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Erb WM, Ross W, Kazanecki H, Mitra Setia T, Madhusudhana S, Clink DJ. Vocal complexity in the long calls of Bornean orangutans. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17320. [PMID: 38766489 PMCID: PMC11100477 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Vocal complexity is central to many evolutionary hypotheses about animal communication. Yet, quantifying and comparing complexity remains a challenge, particularly when vocal types are highly graded. Male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) produce complex and variable "long call" vocalizations comprising multiple sound types that vary within and among individuals. Previous studies described six distinct call (or pulse) types within these complex vocalizations, but none quantified their discreteness or the ability of human observers to reliably classify them. We studied the long calls of 13 individuals to: (1) evaluate and quantify the reliability of audio-visual classification by three well-trained observers, (2) distinguish among call types using supervised classification and unsupervised clustering, and (3) compare the performance of different feature sets. Using 46 acoustic features, we used machine learning (i.e., support vector machines, affinity propagation, and fuzzy c-means) to identify call types and assess their discreteness. We additionally used Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) to visualize the separation of pulses using both extracted features and spectrogram representations. Supervised approaches showed low inter-observer reliability and poor classification accuracy, indicating that pulse types were not discrete. We propose an updated pulse classification approach that is highly reproducible across observers and exhibits strong classification accuracy using support vector machines. Although the low number of call types suggests long calls are fairly simple, the continuous gradation of sounds seems to greatly boost the complexity of this system. This work responds to calls for more quantitative research to define call types and quantify gradedness in animal vocal systems and highlights the need for a more comprehensive framework for studying vocal complexity vis-à-vis graded repertoires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M. Erb
- K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, United States of America
| | - Whitney Ross
- K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
| | - Haley Kazanecki
- K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
| | - Tatang Mitra Setia
- Primate Research Center, Universitas Nasional Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, Universitas Nasional Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Shyam Madhusudhana
- K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
- Centre for Marine Science and Technology, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - Dena J. Clink
- K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
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2
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Lameira AR, Hardus ME, Ravignani A, Raimondi T, Gamba M. Recursive self-embedded vocal motifs in wild orangutans. eLife 2024; 12:RP88348. [PMID: 38252123 PMCID: PMC10945596 DOI: 10.7554/elife.88348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Recursive procedures that allow placing a vocal signal inside another of a similar kind provide a neuro-computational blueprint for syntax and phonology in spoken language and human song. There are, however, no known vocal sequences among nonhuman primates arranged in self-embedded patterns that evince vocal recursion or potential incipient or evolutionary transitional forms thereof, suggesting a neuro-cognitive transformation exclusive to humans. Here, we uncover that wild flanged male orangutan long calls feature rhythmically isochronous call sequences nested within isochronous call sequences, consistent with two hierarchical strata. Remarkably, three temporally and acoustically distinct call rhythms in the lower stratum were not related to the overarching rhythm at the higher stratum by any low multiples, which suggests that these recursive structures were neither the result of parallel non-hierarchical procedures nor anatomical artifacts of bodily constraints or resonances. Findings represent a case of temporally recursive hominid vocal combinatorics in the absence of syntax, semantics, phonology, or music. Second-order combinatorics, 'sequences within sequences', involving hierarchically organized and cyclically structured vocal sounds in ancient hominids may have preluded the evolution of recursion in modern language-able humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano R Lameira
- Department of Psychology, University of WarwickCoventryUnited Kingdom
| | | | - Andrea Ravignani
- Comparative Bioacoustics Group, Max Planck Institute for PsycholinguisticsNijmegenNetherlands
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University & The Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/AalborgAarhusDenmark
- Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of RomeRomeItaly
| | - Teresa Raimondi
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of TurinoTorinoItaly
| | - Marco Gamba
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of TurinoTorinoItaly
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3
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van Noordwijk MA, LaBarge LR, Kunz JA, Marzec AM, Spillmann B, Ackermann C, Rianti P, Vogel ER, Atmoko SSU, Kruetzen M, van Schaik CP. Reproductive success of Bornean orangutan males: scattered in time but clustered in space. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2023; 77:134. [PMID: 38076722 PMCID: PMC10700224 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-023-03407-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Abstract The social and mating systems of orangutans, one of our closest relatives, remain poorly understood. Orangutans (Pongo spp.) are highly sexually dimorphic and females are philopatric and maintain individual, but overlapping home ranges, whereas males disperse, are non-territorial and wide-ranging, and show bimaturism, with many years between reaching sexual maturity and attaining full secondary sexual characteristics (including cheek pads (flanges) and emitting long calls). We report on 21 assigned paternities, among 35 flanged and 15 unflanged, genotyped male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii), studied from 2003 to 2018 in Tuanan (Central Kalimantan, Indonesia). All 10 infants born since mid-2003 with an already identified sire were sired by flanged males. All adult males ranged well beyond the study area (c. 1000 ha), and their dominance relations fluctuated even within short periods. However, 5 of the 10 identified sires had multiple offspring within the monitored area. Several sired over a period of c. 10 years, which overlapped with siring periods of other males. The long-calling behavior of sires indicated they were not consistently dominant over other males in the area around the time of known conceptions. Instead, when they were seen in the area, the known sires spent most of their time within the home ranges of the females whose offspring they sired. Overall, successful sires were older and more often resident than others. Significance statement It is difficult to assess reproductive success for individuals of long-lived species, especially for dispersing males, who cannot be monitored throughout their lives. Due to extremely long interbirth intervals, orangutans have highly male-skewed operational sex ratios and thus intensive male-male competition for every conception. Paternity analyses matched 21 immature Bornean orangutans with their most likely sire (only 10 of 50 genotyped males) in a natural population. Half of these identified sires had multiple offspring in the study area spread over periods of at least 10 years, despite frequently ranging outside this area. Dominance was a poor predictor of success, but, consistent with female mating tactics to reduce the risk of infanticide, known "sires" tended to have relatively high local presence, which seems to contribute to the males' siring success. The results highlight the importance of large protected areas to enable a natural pattern of dispersal and ranging. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00265-023-03407-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. van Noordwijk
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Comparative Socio-Ecology Group, May Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Laura R. LaBarge
- Comparative Socio-Ecology Group, May Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Julia A. Kunz
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Institute des Sciences de l’Evolution Montpellier, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Anna M. Marzec
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Brigitte Spillmann
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Corinne Ackermann
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Puji Rianti
- Division of Animal Biosystematics and Ecology, Department of Biology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
- Primate Research Center, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Erin R. Vogel
- Department of Anthropology, Center for Human Evolution Studies, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, USA
| | | | - Michael Kruetzen
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Carel P. van Schaik
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Comparative Socio-Ecology Group, May Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
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4
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Kunz JA, Duvot GJ, Ashbury AM, Willems EP, Spillmann B, Dunkel LP, Bin Abdullah M, Schuppli C, Vogel ER, Utami Atmoko SS, van Noordwijk MA, van Schaik CP. Alternative reproductive tactics of unflanged and flanged male orangutans revisited. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23535. [PMID: 37475573 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
In many slowly developing mammal species, males reach sexual maturity well before they develop secondary sexual characteristics. Sexually mature male orangutans have exceptionally long periods of developmental arrest. The two male morphs have been associated with behavioral alternative reproductive tactics, but this interpretation is based on cross-sectional analyses predominantly of Northwest Sumatran populations. Here we present the first longitudinal analyses of behavioral changes of 10 adult males that have been observed in both unflanged and flanged morph. We also analyzed long-term behavioral data on an additional 143 individually identified males from two study sites, Suaq (Sumatra, Pongo abelii) and Tuanan (Borneo, Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii), to assess male mating tactics cross-sectionally in relation to population, male morph (unflanged and flanged), and other socio-ecological factors. Both our longitudinal and cross-sectional results confirm and refine previous cross-sectional accounts of the differences in mating tactics between the unflanged and the flanged male morphs. In the unflanged morph, males exhibit higher sociability, particularly with females, and higher rates of both copulation and sexual coercion than in the flanged morph. Based on our results and those of previous studies showing that females prefer flanged males, and that flanged males have higher reproductive success, we conclude that unflanged males face a trade-off between avoiding male-male contest competition and gaining mating access to females, and thus follow a "best-of-a-bad-job" mating strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Kunz
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Institute des Sciences de l'Evolution Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Guilhem J Duvot
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Alison M Ashbury
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Erik P Willems
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Brigitte Spillmann
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lynda P Dunkel
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Misdi Bin Abdullah
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Primates Research Center, Universitas Nasional, South Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Caroline Schuppli
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Erin R Vogel
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Sri Suci Utami Atmoko
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology and Primates Research Center, Universitas Nasional, South Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Maria A van Noordwijk
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Comparative Socioecology Group, Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Carel P van Schaik
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Comparative Socioecology Group, Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
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5
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Leroux M, Schel AM, Wilke C, Chandia B, Zuberbühler K, Slocombe KE, Townsend SW. Call combinations and compositional processing in wild chimpanzees. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2225. [PMID: 37142584 PMCID: PMC10160036 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37816-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Through syntax, i.e., the combination of words into larger phrases, language can express a limitless number of messages. Data in great apes, our closest-living relatives, are central to the reconstruction of syntax's phylogenetic origins, yet are currently lacking. Here, we provide evidence for syntactic-like structuring in chimpanzee communication. Chimpanzees produce "alarm-huus" when surprised and "waa-barks" when potentially recruiting conspecifics during aggression or hunting. Anecdotal data suggested chimpanzees combine these calls specifically when encountering snakes. Using snake presentations, we confirm call combinations are produced when individuals encounter snakes and find that more individuals join the caller after hearing the combination. To test the meaning-bearing nature of the call combination, we use playbacks of artificially-constructed call combinations and both independent calls. Chimpanzees react most strongly to call combinations, showing longer looking responses, compared with both independent calls. We propose the "alarm-huu + waa-bark" represents a compositional syntactic-like structure, where the meaning of the call combination is derived from the meaning of its parts. Our work suggests that compositional structures may not have evolved de novo in the human lineage, but that the cognitive building-blocks facilitating syntax may have been present in our last common ancestor with chimpanzees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maël Leroux
- Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda.
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Anne M Schel
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Claudia Wilke
- Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Klaus Zuberbühler
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Comparative Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews Scotland, UK
| | | | - Simon W Townsend
- Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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6
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The form and function of chimpanzee buttress drumming. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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7
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Girard-Buttoz C, Zaccarella E, Bortolato T, Friederici AD, Wittig RM, Crockford C. Chimpanzees produce diverse vocal sequences with ordered and recombinatorial properties. Commun Biol 2022; 5:410. [PMID: 35577891 PMCID: PMC9110424 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03350-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The origins of human language remains a major question in evolutionary science. Unique to human language is the capacity to flexibly recombine a limited sound set into words and hierarchical sequences, generating endlessly new sentences. In contrast, sequence production of other animals appears limited, stunting meaning generation potential. However, studies have rarely quantified flexibility and structure of vocal sequence production across the whole repertoire. Here, we used such an approach to examine the structure of vocal sequences in chimpanzees, known to combine calls used singly into longer sequences. Focusing on the structure of vocal sequences, we analysed 4826 recordings of 46 wild adult chimpanzees from Taï National Park. Chimpanzees produced 390 unique vocal sequences. Most vocal units emitted singly were also emitted in two-unit sequences (bigrams), which in turn were embedded into three-unit sequences (trigrams). Bigrams showed positional and transitional regularities within trigrams with certain bigrams predictably occurring in either head or tail positions in trigrams, and predictably co-occurring with specific other units. From a purely structural perspective, the capacity to organize single units into structured sequences offers a versatile system potentially suitable for expansive meaning generation. Further research must show to what extent these structural sequences signal predictable meanings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Girard-Buttoz
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS, 67 Boulevard Pinel, 69675 BRON, Lyon, France. .,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherche Scientifique, Abidjan, Ivory Coast. .,Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Emiliano Zaccarella
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive Sciences, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tatiana Bortolato
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS, 67 Boulevard Pinel, 69675 BRON, Lyon, France.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherche Scientifique, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.,Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Angela D Friederici
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive Sciences, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS, 67 Boulevard Pinel, 69675 BRON, Lyon, France.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherche Scientifique, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.,Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Catherine Crockford
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS, 67 Boulevard Pinel, 69675 BRON, Lyon, France. .,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherche Scientifique, Abidjan, Ivory Coast. .,Department of Human Behaviour, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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8
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Kunz JA, Duvot GJ, Willems EP, Stickelberger J, Spillmann B, Utami Atmoko SS, van Noordwijk MA, van Schaik CP. The context of sexual coercion in orang-utans: when do male and female mating interests collide? Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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9
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The cost of associating with males for Bornean and Sumatran female orangutans: a hidden form of sexual conflict? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020; 75:6. [PMID: 33408436 PMCID: PMC7773621 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02948-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Sexual coercion, in the form of forced copulations, is relatively frequently observed in orangutans and generally attributed to their semi-solitary lifestyle. High ecological costs of association for females may be responsible for this lifestyle and may have prevented the evolution of morphological fertility indicators (e.g., sexual swellings), which would attract (male) associates. Therefore, sexual conflict may arise not only about mating per se but also about associations, because males may benefit from associations with females to monitor their reproductive state and attempt to monopolize their sexual activities. Here, we evaluate association patterns and costs for females when associating with both males and females of two different orangutan species at two study sites: Suaq, Sumatra (Pongo abelii), and Tuanan, Borneo (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii). Female association frequency with both males and females was higher in the Sumatran population, living in more productive habitat. Accordingly, we found that the cost of association, in terms of reduced feeding to moving ratio and increased time being active, is higher in the less sociable Bornean population. Males generally initiated and maintained such costly associations with females, and prolonged associations with males led to increased female fecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) levels at Tuanan, the Bornean population. We conclude that male-maintained associations are an expression of sexual conflict in orangutans, at least at Tuanan. For females, this cost of association may be responsible for the lack of sexual signaling, while needing to confuse paternity. Significance statement Socioecological theory predicts a trade-off between the benefits of sociality and the ecological costs of increased feeding competition. Orangutans’ semi-solitary lifestyle has been attributed to the combination of high association costs and low predation risk. Previous work revealed a positive correlation between association frequencies and habitat productivity, but did not measure the costs of association. In this comparative study, we show that females likely incur costs from involuntary, male-maintained associations, especially when they last for several days and particularly in the population characterized by lower association frequencies. Association maintenance therefore qualifies as another expression of sexual conflict in orangutans, and especially prolonged, male-maintained associations may qualify as an indirect form of sexual coercion. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00265-020-02948-4.
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10
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Collier K, Radford AN, Stoll S, Watson SK, Manser MB, Bickel B, Townsend SW. Dwarf mongoose alarm calls: investigating a complex non-human animal call. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192514. [PMID: 32962548 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Communication plays a vital role in the social lives of many species and varies greatly in complexity. One possible way to increase communicative complexity is by combining signals into longer sequences, which has been proposed as a mechanism allowing species with a limited repertoire to increase their communicative output. In mammals, most studies on combinatoriality have focused on vocal communication in non-human primates. Here, we investigated a potential combination of alarm calls in the dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula), a non-primate mammal. Acoustic analyses and playback experiments with a wild population suggest: (i) that dwarf mongooses produce a complex call type (T3) which, at least at the surface level, seems to comprise units that are not functionally different to two meaningful alarm calls (aerial and terrestrial); and (ii) that this T3 call functions as a general alarm, produced in response to a wide range of threats. Using a novel approach, we further explored multiple interpretations of the T3 call based on the information content of the apparent comprising calls and how they are combined. We also considered an alternative, non-combinatorial interpretation that frames T3 as the origin, rather than the product, of the individual alarm calls. This study complements previous knowledge of vocal combinatoriality in non-primate mammals and introduces an approach that could facilitate comparisons between different animal and human communication systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Collier
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Ave, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Sabine Stoll
- Psycholinguistics Laboratory, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 54, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 54, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stuart K Watson
- Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 54, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marta B Manser
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Balthasar Bickel
- Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 54, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon W Townsend
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Comparative Language Science, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 54, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
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11
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Fröhlich M, Lee K, Mitra Setia T, Schuppli C, van Schaik CP. The loud scratch: a newly identified gesture of Sumatran orangutan mothers in the wild. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190209. [PMID: 31311488 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The communicative function of primates' self-directed behaviours like scratching has gained increasing attention in recent years, but their intentional use is still debated. Here, we addressed this issue by exploring the communicative function of 'loud scratches' in wild Sumatran orangutans. Building on previous studies in chimpanzees, we examined the prediction that audio-visual loud scratches are used communicatively in mother-infant travel coordination. Specifically, we examined whether individual, social and scratch features affected the use of pre-move scratches, markers of intentional signal use and approach responses. We analysed a total of 1457 scratching bouts, produced by 17 individuals (including four mothers and their dependent offspring) observed during 305 h of focal follows. Overall, we found that scratching bouts preceded departure mainly when these were produced by mothers and showed features of exaggeration. If the scratching individual was a mother, associates were more likely to be visually attentive during pre-move scratches than in other contexts. Approach or follow responses to scratches by individuals in association were predicted by context, the relationship with the scratcher (i.e. offspring) and the associate's attentional state. We conclude that orangutan mothers use loud scratches as communicative strategies to coordinate joint travel with their infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlen Fröhlich
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kevin Lee
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.,School of Human Evolution and Social Change and Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, AZ 85281, USA
| | - Tatang Mitra Setia
- Fakultas Biologi, Universitas Nasional, Jakarta Selatan 12520, Indonesia
| | - Caroline Schuppli
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carel P van Schaik
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Fröhlich M, Sievers C, Townsend SW, Gruber T, van Schaik CP. Multimodal communication and language origins: integrating gestures and vocalizations. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1809-1829. [PMID: 31250542 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The presence of divergent and independent research traditions in the gestural and vocal domains of primate communication has resulted in major discrepancies in the definition and operationalization of cognitive concepts. However, in recent years, accumulating evidence from behavioural and neurobiological research has shown that both human and non-human primate communication is inherently multimodal. It is therefore timely to integrate the study of gestural and vocal communication. Herein, we review evidence demonstrating that there is no clear difference between primate gestures and vocalizations in the extent to which they show evidence for the presence of key language properties: intentionality, reference, iconicity and turn-taking. We also find high overlap in the neurobiological mechanisms producing primate gestures and vocalizations, as well as in ontogenetic flexibility. These findings confirm that human language had multimodal origins. Nonetheless, we note that in great apes, gestures seem to fulfil a carrying (i.e. predominantly informative) role in close-range communication, whereas the opposite holds for face-to-face interactions of humans. This suggests an evolutionary shift in the carrying role from the gestural to the vocal stream, and we explore this transition in the carrying modality. Finally, we suggest that future studies should focus on the links between complex communication, sociality and cooperative tendency to strengthen the study of language origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlen Fröhlich
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christine Sievers
- Department of Philosophy and Media Studies, Philosophy Seminar, University of Basel, Holbeinstrasse 12, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Simon W Townsend
- Department of Comparative Linguistics, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse 54, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, University Road, CV4 7AL, Coventry, UK
| | - Thibaud Gruber
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, CISA, University of Geneva, Chemin des Mines 9, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland.,Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, OX1 3SZ, Oxford, UK
| | - Carel P van Schaik
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
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14
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15
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Confrontational assessment in the roving male promiscuity mating system of the Bornean orangutan. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2252-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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16
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Benítez ME, le Roux A, Fischer J, Beehner JC, Bergman TJ. Acoustic and Temporal Variation in Gelada (Theropithecus gelada) Loud Calls Advertise Male Quality. INT J PRIMATOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-016-9922-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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Bálint A, Faragó T, Miklósi Á, Pongrácz P. Threat-level-dependent manipulation of signaled body size: dog growls’ indexical cues depend on the different levels of potential danger. Anim Cogn 2016; 19:1115-1131. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1019-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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18
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Kessler SE, Scheumann M, Hanbury DB, Nash LT, Zimmermann E, Watson SL. Screams in the Night: Pilot Study Reveals Moderate Evidence for Individual Differences in Lorisoid Vocalizations. INT J PRIMATOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-015-9847-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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19
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Terleph TA, Malaivijitnond S, Reichard UH. Lar gibbon (Hylobates lar) great call reveals individual caller identity. Am J Primatol 2015; 77:811-21. [PMID: 25800578 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Gibbons (family Hylobatidae) produce loud, elaborate vocalizations (songs), often in well-coordinated male/female duets. The female's great call, the most conspicuous phrase of the gibbon vocal repertoire, functions primarily to mediate territorial defense. Despite the fact that lar gibbons (Hylobates lar) are the most widely distributed and well researched hylobatid species and produce a rich vocal repertoire, the individual-specificity of their great calls has not previously been quantified. In addition, spectral and temporal features of notes occurring at specific locations within the lar great call have not been described. Here we provide such a description, and test the hypothesis that great calls are statistically discriminable between a large sample of individual callers. We compared recordings of great calls from 14 wild lar females in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Our analyses of principal components derived from spectral and temporal measures, as well as spectrograms from the entire great call, indicate that acoustic variation is sufficient to allow identification of individual callers (83.5% discriminability based on principal components, and inter-individual call variation exceeding intra-individual variation in overall spectrogram). These vocalizations potentially allow individual recognition of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S Malaivijitnond
- National Primate Research Center, Thailand.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
| | - U H Reichard
- Department of Anthropology and Center for Ecology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Illinois
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Spillmann B, van Noordwijk MA, Willems EP, Mitra Setia T, Wipfli U, van Schaik CP. Validation of an acoustic location system to monitor Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) long calls. Am J Primatol 2015; 77:767-76. [PMID: 25773926 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The long call is an important vocal communication signal in the widely dispersed, semi-solitary orangutan. Long calls affect individuals' ranging behavior and mediate social relationships and regulate encounters between dispersed individuals in a dense rainforest. The aim of this study was to test the utility of an Acoustic Location System (ALS) for recording and triangulating the loud calls of free-living primates. We developed and validated a data extraction protocol for an ALS used to record wild orangutan males' long calls at the Tuanan field site (Central Kalimantan). We installed an ALS in a grid of 300 ha, containing 20 SM2+ recorders placed in a regular lattice at 500 m intervals, to monitor the distribution of calling males in the area. The validated system had the following main features: (i) a user-trained software algorithm (Song Scope) that reliably recognized orangutan long calls from sound files at distances up to 700 m from the nearest recorder, resulting in a total area of approximately 900 ha that could be monitored continuously; (ii) acoustic location of calling males up to 200 m outside the microphone grid, which meant that within an area of approximately 450 ha, call locations could be calculated through triangulation. The mean accuracy was 58 m, an error that is modest relative to orangutan mobility and average inter-individual distances. We conclude that an ALS is a highly effective method for detecting long-distance calls of wild primates and triangulating their position. In combination with conventional individual focal follow data, an ALS can greatly improve our knowledge of orangutans' social organization, and is readily adaptable for studying other highly vocal animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitte Spillmann
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Erik P Willems
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Urs Wipfli
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carel P van Schaik
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Speech-like rhythm in a voiced and voiceless orangutan call. PLoS One 2015; 10:e116136. [PMID: 25569211 PMCID: PMC4287529 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary origins of speech remain obscure. Recently, it was proposed that speech derived from monkey facial signals which exhibit a speech-like rhythm of ∼5 open-close lip cycles per second. In monkeys, these signals may also be vocalized, offering a plausible evolutionary stepping stone towards speech. Three essential predictions remain, however, to be tested to assess this hypothesis' validity; (i) Great apes, our closest relatives, should likewise produce 5Hz-rhythm signals, (ii) speech-like rhythm should involve calls articulatorily similar to consonants and vowels given that speech rhythm is the direct product of stringing together these two basic elements, and (iii) speech-like rhythm should be experience-based. Via cinematic analyses we demonstrate that an ex-entertainment orangutan produces two calls at a speech-like rhythm, coined “clicks” and “faux-speech.” Like voiceless consonants, clicks required no vocal fold action, but did involve independent manoeuvring over lips and tongue. In parallel to vowels, faux-speech showed harmonic and formant modulations, implying vocal fold and supralaryngeal action. This rhythm was several times faster than orangutan chewing rates, as observed in monkeys and humans. Critically, this rhythm was seven-fold faster, and contextually distinct, than any other known rhythmic calls described to date in the largest database of the orangutan repertoire ever assembled. The first two predictions advanced by this study are validated and, based on parsimony and exclusion of potential alternative explanations, initial support is given to the third prediction. Irrespectively of the putative origins of these calls and underlying mechanisms, our findings demonstrate irrevocably that great apes are not respiratorily, articulatorilly, or neurologically constrained for the production of consonant- and vowel-like calls at speech rhythm. Orangutan clicks and faux-speech confirm the importance of rhythmic speech antecedents within the primate lineage, and highlight potential articulatory homologies between great ape calls and human consonants and vowels.
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Salmi R, Doran-Sheehy DM. The function of loud calls (Hoot Series) in wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 155:379-91. [PMID: 25059429 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2013] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The use of loud vocal signals to reduce distance among separated social partners is well documented in many species; however, the underlying mechanisms by which the reduction of spacing occurs and how they differ across species remain unclear. Western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) offer an opportunity to investigate these issues because their vocal repertoire includes a loud, long-distance call (i.e., hoot series) that is potentially used in within-group communication, whereas mountain gorillas use an identical call exclusively during intergroup encounters. First, we tested whether the hoot series functions as a contact/separation call. Second, we examined which individuals were more likely to reply and which party was more responsible for decreasing distance to identify the underlying mechanisms and cognitive implications of hoot series. We collected behavioral, spatial, and acoustic data on five adult gorillas over 15 months at the Mondika Research Center (Republic of Congo and CAR). Hoot series are individually distinct calls and given by both male and female gorillas when separated from each other. Following hooting, the distance between separated group members decreased significantly; thus we concluded that western gorillas use this call to reestablish group cohesion. The way in which proximity was achieved depended upon listeners replying or not to the caller. Replies may indicate a conflict between callers about intended travel direction, with vocal interchanges serving to negotiate a consensus. Although the acoustic features of vocal signals are highly constrained in closely related species, our results demonstrate that the function and usage of particular calls can be flexible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Salmi
- Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY; Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
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Salmi R, Hammerschmidt K, Doran-Sheehy DM. Individual distinctiveness in call types of wild western female gorillas. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101940. [PMID: 25029238 PMCID: PMC4100815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Individually distinct vocalizations play an important role in animal communication, allowing call recipients to respond differentially based on caller identity. However, which of the many calls in a species' repertoire should have more acoustic variability and be more recognizable is less apparent. One proposed hypothesis is that calls used over long distances should be more distinct because visual cues are not available to identify the caller. An alternative hypothesis proposes that close calls should be more recognizable because of their importance in social interactions. To examine which hypothesis garners more support, the acoustic variation and individual distinctiveness of eight call types of six wild western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) females were investigated. Acoustic recordings of gorilla calls were collected at the Mondika Research Center (Republic of Congo). Acoustic variability was high in all gorilla calls. Similar high inter-individual variation and potential for identity coding (PIC) was found for all call types. Discriminant function analyses confirmed that all call types were individually distinct (although for call types with lowest sample size - hum, grumble and scream - this result cannot be generalized), suggesting that neither the distance at which communication occurs nor the call social function alone can explain the evolution of identity signaling in western gorilla communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Salmi
- Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
| | - Kurt Hammerschmidt
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Diane M. Doran-Sheehy
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
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Erb WM, Hodges JK, Hammerschmidt K. Individual, contextual, and age-related acoustic variation in Simakobu (Simias concolor) loud calls. PLoS One 2013; 8:e83131. [PMID: 24376651 PMCID: PMC3871870 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Primate loud calls have the potential to encode information about the identity, arousal, age, or physical condition of the caller, even at long distances. In this study, we conducted an analysis of the acoustic features of the loud calls produced by a species of Asian colobine monkey (simakobu, Simias concolor). Adult male simakobu produce loud calls spontaneously and in response to loud sounds and other loud calls, which are audible more than 500 m. Individual differences in calling rates and durations exist, but it is unknown what these differences signal and which other acoustic features vary among individuals. We aimed to describe the structure and usage of calls and to examine acoustic features that vary within and among individuals. We determined the context of 318 loud calls and analyzed 170 loud calls recorded from 10 adult males at an undisturbed site, Pungut, Siberut Island, Indonesia. Most calls (53%) followed the loud call of another male, 31% were spontaneous, and the remaining 16% followed a loud environmental disturbance. The fundamental frequency (F0) decreased while inter-unit intervals (IUI) increased over the course of loud call bouts, possibly indicating caller fatigue. Discriminant function analysis indicated that calls were not well discriminated by context, but spontaneous calls had higher peak frequencies, suggesting a higher level of arousal. Individual calls were distinct and individuals were mainly discriminated by IUI, call duration, and F0. Loud calls of older males had shorter IUI and lower F0, while middle-aged males had the highest peak frequencies. Overall, we found that calls were individually distinct and may provide information about the age, stamina, and arousal of the calling male, and could thus be a way for males and females to assess competitors and mates from long distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M. Erb
- Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - J. Keith Hodges
- Reproductive Biology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kurt Hammerschmidt
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
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25
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Torti V, Gamba M, Rabemananjara ZH, Giacoma C. The songs of the indris (Mammalia: Primates: Indridae): contextual variation in the long-distance calls of a lemur. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/11250003.2013.845261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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26
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Individual Variation of Whinnies Reflects Differences in Membership Between Spider Monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) Communities. INT J PRIMATOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-013-9736-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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van Schaik CP, Damerius L, Isler K. Wild orangutan males plan and communicate their travel direction one day in advance. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74896. [PMID: 24040357 PMCID: PMC3770631 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to plan for the future beyond immediate needs would be adaptive to many animal species, but is widely thought to be uniquely human. Although studies in captivity have shown that great apes are capable of planning for future needs, it is unknown whether and how they use this ability in the wild. Flanged male Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) emit long calls, which females use to maintain earshot associations with them. We tested whether long calls serve to communicate a male's ever-changing predominant travel direction to facilitate maintaining these associations. We found that the direction in which a flanged male emits his long calls predicts his subsequent travel direction for many hours, and that a new call indicates a change in his main travel direction. Long calls given at or near the night nest indicate travel direction better than random until late afternoon on the next day. These results show that male orangutans make their travel plans well in advance and announce them to conspecifics. We suggest that such a planning ability is likely to be adaptive for great apes, as well as in other taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carel P. van Schaik
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Laura Damerius
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Karin Isler
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Lameira AR, Hardus ME, Kowalsky B, de Vries H, Spruijt BM, Sterck EHM, Shumaker RW, Wich SA. Orangutan (Pongo spp.) whistling and implications for the emergence of an open-ended call repertoire: a replication and extension. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2013; 134:2326-2335. [PMID: 23967963 DOI: 10.1121/1.4817929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
One of the most apparent discontinuities between non-human primate (primate) call communication and human speech concerns repertoire size. The former is essentially fixed to a limited number of innate calls, while the latter essentially consists of numerous learned components. Consequently, primates are thought to lack laryngeal control required to produce learned voiced calls. However, whether they may produce learned voiceless calls awaits investigation. Here, a case of voiceless call learning in primates is investigated--orangutan (Pongo spp.) whistling. In this study, all known whistling orangutans are inventoried, whistling-matching tests (previously conducted with one individual) are replicated with another individual using original test paradigms, and articulatory and acoustic whistle characteristics are compared between three orangutans. Results show that whistling has been reported for ten captive orangutans. The test orangutan correctly matched human whistles with significantly high levels of performance. Whistle variation between individuals indicated voluntary control over the upper lip, lower lip, and respiratory musculature, allowing individuals to produce learned voiceless calls. Results are consistent with inter- and intra-specific social transmission in whistling orangutans. Voiceless call learning in orangutans implies that some important components of human speech learning and control were in place before the homininae-ponginae evolutionary split.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano R Lameira
- Animal Ecology, Utrecht University, Kruijt Gebouw, Second Floor, West Wing, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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van Schaik CP. The costs and benefits of flexibility as an expression of behavioural plasticity: a primate perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20120339. [PMID: 23569287 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional neo-Darwinism ascribes geographical variation in morphology or in behaviour to varying selection on local genotypes. However, mobile and long-lived organisms cannot achieve local adaptation this way, leading to a renewed interest in plasticity. I examined geographical variation in orang-utan subsistence and social behaviour, and found this to be largely owing to behavioural plasticity, here called flexibility, both in the form of flexible individual decisions and of socially transmitted (cultural) innovations. Although comparison with other species is difficult, the extent of such flexibility is almost certainly limited by brain size. It is shown that brains can only increase relative to body size where the cognitive benefits they produce are reliably translated into improved survival rate. This means that organisms that are very small, face many predators, live in highly seasonal environments, or lack opportunities for social learning cannot evolve greater flexibility, and must achieve local adaptation through selection on specific genotypes. On the other hand, as body and brain size increase, local adaptation is increasingly achieved through selection on plasticity. The species involved are also generally those that most need it, being more mobile and longer-lived. Although high plasticity buffers against environmental change, the most flexible organisms face a clear limit because they respond slowly to selection. Thus, paradoxically, the largest-brained animals may actually be vulnerable to the more drastic forms of environmental change, such as those induced by human actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carel P van Schaik
- Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich 8057, Switzerland.
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Dunkel LP, Arora N, van Noordwijk MA, Atmoko SSU, Putra AP, Krützen M, van Schaik CP. Variation in developmental arrest among male orangutans: a comparison between a Sumatran and a Bornean population. Front Zool 2013; 10:12. [PMID: 23510027 PMCID: PMC3607856 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-10-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The presence of two sexually active male morphs with different reproductive tactics in a single species is rare among mammals. The most striking case of bimaturism among primates is exhibited by the orangutan (Pongo spp), in which one adult morph, the unflanged male, irreversibly develops into another one, the flanged form, but may remain arrested in the unflanged state for many years. However, it has been suggested that such arrest is less common among Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) compared to Sumatrans (Pongo abelii). To investigate this possible inter-specific difference we compared both the number of developing males and the ratios of the two male morphs at two long-term study sites, Suaq Balimbing on Sumatra and Tuanan on Borneo. RESULTS First, we observed a significantly greater number of flanged than unflanged males per month in the Tuanan study area, whereas the opposite pattern held at Suaq. Second, the same contrast held for the total number of identified individuals over the study, with more flanged than unflanged males at Tuanan and the opposite at Suaq. These differences were mainly due to transient males. For Tuanan, the identification results were confirmed by detailed genetic analyses. Finally, we recorded a higher proportion of unflanged males that became flanged during any given year at Tuanan than at Suaq. CONCLUSION These results show that developmental arrest is far more common at Suaq than at Tuanan. Preliminary comparisons suggest that this is a general contrast between the island taxa of orangutans and should help efforts to identify the function and proximate control of developmental arrest in orangutan males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda P Dunkel
- Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich, CH-8057, Switzerland
| | - Natasha Arora
- Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich, CH-8057, Switzerland
| | - Maria A van Noordwijk
- Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich, CH-8057, Switzerland
| | - Sri Suci Utami Atmoko
- Faculty of Biology, Universitas Nasional, Jalan Sawo Manila, Pejaten Pasar Minggu, Jakarta, 12520, Indonesia
| | - Angga Prathama Putra
- Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, 16424, Indonesia
| | - Michael Krützen
- Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich, CH-8057, Switzerland
| | - Carel P van Schaik
- Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich, CH-8057, Switzerland
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31
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Scheumann M, Roser AE, Konerding W, Bleich E, Hedrich HJ, Zimmermann E. Vocal correlates of sender-identity and arousal in the isolation calls of domestic kitten (Felis silvestris catus). Front Zool 2012; 9:36. [PMID: 23259698 PMCID: PMC3551667 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-9-36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED INTRODUCTION Human speech does not only communicate linguistic information but also paralinguistic features, e.g. information about the identity and the arousal state of the sender. Comparable morphological and physiological constraints on vocal production in mammals suggest the existence of commonalities encoding sender-identity and the arousal state of a sender across mammals. To explore this hypothesis and to investigate whether specific acoustic parameters encode for sender-identity while others encode for arousal, we studied infants of the domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus). Kittens are an excellent model for analysing vocal correlates of sender-identity and arousal. They strongly depend on the care of their mother. Thus, the acoustical conveyance of sender-identity and arousal may be important for their survival. RESULTS We recorded calls of 18 kittens in an experimentally-induced separation paradigm, where kittens were spatially separated from their mother and siblings. In the Low arousal condition, infants were just separated without any manipulation. In the High arousal condition infants were handled by the experimenter. Multi-parametric sound analyses revealed that kitten isolation calls are individually distinct and differ between the Low and High arousal conditions. Our results suggested that source- and filter-related parameters are important for encoding sender-identity, whereas time-, source- and tonality-related parameters are important for encoding arousal. CONCLUSION Comparable findings in other mammalian lineages provide evidence for commonalities in non-verbal cues encoding sender-identity and arousal across mammals comparable to paralinguistic cues in humans. This favours the establishment of general concepts for voice recognition and emotions in humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Scheumann
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, Hannover D-30559, Germany
| | - Anna-Elisa Roser
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, Hannover D-30559, Germany
| | - Wiebke Konerding
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, Hannover D-30559, Germany
| | - Eva Bleich
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, Hannover D-30626, Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Hedrich
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, Hannover D-30626, Germany
| | - Elke Zimmermann
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, Hannover D-30559, Germany
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Pradhan GR, van Noordwijk MA, van Schaik C. A model for the evolution of developmental arrest in male orangutans. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2012; 149:18-25. [PMID: 22552966 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Male Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) may delay for many years the acquisition of the full array of secondary sexual traits, including their characteristic cheek flanges. Such flexible developmental arrest is unique among male primates. Among male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) such long delays appear less common. Here, we develop a simple model to identify the conditions under which developmental arrest can be adaptive. We show that the baseline strategy (i.e., males are not susceptible to arrest) cannot be invaded by the flexible strategy (i.e., males can arrest their development when the conditions are unfavorable) when the potential for high-ranking unflanged or flanged males to monopolize sexual access to females is low. In contrast, at high monopolization potential, the flexible strategy is the evolutionarily stable strategy. We also derive the proportion of flanged males in the population for each combination of monopolization values. This model concurs with field data that found a different monopolization potential between Bornean and Sumatran flanged males and a lower proportion of flanged males in the population in Sumatran orangutans. Pronounced developmental arrest is linked to very low adult mortality, which explains why it is so limited in its taxonomic distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gauri R Pradhan
- Anthropological Institute & Museum, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
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Smith JE, Powning KS, Dawes SE, Estrada JR, Hopper AL, Piotrowski SL, Holekamp KE. Greetings promote cooperation and reinforce social bonds among spotted hyaenas. Anim Behav 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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