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Martinez P, Bailly X, Sprecher SG, Hartenstein V. The Acoel nervous system: morphology and development. Neural Dev 2024; 19:9. [PMID: 38907301 PMCID: PMC11191258 DOI: 10.1186/s13064-024-00187-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Acoel flatworms have played a relevant role in classical (and current) discussions on the evolutionary origin of bilaterian animals. This is mostly derived from the apparent simplicity of their body architectures. This tenet has been challenged over the last couple of decades, mostly because detailed studies of their morphology and the introduction of multiple genomic technologies have unveiled a complexity of cell types, tissular arrangements and patterning mechanisms that were hidden below this 'superficial' simplicity. One tissue that has received a particular attention has been the nervous system (NS). The combination of ultrastructural and single cell methodologies has revealed unique cellular diversity and developmental trajectories for most of their neurons and associated sensory systems. Moreover, the great diversity in NS architectures shown by different acoels offers us with a unique group of animals where to study key aspects of neurogenesis and diversification od neural systems over evolutionary time.In this review we revisit some recent developments in the characterization of the acoel nervous system structure and the regulatory mechanisms that contribute to their embryological development. We end up by suggesting some promising avenues to better understand how this tissue is organized in its finest cellular details and how to achieve a deeper knowledge of the functional roles that genes and gene networks play in its construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Martinez
- Departament de Genètica, Microbiologia I Estadística, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, Barcelona, 08028, Spain.
- ICREA (Institut Català de Recerca I Estudis Avancats), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Xavier Bailly
- Station Biologique de Roscoff, Multicellular Marine Models (M3) Team, FR2424, CNRS / Sorbonne Université - Place Georges Teissier, Roscoff, 29680, France
| | - Simon G Sprecher
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, 10, Ch. Du Musée, Fribourg, 1700, Switzerland
| | - Volker Hartenstein
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Sakagami T, Watanabe K, Hamada M, Sakamoto T, Hatabu T, Ando M. Structure of putative epidermal sensory receptors in an acoel flatworm, Praesagittifera naikaiensis. Cell Tissue Res 2024; 395:299-311. [PMID: 38305882 PMCID: PMC10904500 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-024-03865-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Acoel flatworms possess epidermal sensory-receptor cells on their body surfaces and exhibit behavioral repertoires such as geotaxis and phototaxis. Acoel epidermal sensory receptors should be mechanical and/or chemical receptors; however, the mechanisms of their sensory reception have not been elucidated. We examined the three-dimensional relationship between epidermal sensory receptors and their innervation in an acoel flatworm, Praesagittifera naikaiensis. The distribution of the sensory receptors was different between the ventral and dorsal sides of worms. The nervous system was mainly composed of a peripheral nerve net, an anterior brain, and three pairs of longitudinal nerve cords. The nerve net was located closer to the body surface than the brain and the nerve cords. The sensory receptors have neural connections with the nerve net in the entire body of worms. We identified five homologs of polycystic kidney disease (PKD): PKD1-1, PKD1-2, PKD1-3, PKD1-4, and, PKD2, from the P. naikaiensis genome. All of these PKD genes were implied to be expressed in the epidermal sensory receptors of P. naikaiensis. PKD1-1 and PKD2 were dispersed across the entire body of worms. PKD1-2, PKD1-3, and PKD1-4 were expressed in the anterior region of worms. PKD1-4 was also expressed around the mouth opening. Our results indicated that P. naikaiensis possessed several types of epidermal sensory receptors to convert various environmental stimuli into electrical signals via the PKD channels and transmit the signals to afferent nerve and/or effector cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tosuke Sakagami
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Pharmacology, Department of Animal Science, Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Kaho Watanabe
- Laboratory of Cell Physiology, Department of Science Education, Graduate School of Education, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Mayuko Hamada
- Ushimado Marine Institute, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, 701-4303, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Sakamoto
- Ushimado Marine Institute, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, 701-4303, Japan
| | - Toshimitsu Hatabu
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Pharmacology, Department of Animal Science, Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan
| | - Motonori Ando
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology and Pharmacology, Department of Animal Science, Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan.
- Laboratory of Cell Physiology, Department of Science Education, Graduate School of Education, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan.
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Magarlamov TY, Chernyshev AV. Proboscis sensory cells in Nemertea: comparative morphology and phylogenetic implications. Zool J Linn Soc 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Analyses of molecular data have clarified the phylogenetic relations between classes and orders of the phylum Nemertea as a whole, but the ‘deficit’ of morphological synapomorphies characterizing main clades remains problematic. Characters identified with classic histological studies of nemerteans reveal a high level of homoplasy, thus complicating the search for synapomorphies. To identify more potential synapomorphies, sensory cells of the proboscis epithelium of 39 nemertean species were studied with electron and confocal laser-scanning microscopes. Three types of sensory cells were described: monociliated (found in nemerteans from all orders), multiciliated (found only in polystiliferous hoplonemerteans) and nonciliated (found in two species of monostiliferous hoplonemerteans) sensory cells. Monociliated sensory cells of the proboscis have a common structure, differing from monociliated sensory cells of the epidermis and cerebral organ canals. Each monociliated cell consists of a cilium with a bulb-like expanded tip surrounded by a cone-like collar of microvilli, an intra-epithelially located body (perikaryon) and a single basal process (axon). Some features of the monociliated sensory cell structure are thought to provide solid mechanical support. Specific features in the structure of the axial rootlets, cilia, microvillus collars and their microfilaments, considered synapomorphies/autapomorphies, were revealed in the representatives of some nemertean taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timur Yu Magarlamov
- A. V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Alexei V Chernyshev
- A. V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
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Transgenesis in the acoel worm Hofstenia miamia. Dev Cell 2021; 56:3160-3170.e4. [PMID: 34752780 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The acoel worm Hofstenia miamia, which can replace tissue lost to injury via differentiation of a population of stem cells, has emerged as a new research organism for studying regeneration. To enhance the depth of mechanistic studies in this system, we devised a protocol for microinjection into embryonic cells that resulted in stable transgene integration into the genome and generated animals with tissue-specific fluorescent transgene expression in epidermis, gut, and muscle. We demonstrate that transgenic Hofstenia are amenable to the isolation of specific cell types, investigations of regeneration, tracking of photoconverted molecules, and live imaging. Further, our stable transgenic lines revealed insights into the biology of Hofstenia, including a high-resolution three-dimensional view of cell morphology and the organization of muscle as a cellular scaffold for other tissues. Our work positions Hofstenia as a powerful system with multiple toolkits for mechanistic investigations of development, whole-body regeneration, and stem cell biology.
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Alexeeva N, Bogomolova E, Tamberg Y, Shunatova N. Oligomeric larvae of the pycnogonids revisited. J Morphol 2017; 278:1284-1304. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nina Alexeeva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology; St. Petersburg State University; Universitetskaja nab. 7/9 St. Petersburg 199034 Russian Federation
| | - Ekaterina Bogomolova
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology; Moscow State University; Leninskie gory, 1, 12 Moscow 119234 Russian Federation
| | - Yuta Tamberg
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology; St. Petersburg State University; Universitetskaja nab. 7/9 St. Petersburg 199034 Russian Federation
| | - Natalia Shunatova
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology; St. Petersburg State University; Universitetskaja nab. 7/9 St. Petersburg 199034 Russian Federation
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Structural analysis of the branchiae and dorsal cirri in Eurythoe complanata (Annelida, Amphinomida). ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-016-0336-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Haszprunar G. Review of data for a morphological look on Xenacoelomorpha (Bilateria incertae sedis). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-015-0249-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Sprecher SG, Bernardo-Garcia FJ, van Giesen L, Hartenstein V, Reichert H, Neves R, Bailly X, Martinez P, Brauchle M. Functional brain regeneration in the acoel worm Symsagittifera roscoffensis. Biol Open 2015; 4:1688-95. [PMID: 26581588 PMCID: PMC4736034 DOI: 10.1242/bio.014266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability of some animals to regrow their head and brain after decapitation provides a striking example of the regenerative capacity within the animal kingdom. The acoel worm Symsagittifera roscoffensis can regrow its head, brain and sensory head organs within only a few weeks after decapitation. How rapidly and to what degree it also reacquires its functionality to control behavior however remains unknown. We provide here a neuroanatomical map of the brain neuropils of the adult S. roscoffensis and show that after decapitation a normal neuroanatomical organization of the brain is restored in the majority of animals. By testing different behaviors we further show that functionality of both sensory perception and the underlying brain architecture are restored within weeks after decapitation. Interestingly not all behaviors are restored at the same speed and to the same extent. While we find that phototaxis recovered rapidly, geotaxis is not restored within 7 weeks. Our findings show that regeneration of the head, sensory organs and brain result in the restoration of directed navigation behavior, suggesting a tight coordination in the regeneration of certain sensory organs with that of their underlying neural circuits. Thus, at least in S. roscoffensis, the regenerative capacity of different sensory modalities follows distinct paths. Summary: Brain and head regeneration in the acoel Symsagittifera roscoffensis is coordinated with restoration of directed navigation behavior, suggesting that the regenerative capacity of different sensory modalities follows distinct paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon G Sprecher
- Institute of Developmental and Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - F Javier Bernardo-Garcia
- Institute of Developmental and Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - Lena van Giesen
- Institute of Developmental and Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - Volker Hartenstein
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, 621 Charles E. Young Drive, East Boyer Hall 559, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
| | - Heinrich Reichert
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, Basel 4056, Switzerland
| | - Ricardo Neves
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, 621 Charles E. Young Drive, East Boyer Hall 559, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
| | - Xavier Bailly
- UPMC-CNRS, FR2424, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff 29680, France
| | - Pedro Martinez
- Departament de Genètica, Universitat de Barcelona, A v. Diagonal, 643, Barcelona, Catalonia 08028, Spain Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys, Barcelona, Catalonia 23 08010, Spain
| | - Michael Brauchle
- Institute of Developmental and Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
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Müller CHG, Rieger V, Perez Y, Harzsch S. Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural studies on ciliary sense organs of arrow worms (Chaetognatha). ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-013-0211-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Achatz JG, Chiodin M, Salvenmoser W, Tyler S, Martinez P. The Acoela: on their kind and kinships, especially with nemertodermatids and xenoturbellids (Bilateria incertae sedis). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2012; 13:267-286. [PMID: 24098090 PMCID: PMC3789126 DOI: 10.1007/s13127-012-0112-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Acoels are among the simplest worms and therefore have often been pivotal in discussions of the origin of the Bilateria. Initially thought primitive because of their “planula-like” morphology, including their lumenless digestive system, they were subsequently dismissed by many morphologists as a specialized clade of the Platyhelminthes. However, since molecular phylogenies placed them outside the Platyhelminthes and outside all other phyla at the base of the Bilateria, they became the focus of renewed debate and research. We review what is currently known of acoels, including information regarding their morphology, development, systematics, and phylogenetic relationships, and put some of these topics in a historical perspective to show how the application of new methods contributed to the progress in understanding these animals. Taking all available data into consideration, clear-cut conclusions cannot be made; however, in our view it becomes successively clearer that acoelomorphs are a “basal” but “divergent” branch of the Bilateria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes G. Achatz
- Department of Genetics, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal, edifici annex, planta 2a, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Evolutionary Developmental Biology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Marta Chiodin
- Department of Genetics, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal, edifici annex, planta 2a, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Willi Salvenmoser
- Department of Evolutionary Developmental Biology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Seth Tyler
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, 5751 Murray Hall, Orono, ME 04469 USA
| | - Pedro Martinez
- Department of Genetics, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal, edifici annex, planta 2a, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys, 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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Bery A, Cardona A, Martinez P, Hartenstein V. Structure of the central nervous system of a juvenile acoel, Symsagittifera roscoffensis. Dev Genes Evol 2010; 220:61-76. [PMID: 20549514 PMCID: PMC2929339 DOI: 10.1007/s00427-010-0328-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 05/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The neuroarchitecture of Acoela has been at the center of morphological debates. Some authors, using immunochemical tools, suggest that the nervous system in Acoela is organized as a commissural brain that bears little resemblance to the central, ganglionic type brain of other flatworms, and bilaterians in general. Others, who used histological staining on paraffin sections, conclude that it is a compact structure (an endonal brain; e.g., Raikova 2004; von Graff 1891; Delage Arch Zool Exp Gén 4:109-144, 1886). To address this question with modern tools, we have obtained images from serial transmission electron microscopic sections of the entire hatchling of Symsagittifera roscoffensis. In addition, we obtained data from wholemounts of hatchlings labeled with markers for serotonin and tyrosinated tubulin. Our data show that the central nervous system of a juvenile S. roscoffensis consists of an anterior compact brain, formed by a dense, bilobed mass of neuronal cell bodies surrounding a central neuropile. The neuropile flanks the median statocyst and contains several types of neurites, classified according to their types of synaptic vesicles. The neuropile issues three pairs of nerve cords that run at different dorso-ventral positions along the whole length of the body. Neuronal cell bodies flank the cords, and neuromuscular synapses are abundant. The TEM analysis also reveals different classes of peripheral sensory neurons and provides valuable information about the spatial relationships between neurites and other cell types within the brain and nerve cords. We conclude that the acoel S. roscoffensis has a central brain that is comparable in size and architecture to the brain of other (rhabditophoran) flatworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Bery
- Laboratoire de Développement, Evolution, Plasticité du Système Nerveux, CNRS Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard, Bâtiment 33, Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France.
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Achatz JG, Hooge M, Wallberg A, Jondelius U, Tyler S. Systematic revision of acoels with 9+0 sperm ultrastructure (Convolutida) and the influence of sexual conflict on morphology. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0469.2009.00555.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Todt C. Structure and evolution of the pharynx simplex in acoel flatworms (Acoela). J Morphol 2009; 270:271-90. [PMID: 18942704 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The homology of pharynges within the mostly pharynx-less Acoela has been a matter of discussion for decades and even the basic question of whether a pharynx is a primitive trait within the Acoela and homologous to the pharynx of platyhelminth turbellarians is open. By using fluorescence staining of musculature, as well as conventional histological techniques and transmission electron microscopy, the present study sets focus on the mouth and pharynx (where present) of seven species of Acoela within Paratomellidae, Solenofilomorphidae, Hofsteniidae, Proporidae, and Convolutidae, as well as one species of Nemertodermatida and Catenulida, respectively. It is shown that among the investigated families of acoels there is a great variability in muscle systems associated with the mouth and pharynx and that pharynx histology and ultrastructural characters are widely diverse. There are no close similarities between the acoel pharynges and the catenulid pharynx but there is a general resemblance of the musculature associated with the mouth in the representatives of Paratomellidae and Nemertodermatida. On the basis of the profound differences in pharynx morphology, three major conclusions are drawn: 1) the pharynges as present in Recent acoels are not homologous to the pharynx simplex characteristic for Catenulida and Macrostomida within the Platyhelminthes; 2) the different muscular pharynx types of acoels are not homologous between higher taxa and thus a single acoel-type pharynx simplex cannot be defined; 3) the presence of a muscular pharynx most likely does not represent the ancestral state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Todt
- Department of Biology, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway.
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Bogéa T. Innervation of cercarial tegumentary receptors investigated by the Sevier-Munger method. Parasitol Int 2009; 58:136-40. [PMID: 19200457 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2009.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2008] [Revised: 01/01/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The investigation of the sensory nature of tegumentary receptors in platyhelminths remains a challenge due to technical difficulties related to nerve tissue exposure and its experimental handling. Neuromorphological studies have been carried out but few demonstrated the association of these receptors with the nervous system. This paper introduces the Sevier-Munger method as an alternative approach to study the innervation of tegumentary receptors in larval flatworms. Twenty heterophyid cercariae were fixed in hot 5% formalin, with all washes performed in tap and distilled water. They were developed in a solution of ammoniacal silver and 2% formalin under the microscope for 10 min, with preparations shaken gently throughout the procedure. In all specimens, nerve cells stained black against a pale gold background. Fine nerve fibers of the subsurface nerve plexus were observed. These fibers sent distal branches from the plexus to the cercarial tegument. The branches became fine nerve endings, projecting as receptors in the cephalic (5CIV(5), 2CV(2), and 2CV(4)), anterior (4AIL, 3AIIL, 2AIIIL), midbody (1ML, 3MV), posterior (1PIL, 1PIIL, and 1PIIIL), and caudal (2UD) regions of the cercaria. These results indicate that the Sevier-Munger method is useful to demonstrate the association of cercarial tegumentary receptors with the subsurface nerve plexus. They also recommend the use of alternative methods to further investigate flatworm nervous systems. Moreover, there is a pressing urge for a standardized protocol, combining a plethora of methods and techniques. Interdisciplinary collaboration aiming at a better understanding of the function of flatworm nervous systems is particularly encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tami Bogéa
- Universidade Estácio de Sá, Laboratório de Parasitologia Animal, Ciências Biológicas - Campus CERA, Estrada da Boca do Mato, 850 Vargem Pequena, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil.
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