Vascular endothelial growth factor up-regulation in the mouse hippocampus and its role in the control of epileptiform activity

Neural stem and progenitor cells support and protect adult hippocampal function via vascular endothelial growth factor secretion

Adult neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) reside in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus throughout the lifespan of most mammalian species. In addition to generating new neurons, NSPCs may alter their niche via secretion of growth factors and cytokines. We recently showed that adult DG NSPCs secrete vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is critical for maintaining adult neurogenesis. Here, we asked whether NSPC-derived VEGF alters hippocampal function independent of adult neurogenesis. We found that loss of NSPC-derived VEGF acutely impaired hippocampal memory, caused neuronal hyperexcitability and exacerbated excitotoxic injury. Conversely, we observed that overexpression of VEGF reduced microglial response to excitotoxic injury. We also found that NSPCs generate substantial proportions of total DG VEGF and VEGF disperses widely throughout the DG, both of which help explain how this anatomically-restricted cell population could modulate function broadly. These findings suggest that NSPCs actively support and protect DG function via secreted VEGF, thereby providing a non-neurogenic functional dimension to endogenous NSPCs.

Insights into the pathophysiology and response of persistent spinal pain syndrome type 2 to spinal cord stimulation: a human genome-wide association study

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) provides pain relief for some patients with persistent spinal pain syndrome type 2 (PSPS 2), but the precise mechanisms of action and prognostic factors for a favorable pain response remain obscure. This in vivo human genome-wide association study provides some pathophysiological clues.

METHODS

We performed a high-density oligonucleotide microarray analysis of serum obtained from both PSPS 2 cases and pain-free controls who had undergone lower back spinal surgery at the study site. Using multivariate discriminant analysis, we tried to identify different expressions between mRNA transcripts from PSPS 2 patients relative to controls, SCS responders to non-responders, or SCS responders to themselves before starting SCS. Gene ontology enrichment analysis was used to identify the biological processes that best discriminate between the groups of clinical interest.

RESULTS

Thirty PSPS 2 patients, of whom 23 responded to SCS, were evaluated together with 15 pain-free controls. We identified 11 significantly downregulated genes in serum of PSPS 2 patients compared with pain-free controls and two significantly downregulated genes once the SCS response became apparent. All were suggestive of enhanced inflammation, tissue repair mechanisms and proliferative responses among the former. We could not identify any gene differentiating patients who responded to SCS from those who did not respond.

CONCLUSIONS

This study points out various biological processes that may underlie PSPS 2 pain and SCS therapeutic effects, including the modulation of neuroimmune response, inflammation and restorative processes.

Neural stem and progenitor cells support and protect adult hippocampal function via vascular endothelial growth factor secretion

Adult neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) reside in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus throughout the lifespan of most mammalian species. In addition to generating new neurons, NSPCs may alter their niche via secretion of growth factors and cytokines. We recently showed that adult DG NSPCs secrete vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is critical for maintaining adult neurogenesis. Here, we asked whether NSPC-derived VEGF alters hippocampal function independent of adult neurogenesis. We found that loss of NSPC-derived VEGF acutely impaired hippocampal memory, caused neuronal hyperexcitability and exacerbated excitotoxic injury. We also found that NSPCs generate substantial proportions of total DG VEGF and VEGF disperses broadly throughout the DG, both of which help explain how this anatomically-restricted cell population could modulate function broadly. These findings suggest that NSPCs actively support and protect DG function via secreted VEGF, thereby providing a non-neurogenic functional dimension to endogenous NSPCs.

Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in the Treatment of Epilepsy and Their Interaction with Antiseizure Medications

Epilepsy is a life-threatening neurological disease that affects approximately 70 million people worldwide. Although the vast majority of patients may be successfully managed with currently used antiseizure medication (ASM), the search for alternative therapies is still necessary due to pharmacoresistance in about 30% of patients with epilepsy. Here, we review the effects of ASMs on stem cell treatment when they could be, as expected, co-administered. Indeed, it has been reported that ASMs produce significant effects on the differentiation and determination of stem cell fate. In addition, we discuss more recent findings on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in pre-clinical and clinical investigations. In this regard, their ability to differentiate into various cell types, reach damaged tissues and produce and release biologically active molecules with immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory and regenerative properties make them a high-potential therapeutic tool to address neuroinflammation in different neurological disorders, including epilepsy. Overall, the characteristics of MSCs to be genetically engineered, in order to replace dysfunctional elements with the aim of restoring normal tissue functioning, suggested that these cells could be good candidates for the treatment of epilepsy refractory to ASMs. Further research is required to understand the potential of stem cell treatment in epileptic patients and its interaction with ASMs.

VEGF/VEGFR-2 system exerts neuroprotection against Phoneutria nigriventer spider envenomation through PI3K-AKT-dependent pathway

This study was undertaken to elucidate why VEGF/VEGFR-2 is elevated in the hippocampus of rats injected with Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom (PNV). PNV delays Na⁺ channels inactivation; blocks Ca²⁺ and K⁺ channels, increases glutamate release, causes blood-brain breakdown (BBBb), brain edema and severe excitotoxicity. Analytical FT-IR spectroscopy showed profound alteration in molecular biochemical state, with evidences for VEGFR-2 (KDR/Flk-1) signaling mediation. By blocking VEGF/VEGFR-2 binding via pre-treatment with itraconazole we demonstrated that animals' condition was deteriorated soon at 1-2 h post-PNV exposure concurrently with decreased expression of VEGF, BBB-associated proteins, ZO-1, β-catenin, laminin, P-gp (P-glycoprotein), Neu-N (neuron's viability marker) and MAPKphosphorylated-p38, while phosphorylated-ERK and Src pathways were increased. At 5 h and coinciding with incipient signs of animals' recuperation, the proteins associated with protection (HIF-1α, VEGF, VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, Neu-N, occludin, β-catenin, laminin, P-gp efflux protein, phosphorylated-p38) increased thus indicating p38 pathway activation together with paracellular route strengthening. However, the BBB transcellular trafficking and caspase-3 increased (pro-apoptotic pathway activation). At 24 h, the transcellular route reestablished physiological state but the pro-survival pathway PI3K/(p-Akt) dropped in animals underwent VEGF/VEGFR-2 binding inhibition, whereas it was significantly activated at matched interval in PNV group without prior itraconazole; these results demonstrate impaired VEGF' survival effects at 24 h. The inhibition of VEGF/VEGFR-2 binding identified 5 h as turning point at which multi-level dynamic interplay was elicited to reverse hippocampal damage. Collectively, the data confirmed VEGFR-2 signaling via serine-threonine kinase Akt as neuroprotective pathway against PNV-induced damage. Further studies are needed to elucidate mechanisms underlying PNV effects.

Inhibition of VEGF-Flk-1 binding induced profound biochemical alteration in the hippocampus of a rat model of BBB breakdown by spider venom. A preliminary assessment using FT-IR spectroscopy

Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom (PNV) contains ion channels-acting neuropeptides that in rat induces transitory blood-brain barrier breakdown (BBBb) in hippocampus in parallel with VEGF upregulation. We investigated whether VEGF has a neuroprotective role by inhibiting its binding to receptor Flk-1 by itraconazole (ITZ). FT-IR spectroscopy examined the biochemical status of hippocampus and evaluated BBBb in rats administered PNV or ITZ/PNV at periods with greatest toxicity (1-2h), recovery (5h) and visual absence of symptoms (24h), and compared to saline and ITZ controls. The antifungal treatment before venom intoxication aggravated the venom effects and increased BBB damage. FT-IR spectra of venom, hippocampi of controls, PNV and ITZ-PNV showed a 1400 cm^-1 band linked to symmetric stretch of carboxylate and 1467 cm^-1 band (CH₂ bending: mainly lipids) that were considered biomarker and reference bands, respectively. Inhibition of VEGF/Flk-1 binding produced marked changes in lipid/protein stability at 1-2h. The largest differences were observed in spectra regions assigned to lipids, both symmetric (2852 cm^-1) and asymmetric (2924 and 2968 cm^-1). Quantitative analyses showed greatest increases in the 1400 cm^-1/1467 cm^-1 ratio also at 1h. Such changes at period of rats' severe intoxication referred to wavenumber region from 3106 cm^-1 to 687 cm^-1 assigning for C-H and N-H stretching of protein, Amide I, C=N cytosine, N-H adenine, Amide II, CH₂ bending: mainly lipids, C-O stretch: glycogen, polysaccharides, glycolipids, z-type DNA, C-C, C-O and CH out-of-plane bending vibrations. We conclude that VEGF has a neuroprotective role and can be a therapeutic target in PNV envenomation. FT-IR spectroscopy showed to be instrumental for monitoring biochemical changes in this model of P. nigriventer venom-induced BBB disruption.

A critical role for VEGF and VEGFR2 in NMDA receptor synaptic function and fear-related behavior

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is known to be required for the action of antidepressant therapies but its impact on brain synaptic function is poorly characterized. Using a combination of electrophysiological, single-molecule imaging and conditional transgenic approaches, we identified the molecular basis of the VEGF effect on synaptic transmission and plasticity. VEGF increases the postsynaptic responses mediated by the N-methyl-D-aspartate type of glutamate receptors (GluNRs) in hippocampal neurons. This is concurrent with the formation of new synapses and with the synaptic recruitment of GluNR expressing the GluN2B subunit (GluNR-2B). VEGF induces a rapid redistribution of GluNR-2B at synaptic sites by increasing the surface dynamics of these receptors within the membrane. Consistently, silencing the expression of the VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) in neural cells impairs hippocampal-dependent synaptic plasticity and consolidation of emotional memory. These findings demonstrated the direct implication of VEGF signaling in neurons via VEGFR2 in proper synaptic function. They highlight the potential of VEGF as a key regulator of GluNR synaptic function and suggest a role for VEGF in new therapeutic approaches targeting GluNR in depression.

Does angiogenesis play a role in the establishment of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy?

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) is a focal epileptic disorder that is frequently associated with hippocampal sclerosis. This study investigated whether blocking angiogenesis prevents the development of seizures and hippocampal atrophy in the pilocarpine rat model of MTLE. To block angiogenesis, a subset of animals were given sunitinib orally. Continuous video recordings were performed to identify seizures. Brains were then extracted and sectioned, and hippocampal surfaces and angiogenesis were assessed. After a latent period of 6.6 ± 2.6 days, the sham-treated pilocarpine rats presented convulsive seizures, while the pilocarpine rats treated with sunitinib did not develop seizures. Sham-treated pilocarpine rats but not sunitinib-treated pilocarpine rats had significantly smaller hippocampi. Endothelial cell counts in sham-treated pilocarpine rats were significantly greater than in controls and sunitinib-treated pilocarpine rats. Blocking angiogenesis immediately following the initial insult in this animal model prevented thus angiogenesis and hippocampal atrophy and averted the development of clinical seizures.

The neuroprotective effects of R-phenibut after focal cerebral ischemia

R-phenibut is a γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-B receptor and α₂-δ subunit of the voltage-dependent calcium channel (VDCC) ligand. The aim of the present study was to test the effects of R-phenibut on the motor, sensory and tactile functions and histological outcomes in rats following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). In this study, MCAO was induced by filament insertion (f-MCAO) or endothelin-1 (ET1) microinjection (ET1-MCAO) in male Wistar or CD rats, respectively. R-phenibut was administrated at doses of 10 and 50mg/kg for 14 days in the f-MCAO or 7 days in the ET1-MCAO. The vibrissae-evoked forelimb-placing and limb-placing tests were used to assess sensorimotor, tactile and proprioceptive function. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR was used to detect brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene expression in the damaged brain hemisphere. Both f-MCAO and ET1-MCAO resulted in statistically significant impairment of sensorimotor function and brain infarction. R-phenibut at a dose of 10mg/kg significantly improved histological outcome at day 7 in the ET1-MCAO. R-phenibut treatment at a dose of 50mg/kg significantly alleviated reduction of brain volume in damaged hemisphere in both f-MCAO and ET1-MCAO. In R-phenibut treated animals a trend of recovery of tactile and proprioceptive stimulation in the vibrissae-evoked forelimb-placing test was observed. After R-phenibut treatment at a dose of 50mg/kg statistically significant increase of BDNF and VEGF gene expression was found in damaged brain hemisphere. Taken together, obtained results provide evidence for the neuroprotective activity of R-phenibut in experimental models of stroke. These effects might be related to the modulatory effects of the drug on the GABA-B receptor and α₂-δ subunit of VDCC.

Transplantation of bone marrow mononuclear cells modulates hippocampal expression of growth factors in chronically epileptic animals

AIMS

In previous studies, transplantation of bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMMCs) in epileptic animals has been found to be neuroprotective. However, the mechanism by which the BMMCs act remains unclear. We hypothesize that BMMCs may provide neuroprotection to the epileptic brain through trophic support. To test our hypothesis, we studied the temporal expression of neurotrophins after BMMC transplantation in the epileptic rat hippocampus.

METHODS

Chronically epileptic rats were intravenously transplanted with 1 × 10(7) BMMCs isolated from GFP transgenic mice. Expression levels of BDNF, GDNF, NGF, VEGF, and TGF-β1, and their receptors, were evaluated by ELISA and/or qRT-PCR analysis.

RESULTS

Our data revealed increased protein expression of BDNF, GDNF, NGF, and VEGF and reduced levels of TGF-β1 in the hippocampus of transplanted epileptic animals. Additionally, an increase in the mRNA expression of BDNF, GDNF, and VEGF, a reduction in TGF-β1, and a decrease in mRNA levels of the TrkA and TGFR-β1 receptors were also observed.

CONCLUSION

The gain provided by transplanted BMMCs in the epileptic brain may be related to the ability of these cells in modulating the network of neurotrophins and angiogenic signals.

Vascular endothelial growth factor increases during blood-brain barrier-enhanced permeability caused by Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom

Phoneutria nigriventer spider accidental envenomation provokes neurotoxic manifestations, which when critical, results in epileptic-like episodes. In rats, P. nigriventer venom (PNV) causes blood-brain barrier breakdown (BBBb). The PNV-induced excitotoxicity results from disturbances on Na⁺, K⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels and glutamate handling. The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), beyond its angiogenic effect, also, interferes on synaptic physiology by affecting the same ion channels and protects neurons from excitotoxicity. However, it is unknown whether VEGF expression is altered following PNV envenomation. We found that adult and neonates rats injected with PNV showed immediate neurotoxic manifestations which paralleled with endothelial occludin, β-catenin, and laminin downregulation indicative of BBBb. In neonate rats, VEGF, VEGF mRNA, and Flt-1 receptors, glutamate decarboxylase, and calbindin-D28k increased in Purkinje neurons, while, in adult rats, the BBBb paralleled with VEGF mRNA, Flk-1, and calbindin-D28k increases and Flt-1 decreases. Statistically, the variable age had a role in such differences, which might be due to age-related unequal maturation of blood-brain barrier (BBB) and thus differential cross-signaling among components of the glial neurovascular unit. The concurrent increases in the VEGF/Flt-1/Flk-1 system in the cerebellar neuron cells and the BBBb following PNV exposure might imply a cytokine modulation of neuronal excitability consequent to homeostatic perturbations induced by ion channels-acting PNV neuropeptides. Whether such modulation represents neuroprotection needs further investigation.

The potential of antiseizure drugs and agents that act on novel molecular targets as antiepileptogenic treatments

A major goal of contemporary epilepsy research is the identification of therapies to prevent the development of recurrent seizures in individuals at risk, including those with brain injuries, infections, or neoplasms; status epilepticus; cortical dysplasias; or genetic epilepsy susceptibility. In this review we consider the evidence largely from preclinical models for the antiepileptogenic activity of a diverse range of potential therapies, including some marketed antiseizure drugs, as well as agents that act by immune and inflammatory mechanisms; reduction of oxidative stress; activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ pathways; effects on factors related to thrombolysis, hematopoesis, and angiogenesis; inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reducatase; brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling; and blockade of α2 adrenergic and cannabinoid receptors. Antiepileptogenesis refers to a therapy of which the beneficial action is to reduce seizure frequency or severity outlasting the treatment period. To date, clinical trials have failed to demonstrate that antiseizure drugs have such disease-modifying activity. However, studies in animal models with levetiracetam and ethosuximide are encouraging, and clinical trials with these agents are warranted. Other promising strategies are inhibition of interleukin 1β signaling by drugs such as VX-765; modulation of sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling by drugs such as fingolimod; activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin by drugs such as rapamycin; the hormone erythropoietin; and, paradoxically, drugs such as the α2 adrenergic receptor antagonist atipamezole and the CB1 cannabinoid antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant) with proexcitatory activity. These approaches could lead to a new paradigm in epilepsy drug therapy where treatment for a limited period prevents the occurrence of spontaneous seizures, thus avoiding lifelong commitment to symptomatic treatment.

Expression of VEGF and Flk-1 and Flt-1 receptors during blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment following Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom exposure

Apart from its angiogenic and vascular permeation activity, the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been also reported as a potent neuronal protector. Newborn rats with low VEGF levels develop neuron degeneration, while high levels induce protective mechanisms in several neuropathological conditions. Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom (PNV) disrupts the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and causes neuroinflammation in central neurons along with excitotoxic signals in rats and humans. All these changes are transient. Herein, we examined the expression of VEGF and its receptors, Flt-1 and Flk-1 in the hippocampal neurons following envenomation by PNV. Adult and neonatal rats were evaluated at time limits of 2, 5 and 24 h. Additionally, BBB integrity was assessed by measuring the expression of occludin, β-catenin and laminin and neuron viability was evaluated by NeuN expression. VEGF, Flt-1 and Flk-1 levels increased in PNV-administered rats, concurrently with respective mRNAs. Flt-1 and Flk-1 immunolabeling was nuclear in neurons of hippocampal regions, instead of the VEGF membrane-bound typical location. These changes occurred simultaneously with the transient decreases in BBB-associated proteins and NeuN positivity. Adult rats showed more prominent expressional increases of the VEGF/Flt-1/Flk-1 system and earlier recovery of BBB-related proteins than neonates. We conclude that the reactive expressional changes seen here suggest that VEGF and receptors could have a role in the excitotoxic mechanism of PNV and that such role would be less efficient in neonate rats.

Treatment of traumatic brain injury using zinc-finger protein gene therapy targeting VEGF-A

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a role in angiogenesis and has been shown to be neuroprotective following central nervous system trauma. In the present study we evaluated the pro-angiogenic and neuroprotective effects of an engineered zinc-finger protein transcription factor transactivator targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-ZFP). We used two virus delivery systems, adeno-virus and adeno-associated virus, to examine the effects of early and delayed VEGF-A upregulation after brain trauma, respectively. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subject to a unilateral fluid percussion injury (FPI) of moderate severity (2.2-2.5 atm) followed by intracerebral microinjection of either adenovirus vector (Adv) or an adeno-associated vector (AAV) carrying the VEGF-ZFP construct. Adv-VEGF-ZFP-treated animals had significantly fewer TUNEL positive cells in the injured penumbra of the cortex (p<0.001) and hippocampus (p=0.001) relative to untreated rats at 72 h post-injury. Adv-VEGF-ZFP treatment significantly improved fEPSP values (p=0.007) in the CA1 region relative to injury alone. Treatment with AAV2-VEGF-ZFP resulted in improved post-injury microvascular diameter and improved functional recovery on the balance beam and rotarod task at 30 days post-injury. Collectively, the results provide supportive evidence for the concept of acute and delayed treatment following TBI using VEGF-ZFP to induce angiogenesis, reduce cell death, and enhance functional recovery.

Protein expression profiling of inflammatory mediators in human temporal lobe epilepsy reveals co-activation of multiple chemokines and cytokines

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (mTLE) is a chronic and often treatment-refractory brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizures originating from the hippocampus. The pathogenic mechanisms underlying mTLE remain largely unknown. Recent clinical and experimental evidence supports a role of various inflammatory mediators in mTLE. Here, we performed protein expression profiling of 40 inflammatory mediators in surgical resection material from mTLE patients with and without hippocampal sclerosis, and autopsy controls using a multiplex bead-based immunoassay. In mTLE patients we identified 21 upregulated inflammatory mediators, including 10 cytokines and 7 chemokines. Many of these upregulated mediators have not previously been implicated in mTLE (for example, CCL22, IL-7 and IL-25). Comparing the three patient groups, two main hippocampal expression patterns could be distinguished, pattern I (for example, IL-10 and IL-25) showing increased expression in mTLE + HS patients compared to mTLE-HS and controls, and pattern II (for example, CCL4 and IL-7) showing increased expression in both mTLE groups compared to controls. Upregulation of a subset of inflammatory mediators (for example, IL-25 and IL-7) could not only be detected in the hippocampus of mTLE patients, but also in the neocortex. Principle component analysis was used to cluster the inflammatory mediators into several components. Follow-up analyses of the identified components revealed that the three patient groups could be discriminated based on their unique expression profiles. Immunocytochemistry showed that IL-25 IR (pattern I) and CCL4 IR (pattern II) were localized in astrocytes and microglia, whereas IL-25 IR was also detected in neurons. Our data shows co-activation of multiple inflammatory mediators in hippocampus and neocortex of mTLE patients, indicating activation of multiple pro- and anti-epileptogenic immune pathways in this disease.

VEGF receptor-2 (Flk-1) overexpression in mice counteracts focal epileptic seizures

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was first described as an angiogenic agent, but has recently also been shown to exert various neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects in the nervous system. These effects of VEGF are mainly mediated by its receptor, VEGFR-2, which is also referred to as the fetal liver kinase receptor 1 (Flk-1). VEGF is up-regulated in neurons and glial cells after epileptic seizures and counteracts seizure-induced neurodegeneration. In vitro, VEGF administration suppresses ictal and interictal epileptiform activity caused by AP4 and 0 Mg²⁺ via Flk-1 receptor. We therefore explored whether increased VEGF signaling through Flk-1 overexpression may regulate epileptogenesis and ictogenesis in vivo. To this extent, we used transgenic mice overexpressing Flk-1 postnatally in neurons. Intriguingly, Flk-1 overexpressing mice were characterized by an elevated threshold for seizure induction and a decreased duration of focal afterdischarges, indicating anti-ictal action. On the other hand, the kindling progression in these mice was similar to wild-type controls. No significant effects on blood vessels or glia cells, as assessed by Glut1 and GFAP immunohistochemistry, were detected. These results suggest that increased VEGF signaling via overexpression of Flk-1 receptors may directly affect seizure activity even without altering angiogenesis. Thus, Flk-1 could be considered as a novel target for developing future gene therapy strategies against ictal epileptic activity.