Overexpression of high mobility group box 1 with poor prognosis in patients after radical prostatectomy

Predictive and Prognostic Relevance of Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells: Tailoring Personalized Treatments against Different Cancer Types

TIICs are critical components of the TME and are used to estimate prognostic and treatment responses in many malignancies. TIICs in the tumor microenvironment are assessed and quantified by categorizing immune cells into three subtypes: CD66b+ tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), and CD163+ tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). In addition, many cancers have tumor-infiltrating M1 and M2 macrophages, neutrophils (Neu), CD4+ T cells (T-helper), CD8+ T cells (T-cytotoxic), eosinophils, and mast cells. A variety of clinical treatments have linked tumor immune cell infiltration (ICI) to immunotherapy receptivity and prognosis. To improve the therapeutic effectiveness of immune-modulating drugs in a wider cancer patient population, immune cells and their interactions in the TME must be better understood. This study examines the clinicopathological effects of TIICs in overcoming tumor-mediated immunosuppression to boost antitumor immune responses and improve cancer prognosis. We successfully analyzed the predictive and prognostic usefulness of TIICs alongside TMB and ICI scores to identify cancer's varied immune landscapes. Traditionally, immune cell infiltration was quantified using flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), CIBERSORT, ESTIMATE, and other platforms that use integrated immune gene sets from previously published studies. We have also thoroughly examined traditional limitations and newly created unsupervised clustering and deconvolution techniques (SpatialVizScore and ProTICS). These methods predict patient outcomes and treatment responses better. These models may also identify individuals who may benefit more from adjuvant or neoadjuvant treatment. Overall, we think that the significant contribution of TIICs in cancer will greatly benefit postoperative follow-up, therapy, interventions, and informed choices on customized cancer medicines.

Co-expression of High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) in the prognosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Esophageal cancer is a malignant type of cancer with a high mortality rate. The aim of this study is to determine co-expression patterns of High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) in ESCC (esophageal squamous cell carcinoma) conditions and their prognostic role in cancer progression. The expression of HMGB1 and RAGE in ESCC tissues has been analyzed using qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Co-localized expression patterns of HMGB1 and RAGE in ESCC tissues were determined using immunohistochemistry and analyzed for clinical-pathological parameters. Overall survival was performed based on co-expression of HMGB1 and RAGE proteins. A higher expression pattern of HMGB1, and RAGE was observed at mRNA and protein level in the ESCC group compared to the adjacent tissue group. Expression of HMGB1 was significantly correlated with lymph node, metastasis, lymphatic invasion, and venous invasion (p < 0.05). RAGE expression exhibited a significant correlation with venous invasion. Overall survival was significantly shorter (P < 0.05) in the patients with co-expression of HMGB1 and RAGE compared to the patients without co-expression. A significant difference in the overall survival was evident between the patients with co-expression of HMGB1 and RAGE and the patients without coexpression. HMGB1 and RAGE expression patterns were associated with aggressive metastatic characteristics of ESCC. The co-expression of HMGB1 and RAGE was correlated with shorter survival times. Results concluded the co-expression patterns of HMGB1 and RAGE exhibited a prognostic relevance in ESCC conditions.

Perspectives on signaling for biological- and processed food-related advanced glycation end-products and its role in cancer progression

Receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) is a multifunctional receptor binds a broad spectrum of ligands and mediates responses to cell damage and stress conditions. It also activates programs leading to acute and chronic inflammation and implicated in several pathological diseases, including cancer. In this review, we presented the non-enzymatic reaction of reducing sugar with the amino groups of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. This reaction initiates a complex series of rearrangements and dehydrations, and then produces a class of irreversibly cross-linked heterogeneous fluorescent moieties, termed advanced glycation end products (AGEs). There is a growing body of evidence that interaction of processes food-related AGEs with a cell surface receptor RAGE brings out the generation of oxidative stress and subsequently evokes proliferative, angiogenic and inflammatory reactions, thereby being involved in the development and progression of various types of cancers. This review is an insightful assessment of molecular mechanisms through which RAGE signaling contributes to the enhancement and survival of the tumorigenic cell. Here we summarize the procurement of individual ligands of RAGE like amphoterin, calcium-binding proteins, and resultant mediation of RAGE signaling pathway, which partially can elucidate the elevated risk of several cancers. Besides, we summarize many factors or conditions including APE1 (apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1), retinol mutations, retinoblastoma (Rb), proteinase 3 (PR3) hypoxia and so on through which RAGE signaling presents an establishment of cancerous environment. Additionally, we also reviewed some recent findings that give shreds of evidence for presenting the role of RAGE and its ligands in the advanced stage of cancers.

Rs145204276 and rs4759314 affect the prognosis of prostate cancer by modulating the GAS5/miR-1284/HMGB1 and HOTAIR/miR-22/HMGB1 signalling pathways

Non-coding RNAs play an important role in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer (PC). This study aims to characterize the role of GAS5 rs145204276 and HOTAIR rs4759314 polymorphisms in the pathogenesis of PC. Both INS allele of GAS5 rs145204276 and A allele of HOTAIR rs4759314 were identified to increase the survival of PC patients. And patients carrying DEL/DEL + AG genotypes tend to present higher levels of HMGB1, GAS5, HOTAIR and lower levels of miR-1284 and miR-22. In addition, the transcription activity of GAS5 promoter was increased by the deletion allele of rs145204276 polymorphism, while the G allele of rs4759314 polymorphism increased the transcription activity of HOTAIR promoter. GAS5 and HOTAIR could bind to miR-1284 and miR-22, respectively, while miR-1284 and miR-22 could bind to the 3'UTR of HMGB1. Compared with the control group, the expressions of miR-1284 or miR-22 were decreased with the presence of GAS5 or HOTAIR, and the expression of HMGB1 was the highest in the GAS5 + HOTAIR group. In summary, the findings of this study demonstrated that both GAS5 rs145204276 and HOTAIR rs4759314 polymorphisms could affect the prognosis of PC by modulating the expression of HMGB1 via modulating the GAS5/miR-1284/HMGB1 and HOTAIR/miR-22/HMGB1 signalling pathways.

The Impact of HMGB1 Polymorphisms on Prostate Cancer Progression and Clinicopathological Characteristics

Prostate cancer is one of the major cancers of the genitourinary tract. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) was suggested as a promising therapeutic target for prostate cancer. In this study, we aim to elucidate the associations of HMGB1 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with prostate cancer susceptibility and clinicopathological characteristics. The HMGB1 SNPs rs1412125, rs2249825, rs1045411, and rs1360485 in 579 prostate cancer patients and 579 cancer-free controls were analyzed with real-time polymerase chain reactions (real-time PCR). All of the data were evaluated with SAS statistical software. Our results showed that the HMGB1 rs1045411 T allele genotype was significantly associated with advanced pathologic T stage (odds ratio (OR) = 1.433, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.021–2.012; p = 0.037) and pathologic N1 stage (OR = 2.091, 95% CI = 1.160–3.767; p = 0.012), and the rs1360485 polymorphic CT + TT genotype was associated with pathologic Gleason grade group (4 + 5) (OR = 1.583, 95% CI = 1.017–2.462; p = 0.041), pathologic T stage (3 + 4) (OR = 1.482, 95% CI = 1.061–2.070; p = 0.021), and pathologic N1 stage (OR = 2.131, 95% CI = 1.178–3.852; p = 0.011) compared with their wild-type carriers. In conclusion, our results revealed that the HMGB1 SNPs were associated with the clinical status of prostate cancer. The HMGB1 SNPs may have the potential to predict prostate cancer disease progression.

Characterization of HMGB1/2 Interactome in Prostate Cancer by Yeast Two Hybrid Approach: Potential Pathobiological Implications

High mobility group box B (HMGB) proteins are pivotal in the development of cancer. Although the proteomics of prostate cancer (PCa) cells has been reported, the involvement of HMGB proteins and their interactome in PCa is an unexplored field of considerable interest. We describe herein the results of the first HMGB1/HMGB2 interactome approach to PCa. Libraries constructed from the PCa cell line, PC-3, and from patients’ PCa primary tumor have been screened by the yeast 2-hybrid approach (Y2H) using HMGB1 and HMGB2 baits. Functional significance of this PCa HMGB interactome has been validated through expression and prognosis data available on public databases. Copy number alterations (CNA) affecting these newly described HMGB interactome components are more frequent in the most aggressive forms of PCa: those of neuroendocrine origin or castration-resistant PCa. Concordantly, adenocarcinoma PCa samples showing CNA in these genes are also associated with the worse prognosis. These findings open the way to their potential use as discriminatory biomarkers between high and low risk patients. Gene expression of a selected set of these interactome components has been analyzed by qPCR after HMGB1 and HMGB2 silencing. The data show that HMGB1 and HMGB2 control the expression of several of their interactome partners, which might contribute to the orchestrated action of these proteins in PCa

Glycyrrhizin Attenuates the Process of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition by Modulating HMGB1 Initiated Novel Signaling Pathway in Prostate Cancer Cells

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is upregulated in nearly every tumor type. Importantly, clinical evidence also proposed that HMGB1 is particularly increased in metastatic prostate cancer patients. Besides, a growing number of studies highlighted that HMGB1 could be a successful therapeutic target for prostate cancer patients. Glycyrrhizin is a novel pharmacological inhibitor of HMGB1 that may repress prostate cancer metastasis. This research was aimed to investigate the effect of glycyrrhizin on inhibition of HMGB1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a key step of tumor metastasis, in prostate cancer cells. In this study, HMGB1 knock-downed DU145 prostate cancer cells were used. Silencing the HMGB1 gene expression triggered a change of cell morphology to a more epithelial-like shape, which was accompanied by a reduction of Cdc42/GSK-3β/Snail and induction of E-cadherin levels estimated by immunoblotting. Furthermore, HMGB1 facilitated cell migration and invasion via downstream signaling, whereas HMGB1 targeting by 10 mM ethyl pyruvate effectively inhibited EMT characteristics. Interestingly, cell migration capacity induced by HMGB1 in DU145 cells was abolished in a dose-dependent effect of 25-200 μM glycyrrhizin treatment. In conclusion, glycyrrhizin successfully inhibited HMGB1-induced EMT phenomenon, which suggested that glycyrrhizin may serves as a therapeutic agent for metastatic prostate cancer.

LncRNA HOX transcript antisense RNA accelerated kidney injury induced by urine-derived sepsis through the miR-22/high mobility group box 1 pathway

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the role of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) HOX transcript antisense RNA (HOTAIR) in kidney injury induced by urine-derived sepsis (US).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An Escherichia coli suspension was injected into the distal ureter of adult male Sprague Dawley rats to establish a US model. Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) were used to induce an in vitro septic model. The interaction between HOTAIR and microRNA 22 (miR-22) was detected by RNA precipitation and RNA pull-down assays. The expression of HOTAIR, miR-22, and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) were detected by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot analyses.

RESULTS

Compared with a sham group, HOTAIR was upregulated in kidney tissues of the US group. HOTAIR was also upregulated in LPS-induced human renal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2). Furthermore, HOTAIR negatively regulated miR-22 and promoted apoptosis of HK-2 cells. HOTAIR also promoted HMGB1 expression and HK-2 cell apoptosis by inhibiting miR-22. In addition, the miR-22/HMGB1 pathway was involved in LPS-induced HK-2 cell apoptosis. In vivo experiments showed that HOTAIR negatively modulated miR-22 and positively modulated HMGB1 and that HOTAIR knockdown decreased renal function indicators (blood urea nitrogen [BUN] and serum creatinine).

CONCLUSION

HOTAIR was upregulated in sepsis-induced kidney injury, which promoted HK-2 cell apoptosis in kidney injury through the miR-22/HMGB1 pathway.

High mobility group box 1 promotes the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in prostate cancer PC3 cells via the RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a critical damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases and cancer types. The overexpression of HMGB1 protein occurs in prostate cancer, and is closely associated with the proliferation and aggressiveness of tumor cells. However, the underlying mechanisms of HMGB1-induced tumor metastasis in prostate cancer remain unclear. In the present study, it was demonstrated that the expression of HMGB1 was high in prostate cancer samples, particularly in the metastatic tissues. Furthermore, recombinant HMGB1 (rHMGB1) enhanced the invasive and metastatic capabilities of the prostate cancer cells. Molecular phenotype alterations of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and elevated expression levels of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, -3 and -10 were observed. In addition, advanced glycosylation end-product specific receptor (RAGE) and its downstream molecule nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway were activated during rHMGB1-induced metastasis. Silencing RAGE or NF-κB reversed the upregulation of MMP and EMT marker expression levels, thus reducing the migration and invasiveness of tumor cells. Taken together, these results suggest that highly expressed HMGB1 drives EMT and the overexpression of MMP-1, -3, -10 via the RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathways, which facilitates the metastasis of prostate cancer and may be a potential therapeutic target for metastatic prostate cancer.

Overexpression of high mobility group box 1 contributes to progressive clinicopathological features and poor prognosis of human bladder urothelial carcinoma

Background

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a versatile protein with intranuclear and extracellular functions, plays an important role in a variety of human cancers. However, the clinical/prognostic significance of HMGB1 expression in human bladder urothelial carcinoma (BUC) remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the HMGB1 expression in human BUC with regard to its clinical and prognostic significance.

Patients and methods

HMGB1 mRNA and protein expressions in tumor and paired normal bladder tissues were detected in 20 BUC cases by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot. HMGB1 protein expression in 165 primary BUC tissues was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC), and its correlations with clinicopathological characteristics and prognosis were also analyzed. Student’s t-test, χ² test, Kaplan–Meier plots, and Cox proportional hazard regression model were performed to analyze the data.

Results

By using qRT-PCR and Western blot, the upregulated expression of HMGB1 mRNA and protein was detected in BUC, compared with paired normal tissue (P<0.05). By using IHC, high HMGB1 expression was examined in 84 of 165 (51.0%) BUC cases. High HMGB1 expression was significantly correlated with poorer differentiation and higher T and N classification (all P<0.05). Univariate analysis showed that high HMGB1 expression was significantly associated with a shortened patients’ overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS; both P<0.001). In different subgroups of BUC patients, HMGB1 expression was a prognostic factor in patients with different histological grades or T classification (all P<0.05), pN− (both P<0.001) for OS and DFS, and pT1/pN− (P<0.05) for OS. HMGB1 expression, as well as pT and pN status, was an independent prognostic factor for both OS (P=0.001, hazard ratio [HR] =2.973, 95% confidence interval [CI] =1.550–5.704) and DFS (P<0.001, HR =3.019, 95% CI =1.902–4.792) in multivariate analysis.

Conclusion

Overexpression of HMGB1 may be a new independent molecular marker for the poor prognosis of patients with BUC.

Molecular signaling involving intrinsically disordered proteins in prostate cancer

Investigations on cellular protein interaction networks (PINs) reveal that proteins that constitute hubs in a PIN are notably enriched in Intrinsically Disordered Proteins (IDPs) compared to proteins that constitute edges, highlighting the role of IDPs in signaling pathways. Most IDPs rapidly undergo disorder-to-order transitions upon binding to their biological targets to perform their function. Conformational dynamics enables IDPs to be versatile and to interact with a broad range of interactors under normal physiological conditions where their expression is tightly modulated. IDPs are involved in many cellular processes such as cellular signaling, transcriptional regulation, and splicing; thus, their high-specificity/low-affinity interactions play crucial roles in many human diseases including cancer. Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality in men worldwide. Therefore, identifying molecular mechanisms of the oncogenic signaling pathways that are involved in prostate carcinogenesis is crucial. In this review, we focus on the aspects of cellular pathways leading to PCa in which IDPs exert a primary role.

HMGB1 overexpression as a prognostic factor for survival in cancer: a meta-analysis and systematic review

As there are millions of cancer deaths every year, it is of great value to identify applicable prognostic biomarkers. As an important alarm, the prognostic role of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in cancer remains controversial. We aim to assess the association of HMGB1 expression with prognosis in cancer patients. Systematic literature searches of PubMed, Embase and Web of Science databases were performed for eligible studies of HMGB1 as prognostic factor in cancer. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to evaluate the influence of HMGB1 expression on overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) in cancer patients. 18 studies involving 11 different tumor types were included in meta-analysis. HMGB1 overexpression was significantly associated with poorer OS (HR: 1.99; 95% CI, 1.71-2.31) and PFS (HR: 2.26; 95% CI, 1.65-3.10) irrespective of cancer types including gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, head and neck squamous-cell carcinoma, esophageal cancer, malignant pleural mesothelioma, bladder cancer, prostate cancer, and cervical carcinoma. Subgroup analyses indicated geographical area and size of studies did not affect the prognostic effects of HMGB1 for OS. Morever, HMGB1 overexpression had a consistent correlation with poorer OS when detected by immunohistochemistry in tissues and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in serum, whereas the correlation did not exist by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction in tissues. HMGB1 overexpression is associated with poorer prognosis in patients with various types of cancer, suggesting that it is a prognostic factor and potential biomarker for survival in cancer.

High Mobility Group B Proteins, Their Partners, and Other Redox Sensors in Ovarian and Prostate Cancer

Cancer cells try to avoid the overproduction of reactive oxygen species by metabolic rearrangements. These cells also develop specific strategies to increase ROS resistance and to express the enzymatic activities necessary for ROS detoxification. Oxidative stress produces DNA damage and also induces responses, which could help the cell to restore the initial equilibrium. But if this is not possible, oxidative stress finally activates signals that will lead to cell death. High mobility group B (HMGB) proteins have been previously related to the onset and progressions of cancers of different origins. The protein HMGB1 behaves as a redox sensor and its structural changes, which are conditioned by the oxidative environment, are associated with different functions of the protein. This review describes recent advances in the role of human HMGB proteins and other proteins interacting with them, in cancerous processes related to oxidative stress, with special reference to ovarian and prostate cancer. Their participation in the molecular mechanisms of resistance to cisplatin, a drug commonly used in chemotherapy, is also revised.

Serum HMGB1 is a predictive and prognostic biomarker for oncolytic immunotherapy

With the emergence of effective immunotherapeutics, which nevertheless harbor the potential for toxicity and are expensive to use, biomarkers are urgently needed for identification of cancer patients who respond to treatment. In this clinical-epidemiological study of 202 cancer patients treated with oncolytic adenoviruses, we address the biomarker value of serum high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein. Overall survival and imaging responses were studied as primary endpoints and adjusted for confounding factors in two multivariate analyses (Cox and logistic regression). Mechanistic studies included assessment of circulating tumor-specific T-cells by ELISPOT, virus replication by quantitative PCR, and inflammatory cytokines by cytometric bead array. Patients with low HMGB1 baseline levels (below median concentration) showed significantly improved survival (p = 0.008, Log-Rank test) and radiological disease control rate (49.2% vs. 30.0%, p = 0.038, χ² test) as compared to high-baseline patients. In multivariate analyses, the low HMGB1 baseline status was a strong prognostic (HR 0.638, 95% CI 0.462–0.881) and the best predictive factor for disease control (OR 2.618, 95% CI 1.004–6.827). Indicative of an immune-mediated mechanism, antitumor T-cell activity in blood and response to immunogenic-transgene coding viruses associated with improved outcome only in HMGB1-low patients. Our results suggest that serum HMGB1 baseline is a useful prognostic and predictive biomarker for oncolytic immunotherapy with adenoviruses, setting the stage for prospective clinical studies.

HMGB1 in health and disease

Complex genetic and physiological variations as well as environmental factors that drive emergence of chromosomal instability, development of unscheduled cell death, skewed differentiation, and altered metabolism are central to the pathogenesis of human diseases and disorders. Understanding the molecular bases for these processes is important for the development of new diagnostic biomarkers, and for identifying new therapeutic targets. In 1973, a group of non-histone nuclear proteins with high electrophoretic mobility was discovered and termed high-mobility group (HMG) proteins. The HMG proteins include three superfamilies termed HMGB, HMGN, and HMGA. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), the most abundant and well-studied HMG protein, senses and coordinates the cellular stress response and plays a critical role not only inside of the cell as a DNA chaperone, chromosome guardian, autophagy sustainer, and protector from apoptotic cell death, but also outside the cell as the prototypic damage associated molecular pattern molecule (DAMP). This DAMP, in conjunction with other factors, thus has cytokine, chemokine, and growth factor activity, orchestrating the inflammatory and immune response. All of these characteristics make HMGB1 a critical molecular target in multiple human diseases including infectious diseases, ischemia, immune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic disorders, and cancer. Indeed, a number of emergent strategies have been used to inhibit HMGB1 expression, release, and activity in vitro and in vivo. These include antibodies, peptide inhibitors, RNAi, anti-coagulants, endogenous hormones, various chemical compounds, HMGB1-receptor and signaling pathway inhibition, artificial DNAs, physical strategies including vagus nerve stimulation and other surgical approaches. Future work further investigating the details of HMGB1 localization, structure, post-translational modification, and identification of additional partners will undoubtedly uncover additional secrets regarding HMGB1's multiple functions.

Identification of miR-133b and RB1CC1 as independent predictors for biochemical recurrence and potential therapeutic targets for prostate cancer

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the contribution of microRNA-133b (miR-133b) in prostate cancer cell proliferation, cell cycle, and apoptosis. We also examined expression of miR-133b in prostate cancer tissues, and evaluated the prognostic significance of miR-133b, as well as its target gene RB1CC1 in patients with prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

miR-133b mimics (miR-133bm) and anti-miR-133b were transfected into LNCaP and PC-3 cells. CCK-8 was used to look at cell proliferation, flow cytometric analysis was carried out to study cell cycle, and apoptosis was determined by caspase-3 activity. miR-133b expression was assessed by real-time reverse transcription PCR and in situ hybridization in prostatic cell lines and 178 prostate tissue samples, respectively. The protein level of RB1CC1 was examined by Western blot and immunohistochemistry in prostatic cell lines and prostate tissue samples, respectively.

RESULTS

Overexpression of miR-133b in LNCaP cells boosted cell proliferation and cell-cycle progression, but inhibited apoptosis; in contrast, miR-133bm promoted cell apoptosis, but suppressed cell proliferation and cell-cycle progression in PC-3 cells. In LNCaP cells, silencing of RB1CC1, a target of miR-133b, inhibited cell apoptosis, and promoted cell-cycle progression. Moreover, miR-133b expression was significantly inversely correlated with RB1CC1 expression in prostate cancer tissues. Multivariate Cox analysis indicated that miR-133b and RB1CC1 might be two independent prognostic factors of biochemical recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

miR-133b might enhance tumor-promoting properties in less aggressive LNCaP cells, whereas this miR may act as a tumor suppressor in more aggressive PC-3 cells. miR-133b and RB1CC1 were independent prognostic indicators for prostate cancer.

HMGB1: A Promising Therapeutic Target for Prostate Cancer

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) was originally discovered as a chromatin-binding protein several decades ago. It is now increasingly evident that HMGB1 plays a major role in several disease conditions such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, arthritis, sepsis, and cancer. It is intriguing how deregulation of HMGB1 can result in a myriad of disease conditions. Interestingly, HMGB1 is involved in cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis during cancer progression. Furthermore, HMGB1 has been demonstrated to exert intracellular and extracellular functions, activating key oncogenic signaling pathways. This paper focuses on the role of HMGB1 in prostate cancer development and highlights the potential of HMGB1 to serve as a key target for prostate cancer treatment.