kinetic analysis of the active alpha-glucoside transport system(s) present in a wild-type strain, and in strains with defined alpha-glucoside permeases. Our results indicate that the wild-type strain harbors active transporters with high and low affinity for maltose and trehalose, and low-affinity transport systems for maltotriose and alpha-methylglucoside. The maltose permease encoded by the MAL21 gene showed a high affinity (K(m) approximately 5 mM) for maltose, and a low affinity (K(m) approximately 90 mM) for trehalose. On the other hand, the alpha-glucoside permease encoded by the AGT1 gene had a high affinity (K(m) approximately 7 mM) for trehalose, a low affinity (K(m) approximately 18 mM) for maltose and maltotriose, and a very low affinity (K(m) approximately 35 mM) for alpha-methylglucoside.

The Kluyver effect for trehalose in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells are able to grow using trehalose as a sole source of carbon and energy. However, the biomass yield obtained with trehalose was higher, and the specific growth rate lower, than that obtained with glucose or maltose. The respiratory inhibitor antimycin A prevented cell growth on trehalose, and no ethanol or glycerol was formed during batch growth on this carbon source. Thus, S. cerevisiae exhibits the KLUYVER effect for trehalose: this disaccharide is assimilated and respired, but, in contrast to glucose or maltose, it cannot be fermented. The high-affinity trehalose-H+ symporter encoded by the AGT1 gene is required for growth on trehalose. Analysis of the differences in the metabolism of maltose and trehalose (both disaccharides of glucose transported by active transport systems) indicated that the absence of trehalose fermentation is a consequence of low sugar influx into the cells during growth on this carbon source.

Functional characterization of the alpha-glucoside transporter Sut1p from Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the first fungal homologue of plant sucrose transporters

Disaccharide transporters have not previously been identified in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. This is in contrast to Saccharomyces cerevisiae in which several maltose permeases belonging to the sugar porter (SP) family have been characterized. Here we report that a novel S. pombe gene, sut1+, encodes a proton-coupled disaccharide uptake transporter in the glycoside-pentoside-hexuronide (GPH):cation symporter family. Previously, members of the GPH family were restricted to bacteria and plants. The closest homologues of sut1+ are the sucrose uptake transporters (SUTs) from higher plants that transport sucrose with a higher affinity than maltose. The transport function of Sut1p was analysed by expression in S. cerevisiae. Sut1p was found to transport maltose with a Km of 6.5 +/- 0.4 mM and sucrose with a Km of 36.3 +/- 9.7 mM. Therefore, the substrate specificity of Sut1p from S. pombe is different from that of its plant homologues. Glucose repression of sut1+ at the transcriptional level is also consistent with a physiological function for Sut1p in maltose uptake. These results indicate that, unlike S. cerevisiae, S. pombe utilizes maltose transporters derived from a common ancestor with the plant SUTs.

Reserve carbohydrates metabolism in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Glycogen and trehalose are the two glucose stores of yeast cells. The large variations in the cell content of these two compounds in response to different environmental changes indicate that their metabolism is controlled by complex regulatory systems. In this review we present information on the regulation of the activity of the enzymes implicated in the pathways of synthesis and degradation of glycogen and trehalose as well as on the transcriptional control of the genes encoding them. cAMP and the protein kinases Snf1 and Pho85 appear as major actors in this regulation. From a metabolic point of view, glucose-6-phosphate seems the major effector in the net synthesis of glycogen and trehalose. We discuss also the implication of the recently elucidated TOR-dependent nutrient signalling pathway in the control of the yeast glucose stores and its integration in growth and cell division. The unexpected roles of glycogen and trehalose found in the control of glycolytic flux, stress responses and energy stores for the budding process, demonstrate that their presence confers survival and reproductive advantages to the cell. The findings discussed provide for the first time a teleonomic value for the presence of two different glucose stores in the yeast cell.

Trehalose reserve in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: phenomenon of transport, accumulation and role in cell viability

Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae deleted for TPS1 encoding trehalose-6-phosphate synthase still accumulate trehalose when harbouring a functional MAL locus. We demonstrate that this accumulation results from an active uptake of trehalose present in the 'yeast extract' used to make the enriched culture media and that no accumulation is observed in mineral media. The uptake of trehalose was shown to be mediated by the alpha-glucoside transporter encoded by AGT1, the expression of which is linked to the presence of a functional MAL locus. Deletion of this gene in a MAL+ tps1 mutant abolished trehalose accumulation on a maltose or galactose mineral medium. However, small amounts of disaccharide were still detected in a agt1 tps1 double mutant when the medium was supplemented with 10 g trehalose l(-1), indicating the existence of a non-concentrative low-affinity sugar transporter. The presence of the high-affinity trehalose permease allowed us to investigate the effect of increasing exogenous trehalose from 0 to 10 g(-1) on intracellular accumulation. A maximum of ca. 10% (wt/wt dry cells) trehalose was attained in the presence of only 1 g l(-1) of disaccharide in the medium. The capability to monitor the intracellular content of trehalose by varying its extracellular concentration, independent of genetic alterations of the trehalose metabolic machinery, allowed the remarkable contribution of this molecule in stress tolerance to be demonstrated, as the higher the trehalose content, the longer the cell survival to a severe heat shock and to glucose starvation.

MsiK-dependent trehalose uptake in Streptomyces reticuli

During cultivation in the presence of trehalose Streptomyces reticuli expresses an inducible, highly specific trehalose uptake system that is absent in Streptomyces lividans. A palmitated trehalose-binding protein was identified in the cytoplasmic membrane of mycelia, extracted with the detergent Triton X-100 and purified using a trehalose affinity matrix. Immunological studies showed that within S. reticuli the synthesis of the ATP-binding protein MsiK is induced by trehalose. The data suggest that MsiK assists the trehalose ABC transporter, like the previously described ABC transport systems for maltose and cellobiose/cellotriose, respectively.

Kinetics of active sucrose transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The kinetic analysis of active sucrose-H+ uptake by Saccharomyces cerevisiae revealed the presence of two transport systems with high and low affinity for sucrose. The MAL2T permease has a low affinity (K(m) = 120 +/-20 mM) for sucrose, while the alpha-glucoside transporter encoded by the AGT1 gene is a high affinity sucrose-H+ symporter (K(m) = 7.9+/-0.8 mM) that increases the specific growth rate of cells growing on sucrose.

AGT1, encoding an alpha-glucoside transporter involved in uptake and intracellular accumulation of trehalose in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The trehalose content in Saccharomyces cerevisiae can be significantly manipulated by including trehalose at an appropriate level in the growth medium. Its uptake is largely dependent on the expression of AGT1, which encodes an alpha-glucoside transporter. The trehalose found in a tps1 mutant of trehalose synthase may therefore largely reflect its uptake from the enriched medium that was employed.

Active alpha-glucoside transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The AGT1 permease is a alpha-glucoside-H+ symporter responsible for the active transport of maltose, trehalose, maltotriose, alpha-methylglucoside, melezitose and sucrose. In wild-type as well as in MAL constitutive strains, alpha-methylglucoside seemed to be the best inducer of transport activity, while trehalose had no inducing effect. Based on the initial rates of transport it seems that the sugar preferentially transported by this permease is trehalose, followed by sucrose.

The role of the trehalose transporter during germination

Previous studies on the resistance of yeast cells to dehydration pointed towards the protective role of trehalose and the importance of the specific trehalose transporter in guaranteeing survival. The present report demonstrates that the trehalose transporter is essential during the germination process in order to translocate trehalose from the cytosol to the external environment. Diploids that lack the trehalose transporter germinate poorly and do not form 4 spore tetrads although they accumulate trehalose and show trehalase activity. Furthermore, addition of exogenous trehalose to the germination medium enhances germination and normal segregation. The ability to transport trehalose is dominant and seems to be related to a single gene.

Molecular biology of trehalose and the trehalases in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The present state of knowledge of the role of trehalose and trehalose hydrolysis catalyzed by trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is reviewed. Trehalose is believed to function as a storage carbohydrate because its concentration is high during nutrient limitations and in resting cells. It is also believed to function as a stress metabolite because its concentration increases during certain adverse environmental conditions, such as heat and toxic chemicals. The exact way trehalose may perform the stress function is not understood, and conditions exist under which trehalose accumulation and tolerance to certain stress situations cannot be correlated. Three trehalases have been described in S. cerevisiae: 1) the cytosolic neutral trehalase encoded by the NTH1 gene, and regulated by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation process, nutrients, and temperature; 2) the vacuolar acid trehalase encoded by the ATH1 gene, and regulated by nutrients; and 3) a putative trehalase Nth1p encoded by the NTH2 gene (homolog of the NTH1 gene) and regulated by nutrients and temperature. The neutral trehalase is responsible for intracellular hydrolysis of trehalose, in contrast to the acid trehalase, which is responsible for utilization of extracellular trehalose. The role of the putative trehalase Nth2p in trehalose metabolism is not known. The NTH1 and NTH2 genes are required for recovery of cells after heat shock at 50 degrees C, consistent with their heat inducibility and sequence similarity. Other stressors, such as toxic chemicals, also induce the expression of these genes. We therefore propose that the NTH1 and NTH2 genes have stress-related function and the gene products may be called stress proteins. Whether the stress function of the trehalase genes is linked to trehalose is not clear, and possible mechanisms of stress protective function of the trehalases are discussed.

Mechanism of glucose and maltose transport in plasma-membrane vesicles from the yeast Candida utilis

Transport of glucose and maltose was studied in plasma-membrane vesicles from Candida utilis. The yeast was grown on a mixture of glucose and maltose in aerobic carbon-limited continuous cultures which enabled transport to be studied for both sugars with the same vesicles. Vesicles were prepared by fusion of isolated plasma membranes with proteoliposomes containing bovine heart cytochrome c oxidase as a proton-motive-force-generating system. Addition of reduced cytochrome c generated a proton-motive force, consisting of a membrane potential, negative inside, and a pH gradient, alkaline inside. Energization led to accumulation of glucose and maltose in these vesicles, reaching accumulation ratios of about 40-50. Accumulation also occurred in the presence of valinomycin or nigericin, but was prevented by a combination of the two ionophores or by uncoupler, showing that glucose and maltose transport are dependent on the proton-motive force. Comparison of sugar accumulation with quantitative data on the proton-motive force indicated a 1:1 H+/sugar stoichiometry for both transport systems. Efflux of accumulated glucose was observed on dissipation of the proton-motive force. Exchange and counterflow experiments confirmed the reversible character of the H+-glucose symporter. In contrast, uncoupler or a mixture of valinomycin plus nigericin induced only a slow efflux of accumulated maltose. Moreover under counterflow conditions, the expected transient accumulation was small. Thus the H+-maltose symporter has some characteristics of a carrier that is not readily reversible. It is concluded that in C. utilis the transport systems for glucose and maltose are both driven by the proton-motive force, but the mechanisms are different.