Phyllanthus emblica Fruit Improves Obesity by Reducing Appetite and Enhancing Mucosal Homeostasis via the Gut Microbiota-Brain-Liver Axis in HFD-Induced Leptin-Resistant Rats

The impact of leptin resistance on intestinal mucosal barrier integrity, appetite regulation, and hepatic lipid metabolism through the microbiota-gut-brain-liver axis has yet to be determined. Water extract of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruit (WEPE) and its bioactive compound gallic acid (GA) effectively alleviated methylglyoxal (MG)-triggered leptin resistance in vitro. Therefore, this study investigated how WEPE and GA intervention relieve leptin resistance-associated dysfunction in the intestinal mucosa, appetite, and lipid accumulation through the microbiota-gut-brain-liver axis in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed rats. The results showed that WEPE and GA significantly reduced tissues (jejunum, brain, and liver) MG-evoked leptin resistance, malondialdehyde (MDA), proinflammatory cytokines, SOCS3, orexigenic neuropeptides, and lipid accumulation through increasing leptin receptor, tight junction proteins, antimicrobial peptides, anorexigenic neuropeptides, excretion of fecal triglyceride (TG), and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) via a positive correlation with the Allobaculum and Bifidobacterium microbiota. These novel findings suggest that WEPE holds the potential as a functional food ingredient for alleviating obesity and its complications.

Pterostilbene and 6-shogaol exhibit inhibitory effects on sunitinib resistance and motility by suppressing the RLIP76-initiated Ras/ERK and Akt/mTOR pathways in renal cancer cells

Sunitinib (SUN) is the first-line targeted therapeutic drug for advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC). However, SUN resistance is frequently observed to result in tumor metastasis, with a poor survival rate. Therefore, finding an effective and safe adjuvant to reduce drug resistance is important for RCC treatment. Pterostilbene (PTE) and 6-shogaol (6-S) are natural phytochemicals found in edible sources and have potential applications against various cancers. However, the biological mechanisms of PTE and 6-S in SUN-resistant RCC are still unclear. Accordingly, this study investigated the regulatory effects of PTE and 6-S on cell survival, drug resistance, and cell invasion in 786-O and SUN-resistant 786-O (786-O SUNR) cells, respectively. The results demonstrated that PTE and 6-S induced apoptosis in both cell lines by upregulating the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. Additionally, PTE and 6-S increased SUN sensitivity by inhibiting the expression of the RLIP76 transport protein, reduced cell invasion and downregulated MMP expression in both 786-O and 786-O SUNR cells. Mechanistically, PTE, and 6-S significantly and dose-dependently suppressed the RLIP76-initiated Ras/ERK and Akt/mTOR pathways. In summary, PTE and 6-S induce apoptosis, enhance SUN sensitivity, and inhibit migration in both 786-O and 786-O SUNR cells. These novel findings demonstrate the potential of PTE and 6-S as target therapeutic adjuvants for RCC treatment.

Effect of Indian gooseberry extract on improving methylglyoxal-associated leptin resistance in peripheral tissues of high-fat diet-fed rats

Increased leptin resistance and methylglyoxal (MG) levels are observed in obese patients. However, whether MG deposits contribute to leptin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation in peripheral tissues remains unclear. In addition, the edible fruit of Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.) contains abundant bioactive components such as vitamin C, β-glucogallin (β-glu), gallic acid (GA), and ellagic acid (EA). Water extract of Indian gooseberry fruit (WEIG) and GA has been shown to improve cognitive decline by suppressing brain MG-induced insulin resistance in rats administered a high-fat diet (HFD). Accordingly, this study investigated the functions of WEIG and GA in inhibiting MG-induced leptin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation in the peripheral tissues of HFD-fed rats. The results showed that MG, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), and leptin resistance accumulation in the liver, kidney, and perinephric fat were effectively restored by elevated glyoxalase-1 (Glo-1) activity after WEIG and GA administration comparable to that of alagebrium chloride (positive control) treatment in HFD-fed rats. Furthermore, WEIG and GA supplementation increased adiponectin and antioxidant enzymes (glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase) and decreased inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α) in the peripheral tissues of HFD-fed rats. In conclusion, these findings demonstrated that MG may trigger leptin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation in peripheral tissues, which could be abolished by WEIG and GA treatment. These results show the potential of P. emblica for functional food development and improving obesity-associated metabolic disorders.

Phyllanthus emblica L. polysaccharides ameliorate colitis via microbiota modulation and dual inhibition of the RAGE/NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways in rats

Pharmacological treatments for colitis have limited efficacy and side effects. Plant polysaccharides improve colitis by modulating the gut microbiota. However, the specific benefits of Phyllanthus emblica L. polysaccharides (PEPs) in colitis remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the physical characteristics and health advantages of PEP in rats subjected to 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) treatment. The results showed that PEP (1.226 × 103 kDa) was an α-acidic pyran heteropolysaccharide rich in galactose and galacturonic acid. Prefeeding rats with PEP significantly decreased the levels of NO, MDA, proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α), apoptosis, and the activities of mucinase and β-glucuronidase. These changes were accompanied by increases in the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10) and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase, GPx) in colitis rats. Mechanistically, PEP suppressed the abundance of inflammatory-related bacteria (Bacteroides, Intestinimonas, and Parabacteroides) while promoting the growth of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria (Romboutsia, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, and Lactobacillus), along with an increase in SCFA secretion. SCFAs may engage with the GPR43 receptor and inhibit downstream HDAC3, consequently downregulating the activation of the RAGE/NF-κB and MAPK pathways. In conclusion, PEP demonstrated preventive effects through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and microbiota modulation properties, thereby ameliorating TNBS-induced colitis in rats.

Preventive Effect of Indian Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.) Fruit Extract on Cognitive Decline in High-Fat Diet (HFD)-Fed Rats

SCOPE

Methylglyoxal (MG)-derived advanced glycation end products (AGEs) directly bind to the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), subsequently exacerbating obesity and obesity-induced cognitive decline. Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.) fruit has antiobesity properties. However, the underlying mechanism by which Indian gooseberry fruit prevents obesity-induced cognitive decline remains unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This study aims to investigate the preventive effect of a water extract of Indian gooseberry fruit (WEIG) and its bioactive compound gallic acid (GA) on the obesity-induced cognitive decline through MG suppression and gut microbiota modulation in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed rats. Trapping MG, WEIG, and GA significantly ameliorate fat accumulation in adipose tissue and learning and memory deficits. Mechanistically, WEIG and GA administration effectively reduces brain MG and AGE levels and subsequently reduces insulin resistance, inflammatory cytokines, MDA production, and Alzheimer's disease-related proteins, but increases both antioxidant enzyme activities and anti-inflammatory cytokine with inhibiting RAGE, MAPK, and NF-κB levels in HFD-fed rats. Additionally, WEIG and GA supplementation increases the relative abundances of Bacteroidetes, Gammaproteobacteria, and Parasutterella, which negatively correlate with MG, inflammatory cytokine, and Alzheimer's disease-related protein expressions.

CONCLUSION

This novel finding provides a possible mechanism by which WEIG prevents obesity-induced cognitive decline through the gut-brain axis.

Ameliorative effect of buckwheat polysaccharides on colitis via regulation of the gut microbiota

Plant polysaccharides act as prebiotics by modulating gut microbiota. However, the functional characteristics of buckwheat Fagopyrum tataricum polysaccharides (FTP) and F. esculentum polysaccharides (FEP) on colitis prevention are not valid. This study evaluated the ameliorative effects of FTP and FEP against TNBS-induced colitis via gut microbiota modulation in rats. The characterizations of FTP and FEP were analyzed, including FTIR, TGA, DSC, and monosaccharide composition. In addition, the pathological features of colon length and symptoms in TNBS-induced colitis were improved via the intragastric preadministration of FTP and FEP. The results showed that prefeeding with FTP and FEP decreased inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α), β-glucuronidase, and mucinase, as well as increasing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase levels, in TNBS-induced rats. A decrease in inflammatory signaling-associated proteins (NF-κB, MAPK, COX-2, and iNOS) improved the treatment of TNBS-induced colitis by buckwheat polysaccharides. Moreover, prefeeding with buckwheat polysaccharides increased the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and decreased the abundance of inflammation-related bacteria (Oscillospiraceae and Oscillibacter). In conclusion, FTP and FEP strongly improved TNBS-induced colitis through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and microbiota modulation properties, especially in the high-dose FEP group. Buckwheat polysaccharides have the potential for utilization in functional ingredients or food development.

Protective effect of rosmarinic acid-rich extract from Trichodesma khasianum Clarke against microbiota dysbiosis in high-fat diet-fed obese mice

Hypertrophy of adipose tissues and dysbiosis are hallmarks of obesity. Although drugs are applied for obesity treatment, side effects limit their use. The anti-obesity capacity of rosmarinic acid (RA) has been documented. Trichodesma khasianum Clarke is an edible RA-rich plant grown in Taiwan. Our previous study found that an 80 % ethanol extract of T. khasianum Clarke leaves (80EETC) ameliorates gastric mucosal damage through its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and microbiota modulation abilities. However, the anti-obesity effect of 80EETC remains unclear. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the protective effects of low-dose 80EETC (125 mg/kg b.w., 80EETCL) or high-dose 80EETC (250 mg/kg b.w., 80EETCH) on obesity development through gut microbiota modulation in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced C57BL/6 mice. The results showed a high RA content (89.2 ± 7.4 mg/g) in 80EETC. 80EETC administration significantly decreased body weight, body fat ratio, serum lipid levels (TC, TG, and LDL-C), adipose tissue accumulation, malondialdehyde (MDA), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in HFD-fed mice. Furthermore, supplementation with 80EETC reduced the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and enhanced the relative abundance of gut microbiota (p_Bacteroidetes, f_Lactobacillus, f_Muribaculaceae, f_Prevotellaceae, g_Lactobacillus, g_Prevotellaceae_NK3B31_group, g_Ruminococcaceae_UCG-013, and g_Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014), which negatively correlated with obesity-related factors such as body weight, energy intake, fat accumulation in adipose tissue, TC, TG, LDL, and MDA. In conclusion, RA-rich 80EETC had a protective effect against obesity development and it has potential in healthy food applications.

Anti-fatigue effects of enzyme-hydrolyzed okara in C2C12 myotubes and Sprague-Dawley rats

Okara is a by-product of tofu or soymilk production processes. The disposal of huge quantities of okara is a significant issue. Based on previous reports, protein hydrolysis can release excess free amino acids and small peptides from okara and exhibit anti-fatigue function. We aimed to investigate the anti-fatigue effect of okara protein hydrolysate (OPH) in vitro and in vivo. In the first phase, we treated C2C12 myotubes with different processed OPHs to detect mitochondrial functions. The results revealed that OPH hydrolyzed with alcalase containing 2% E/S for 2 h increased the mitochondrial mRNA level (cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxidase I) and enzyme activity (citrate synthase and cytochrome c oxidase) most efficiently. In the second phase, we conducted animal studies to assess the anti-fatigue function of OPH. After acclimatization, 8 week-old male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly classified into four groups: (1) control group, (2) 1X-OPH, (3) 2X-OPH, and (4) 5X-OPH (8 rats per group, treated for 28 days). The results indicated that the intake of OPH for 28 days increased the exhaustive swimming time of rats and lowered the increment of the lactate ratio, as well as the activity of lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase. These results indicated that OPH improves exercise performance and anti-fatigue function in male SD rats. Therefore, OPH could be a potential health supplement for anti-fatigue function.

Rhinacanthus nasutus and okara polysaccharides attenuate colitis via inhibiting inflammation and modulating the gut microbiota

Plant polysaccharides have prebiotic properties for gut microbiota and immune modulation. This study aimed to investigate the prevention abilities of edible Rhinacanthus nasutus polysaccharide (RNP) and okara polysaccharide (OP) in Sprague-Dawley rats with acetic acid-induced colitis. The characterizations of RNP and OP were analyzed, including Fourier transform infrared, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and monosaccharide composition. The prebiotic properties of RNP and OP were determined in vitro. In addition, the pathological features of colon length and inflammatory cytokine levels in acetic acid-induced colitis were improved by intragastric preadministration of RNP and OP for 3 weeks. There was no nephrotoxicity or hepatotoxicity in rats via histopathological assessment after RNP and OP intake. Moreover, the abundance of short-chain fatty acids-producing bacteria (Lachnospiraceae, Lactobacilli, and Prevotellaceae) were increased after RNP supplementation. In conclusion, intragastric gavage of RNP and OP significantly modulated the gut microbiota and immune response, consequently alleviating the symptoms of colitis. This novel finding provides an alternative strategy and potential application of these two polysaccharides for colitis prevention and treatment.

Protective effects of camellia and olive oils against cognitive impairment via gut microbiota-brain communication in rats

Food intake influences neurofunction via the gut microbiota-brain axis. Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) consumption is highly associated with neuroprotection; the mechanism behind the effects of olive oil and camellia oil on gut microbiota remains unclear. In this study, the objective was to compare the neuroprotective role of oleic acid-rich camellia oil and olive oil against AlCl₃-induced mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in rats. Morris water maze tests revealed that learning and memory capacities improved in AlCl₃-induced rats subjected to camellia oil administration better than olive oil treatment. Moreover, the results showed that the camellia oil- and olive oil-treated AlCl₃-induced rat groups had significantly reduced oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines. Notably, Spearman correlation analysis indicated that the inflammatory cytokines negatively correlated with the microbial strains (Bacteroides pectinophilus_group and Blautia) in response to camellia oil administration. Furthermore, Ruminococcaceae_UCG014 abundance was significantly enhanced by camellia oil intake, which was highly positively associated with antioxidant activity expression. In conclusion, the novel data suggest that the outcomes of camellia oil consumption were superior to those of olive oil intake as camellia oil may have a beneficial effect on MCI protection and improvement through the gut microbiota-brain communication.

Lucidone inhibits autophagy and MDR1 via HMGB1/RAGE/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in pancreatic cancer cells

Gemcitabine (GEM) drug resistance remains a difficult challenge in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) treatment. Therefore, identifying a safe and effective treatment strategy for PDAC is urgent. Lucidone is a natural compound extracted from the fruits of Lindera erythrocarpa Makino. However, the role of lucidone in PDAC inhibition remains unclear. In addition, high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) are involved in multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) regulation and GEM resistance. Thus, this study aimed to explore the function of lucidone in tumor cytotoxicity and chemosensitivity through the suppression of RAGE-initiated signaling in PDAC cells. The data showed that lucidone significantly promoted apoptotic cell death and inhibited the expression of autophagic proteins (Atg5, Beclin-1, LC3-II, and Vps34) and MDR1 by inhibiting the HMGB1/RAGE/PI3K/Akt axis in both MIA Paca-2 cells and MIA Paca-2GEMR cells (GEM-resistant cells). Notably, convincing data were also obtained in experiments involving RAGE-specific siRNA transfection. In addition, remarkable cell proliferation was observed after treatment with lucidone combined with GEM, particularly in MIA Paca-2GEMR cells, indicating that lucidone treatment enhanced chemosensitivity. Collectively, this study provided the underlying mechanism by which lucidone treatment inhibited HMGB1/RAGE-initiated PI3K/Akt/MDR1 signaling and consequently enhanced chemosensitivity in PDAC.

4‑Acetylantroquinonol B enhances cell death and inhibits autophagy by downregulating the PI3K/Akt/MDR1 pathway in gemcitabine‑resistant pancreatic cancer cells

Gemcitabine (GEM) is a typical chemotherapeutic drug used to treat pancreatic cancer, but GEM resistance develops within weeks after chemotherapy. Hence, the development of a new strategy to overcome drug resistance is urgent. 4-Acetylantroquinonol B (4-AAQB), a ubiquinone derived from Taiwanofungus camphoratus, has hepatoprotective, anti-obesity, and antitumor activities. However, the role of 4-AAQB in enhancing GEM sensitivity is unclear. This study aimed to determine the underlying mechanisms by which 4-AAQB enhances cytotoxicity and GEM sensitivity. Cell viability was dramatically reduced by 4-AAQB (2 and 5 µM) treatment in the MiaPaCa-2 and GEM-resistant MiaPaCa-2 (MiaPaCa-2^GEMR) human pancreatic cancer cells. 4-AAQB led to cell cycle arrest, upregulated the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), promoted apoptosis, and inhibited autophagy, which subsequently enhanced GEM chemosensitivity by suppressing the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)/high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1)-initiated PI3K/Akt/multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) signaling pathway in both cell lines. Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) expression, cell migration, and invasion were also inhibited by the 4-AAQB incubation. Overall, this combination treatment strategy might represent a novel approach for GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer.

Ursolic acid restores sensitivity to gemcitabine through the RAGE/NF-κB/MDR1 axis in pancreatic cancer cells and in a mouse xenograft model

Gemcitabine (GEM) is a first-line drug for pancreatic cancer therapy, but GEM resistance is easily developed in patients. Growing evidence suggests that cancer chemoprevention and suppression are highly associated with dietary phytochemical and microbiota composition. Ursolic acid (UA) has anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects; however, its role in improving cancer drug resistance in vivo remains unclear. In this study, the aim was to explore the role of UA in managing drug resistance-associated molecular mechanisms and the influence of gut microbiota. The in vitro results showed that receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), nuclear factor kappa B p65 (NF-κB/p65), and multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) protein levels were significantly increased in GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells (named MIA PaCa-2 GEMR) compared to MIA PaCa-2 cells. Downregulation of RAGE, pP65, and MDR1 protein expression not only was observed following UA treatment but also was seen in MIA PaCa-2 GEMR cells after transfection with a RAGE siRNA. Remarkably, the enhanced effects of UA coupled with GEM administration dramatically suppressed the RAGE/NF-κB/MDR1 cascade and consequently inhibited subcutaneous tumor growth. Moreover, UA could increase alpha diversity and regulate the composition of gut microbiota, especially in Ruminiclostridium 6. Taken together, these results provide the first direct evidence of MDR1 attenuation and chemosensitivity enhancement through inhibition of the RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo, implying that UA may be used as an adjuvant for the treatment of pancreatic cancer in the future.

Risk and Benefit of Natural and Commercial Dark Brown Sugars as Evidenced by Phenolic and Maillard Reaction Product Contents

Products of dark brown sugar (DBS) from different production processes and raw materials may bring different risks and benefits to human health. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the quality of natural and commercial DBS products. Results showed that physicochemical properties, including pH value, turbidity, and browning degree have no significant difference between natural and commercial DBS products. Total flavonoid content of natural DBS was found to be significantly higher than that of commercial DBS (p < 0.05). Notably, the levels of harmful Maillard reaction products in natural DBS were significantly lower than that in commercial DBS as evidenced by analyses of methylglyoxal and fluorescent advanced glycation end products (p < 0.05). However, the amount of acrylamide in natural DBS was significantly higher than that in commercial DBS. In conclusion, this study provides useful information for risk-benefit assessment of DBS products, which is helpful for food safety management.

Dietary exposure assessment of methylmercury and polyunsaturated fatty acids in saltwater fish and processed foods among Taiwanese women of child-bearing age and children: A novel core food-matching approach

Saltwater fish is rich in health-promoting polyunsaturated fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Excessive fish intake may also cause health hazards due to methylmercury (MeHg). A novel dose estimation method was proposed in this study to improve the quality of food matching by considering the usage ratio of cooking and processing methods in sampling design. In total, 39 table-ready samples were specified according to 2-3 common cooking methods, and MeHg and total mercury (THg) were analyzed. The results showed that mercury was detected in 20 samples (LOD = 0.01 μg/g). High MeHg samples included fried-Spanish mackerel (1.23 μg/g), non-cooked shredded swordfish (0.325 μg/g), pan-fried Spanish mackerel (0.248 μg/g), and non-cooked shredded salmon (0.208 μg/g). Consumption data (n = 166,911) were obtained from 24-h recalls in the 2005-2008 Nutrition and Health Surveys in Taiwan (NAHSIT). The average whole-group estimated daily intake (EDI_WG) was 0.018 (7.9% tolerable daily intake, TDI) for women of child-bearing age and 0.031 μg/day per kg body weight (13.6% TDI) for children. However, 95th percentile values (P95) of 90.4% TDI and 185% TDI were estimated for the two consumer-only populations, which have raised public health concerns. The ratio of % TDI to % daily reference intake (% DRI) was used as a risk-benefit (R/B) indicator. The top 4 R/B foods were: tuna sashimi (0.089 and 0.14), non-cooked shredded swordfish (0.033 and 0.052), fried-Spanish mackerel (0.027 and 0.043) and deep-fried fish balls (0.022 and 0.035) in the two perspective populations.

Effects of Hsian-tsao (Mesona procumbens Hemsl.) extracts and its polysaccharides on the promotion of wound healing under diabetes-like conditions

Hsian-tsao extracts and its polysaccharides accelerate wound healing in cell models and diabetic mice.

Protective effect of rosmarinic acid-rich trichodesma khasianum clarke leaves against ethanol-induced gastric mucosal injury in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUND

Although gastroprotective drugs have been used for peptic ulcer disease prevention and treatment, side effects have been observed. Finding a safe and effective treatment strategy is important.

PURPOSE

Edible Trichodesma khasianum (T. khasianum) Clarke leaves are considered to protect against peptic ulcers. However, scientific evidence of this effect of T. khasianum Clarke leaves remains limited.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of T. khasianum Clarke leaves on ethanol-induced gastric injury and gut microbiota using RAW 264.7 cells, RGM-1 cells, and BALB/c mice, respectively.

RESULT

The rosmarinic acid was identified as the major component of T. khasianum Clarke leaves extracted by 80% ethanol (80EETC). The results showed that 80EETC suppressed inflammatory mediator protein levels in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Additionally, heat shock protein expression, antiapoptotic ability, and wound healing migration capability were increased by 80EETC pretreatment in RGM-1 cells with the ethanol-induced injury. Remarkably, pretreatment with 80EETC (150 mg/kg b.w.) promoted gastric mucosal healing by decreasing oxidative stress, inflammatory response, proapoptotic protein expression, and gastric mucosa damage in ethanol-induced gastric injury in mice. Crucially, no liver or kidney toxicities were observed by 80EETC oral gavage. Moreover, 80EETC increased gut microbiota diversity and short-chain fatty acid production.

CONCLUSION

Our results illustrated the remarkable gastroprotective effect by 80EETC treatment in vitro and in vivo. These findings are the first to demonstrate the powerful protective effect of T. khasianum Clarke leaves against gastric mucosal injury development.

Citrus flavonoids suppress IL-5 and ROS through distinct pathways in PMA/ionomycin-induced EL-4 cells

Interleukin-5 (IL-5) strongly initiates the asthmatic inflammatory response, which affects 300 million patients with asthma annually worldwide, through oxidative stress generation. Citrus flavonoids have beneficial properties, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, but the precise molecular mechanism of the inhibition of the asthmatic inflammatory response is still unclear. This study aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms of ROS and IL-5 reduction with citrus flavonoid treatment in PMA/ionomycin-induced EL-4 cells. Our results showed that hesperetin and gardenin A dramatically suppressed ROS and IL-5 production through distinct pathways. Interestingly, hesperidin induced HO-1 expression through the transcription factor Nrf2 coupled with the PI3K/AKT or ERK/JNK signaling pathway, consequently downregulating NFAT activity and IL-5 secretion. Likewise, gardenin A induced HO-1 expression and subsequently suppressed IL-5 production by reducing NFAT activity and upregulating PPARγ in EL-4 cells, suggesting that inducing HO-1 expression may inhibit asthmatic inflammation. Altogether, hesperidin and gardenin A have great potential for regulating the asthma-associated immune responses through antioxidant properties.

Ursolic acid promotes apoptosis, autophagy, and chemosensitivity in gemcitabine-resistant human pancreatic cancer cells

Gemcitabine (GEM) resistance in pancreatic adenocarcinoma mediated by the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) has been demonstrated. Therefore, investigating the safety and the potential of new auxiliary methods for pancreatic cancer treatment is urgent. Ursolic acid (UA), a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid found in apple peels, rosemary, and thyme, has been reported to have anticancer capacity. This study aimed to reveal the underlying mechanisms of UA in cell death and drug enhancement, especially in GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells. First, GEM-resistant cells (MIA Paca-2GEMR cells) were established by incrementally increasing GEM culture concentrations. UA treatment reduced cell viability through cell cycle arrest and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, resulting in apoptosis and autophagy in a dose-dependent manner in MIA Paca-2 and MIA Paca-2GEMR cells. High RAGE expression in MIA Paca-2GEMR cells was suppressed by UA treatment. Interestingly, knocking down RAGE expression showed similar UA-induced effects in both cell lines. Remarkably, UA had a drug-enhancing effect by decreasing cell viability and increasing cell cytotoxicity when combined with GEM treatment. In conclusions, UA triggered ER stress, subsequently regulating apoptosis- and autophagy-related pathways and increasing GEM chemosensitivity in pancreatic cancer cells by inhibiting the expression of RAGE.

Camellia oil alleviates the progression of Alzheimer's disease in aluminum chloride-treated rats

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia, is associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and gut microbiota (GM) imbalance. Recent studies have demonstrated that camellia oil has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and modulates the immune system and GM. However, the effect of camellia oil in alleviating AD pathogenesis remains unclear. An SD rat model of cognitive decline was established by the daily oral administration of aluminum chloride. The results revealed that the aluminum chloride-treated group exhibited deteriorated memory capacity and increased expression of AD-related proteins, whereas these features were mitigated in camellia oil-treated groups. Treatment with camellia oil increased antioxidant enzyme levels and decreased MDA levels. Additionally, camellia oil modulated the expression of cytokines by inhibiting RAGE/NF-κB signaling and microglial activation. Interestingly, autophagy-related proteins were increased in the camellia oil-treated groups. Moreover, camellia oil increased the abundance of probiotics in the GM. Camellia oil can reverse AD brain pathology by alleviating deficits in memory, increasing learning capacity, increasing antioxidant activity, modulating the expression of immune-related cytokines, enhancing autophagy and improving the composition of GM in aluminum chloride-treated rats, implying that AD pathogenesis may be mitigated by treatment with camellia oil through the microbiome-gut-brain axis.

Pterostilbene Enhances Cytotoxicity and Chemosensitivity in Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Gemcitabine (GEM) drug resistance causes high mortality rates and poor outcomes in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) patients. Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) involvement in the GEM resistance process has been demonstrated. Therefore, finding a safe and effective way to inhibit receptors for RAGE-initiated GEM resistance is urgent. Pterostilbene (PTE), a natural methoxylated analogue derived from resveratrol and found in grapes and blueberries, has diverse bioactivities, such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer qualities. The overall research objective was to determine the potential of PTE to enhance tumor cytotoxicity and chemosensitivity in PDAC cells. Our results have demonstrated that PTE induced S-phase cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death and inhibited multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) expression by downregulating RAGE/PI3K/Akt signaling in both MIA PaCa-2 and MIA PaCa-2 ^GEMR cells (GEM-resistant cells). Remarkably, convincing evidence was established by RAGE small interfering RNA transfection. Taken together, our study demonstrated that PTE promoted chemosensitivity by inhibiting cell proliferation and MDR1 expression via the RAGE/PI3K/Akt axis in PDAC cells. The observations in these experiments indicate that PTE may play a crucial role in MDR1 modulation for PDAC treatment.

Potential effect of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) on spermatogenesis and sperm quality in rodents

The aim of the present study was to assess whether dietary advanced glycation end products (AGEs) induce testicular dysfunction. Using a BALB/c mouse model, AGE intake and serum levels were found to increase in AGE diet-treated mice relative to the controls. Histopathological damage was detected in the testes and epididymides of the AGE diet-induced mice. The total number of epididymal sperm decreased, and increased abnormal sperm rate was found in the mice. Moreover, the mice testes showed an increased level of the receptor for AGEs (RAGE) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Using a Sprague-Dawley rat model, AGE diet-induced rats showed 3- to 4-fold higher AGE intake than the controls. In these rats, higher serum and sperm MDA levels, decreased epididymal sperm numbers, and increased abnormal sperm rates were also observed. Silymarin, a natural AGE inhibitor, was found to restore these AGE-induced phenomena. Concluding from the above findings, dietary AGEs may promote testicular dysfunction.

Quercetin facilitates cell death and chemosensitivity through RAGE/PI3K/AKT/mTOR axis in human pancreatic cancer cells

The triggering of gemcitabine (GEM) drug resistance in pancreatic cancer by the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) has been demonstrated. Hence, finding a safe and effective adjuvant for preventing pancreatic cancer progression is imperative. Quercetin is a flavonoid that is abundant in apples, grapes, red raspberry, and onions and has been reported to inhibit RAGE. This research aimed to investigate the mechanisms of quercetin in regulating cell death and enhancing drug effects through RAGE reduction, especially in GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells. Our results showed that silencing RAGE expression by RAGE-specific siRNA transfection significantly increased cell death by apoptosis, autophagy and GEM-induced cytotoxicity by suppressing the PI3K/AKT/mTOR axis in MIA Paca-2 and MIA Paca-2 ^GEMR cells (GEM-resistant cells). Notably, quercetin showed a dramatic effect similar to RAGE silencing that effectively attenuated RAGE expression to facilitate cell cycle arrest, autophagy, apoptosis, and GEM chemosensitivity in MIA Paca-2 ^GEMR cells, suggesting that an additional reaction occurred under combined quercetin and GEM treatment. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that the molecular mechanisms of quercetin in regulating apoptosis and autophagy-related pathways and increasing GEM chemosensitivity in pancreatic cancer cells involved inhibition of RAGE expression.

Novel findings of 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid on sRAGE secretion through inhibition of transient receptor potential canonical channels in high-glucose environment

Enhancing soluble receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (sRAGE) is considered as a potent strategy for diabetes therapy. sRAGE secretion is regulated by calcium and transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels. However, the role of TRPC channels in diabetes remains unknown. 18β-Glycyrrhetinic acid (18β-GA), produced from liquorice, has shown antidiabetic properties. This study was aimed to investigate the effect of 18β-GA on sRAGE secretion via TRPC channels in high glucose (HG)-induced THP-1 cells. HG treatment enhanced TRPC3 and TRPC6 expression and consequently caused reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation mediated through p47 nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) associated with uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) decline and lower sRAGE secretion. Interestingly, 18β-GA showed the dramatic effects similar to Pyr3 or 2-aminoethyl diphenyl borinate inhibitors and effectively reversed HG-elicited mechanisms including that blocking TRPC3 and TRPC6 protein expressions, suppressing intracellular [Ca2+] concentration, decreasing expressions of ROS, p47s, and iNOS, but increasing UCP2 level and promoting sRAGE secretion. Therefore, 18β-GA provides a potential implication to diabetes mellitus and its complications.

Glycyrrhizin Attenuates the Process of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition by Modulating HMGB1 Initiated Novel Signaling Pathway in Prostate Cancer Cells

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is upregulated in nearly every tumor type. Importantly, clinical evidence also proposed that HMGB1 is particularly increased in metastatic prostate cancer patients. Besides, a growing number of studies highlighted that HMGB1 could be a successful therapeutic target for prostate cancer patients. Glycyrrhizin is a novel pharmacological inhibitor of HMGB1 that may repress prostate cancer metastasis. This research was aimed to investigate the effect of glycyrrhizin on inhibition of HMGB1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a key step of tumor metastasis, in prostate cancer cells. In this study, HMGB1 knock-downed DU145 prostate cancer cells were used. Silencing the HMGB1 gene expression triggered a change of cell morphology to a more epithelial-like shape, which was accompanied by a reduction of Cdc42/GSK-3β/Snail and induction of E-cadherin levels estimated by immunoblotting. Furthermore, HMGB1 facilitated cell migration and invasion via downstream signaling, whereas HMGB1 targeting by 10 mM ethyl pyruvate effectively inhibited EMT characteristics. Interestingly, cell migration capacity induced by HMGB1 in DU145 cells was abolished in a dose-dependent effect of 25-200 μM glycyrrhizin treatment. In conclusion, glycyrrhizin successfully inhibited HMGB1-induced EMT phenomenon, which suggested that glycyrrhizin may serves as a therapeutic agent for metastatic prostate cancer.

Protocatechuic acid-mediated DJ-1/PARK7 activation followed by PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway activation as a novel mechanism for protection against ketoprofen-induced oxidative damage in the gastrointestinal mucosa

Oxidative stress contributes to the progression of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-induced gastrointestinal (GI) cell apoptosis. In our previous study, we reported that nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) plays a protective role against ketoprofen-induced GI mucosal oxidative injury. Recent reports suggest that Nrf2 could exhibit antioxidative and antiapoptosis responses through up-regulation of DJ-1 (PARK7). In the current study, we proposed that induction of DJ-1 expression by protocatechuic acid (PCA) might provide a potential therapeutic approach for treating oxidative stress-associated GI ulcer diseases. The results indicated that PCA increased mRNA expression of glutathione peroxidase and heme oxygenase-1 through up-regulation of DJ-1 followed by Nrf2 translocation. Furthermore, PCA protected Int-407 cells against ketoprofen-induced oxidative stress by regulating the DJ-1, PI3K, and mTOR pathways. Pretreatment with PCA inhibited mitochondrial ROS generation, up-regulated the mitochondrial membrane potential, and down-regulated pro-apoptotic Bax as well as downstream caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-3 activity, and reversed impaired DJ-1 and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein expression in Int-407 cells induced by ketoprofen. Similar to the in vitro results, SD rats treated with PCA before administration of ketoprofen exhibited decreased caspase-3 protein expression as well as oxidative damage, and impairment of the antioxidant system and DJ-1 protein expression in the GI mucosa were reversed. The administration of lansoprazole, a type of proton pump inhibitor (PPI), strongly inhibited ketoprofen-induced GI mucosal injuries via up-regulation of DJ-1, indicating that DJ-1 is essential for the dietary antioxidant- and PPI drug-mediated mechanism of ulcer therapy. These results suggest that DJ-1 could be a novel target for protection against ketoprofen-induced GI ulcers due to its antioxidant and anti-apoptosis characteristics.

Camellia Oil ( Camellia oleifera Abel.) Modifies the Composition of Gut Microbiota and Alleviates Acetic Acid-Induced Colitis in Rats

Ulcerative colitis (UC), one type of chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), is a chronic and recurrent disorder of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. As camellia oil (CO) is traditionally used to treat GI disorders, this study investigated the role of CO on acetic acid-induced colitis in the rat. The composition of the gut microbial community is related to many diseases; thus, this study also investigated the effects of CO on the composition of the gut microbiota. The rats were fed a dose of 2 mL/kg body weight CO, olive oil (OO), or soybean oil (SO) once a day for 20 days, and the gut microbiota was analyzed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results of the gut microbiota examination showed significant clustering of feces after treatment with CO and OO; however, individual differences with OO varied considerably. Compared to SO and OO, the intake of CO increased the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes, the α-diversity, relative abundance of the Bifidobacterium, and reduced Prevotella of the gut microbiota. On day 21, colitis was induced by a single transrectal administration of 2 mL of 4% acetic acid. However, pretreatment of rats with CO or OO for 24 days slightly enhanced antioxidant and antioxidant enzyme activities and significantly reduced inflammatory damage and lipid peroxidation, thus ameliorating acetic acid-induced colitis. These results indicated that CO was better able to ameliorate impairment of the antioxidant system induced by acetic acid compared to OO and SO, which may have been due to CO modifying the composition of the gut microbiota or CO being a rich source of phytochemicals.

Recent progress in natural dietary non-phenolic bioactives on cancers metastasis

From several decades ago to now, cancer continues to be the leading cause of death worldwide, and metastasis is the major cause of cancer-related deaths. For health benefits, there is a great desire to use non-chemical therapy such as nutraceutical supplementation to prevent pathology development. Over 10,000 different natural bioactives or phytochemicals have been known that possessing potential preventive or supplementary effects for various diseases including cancer. Previously, the in vitro and in vivo anti-invasive and anti-metastatic activities of phenolic acids, monophenol, polyphenol and their derivatives and flavonoids and their derivatives have been reviewed. However, a vast number of natural dietary compounds other than phenolics have been demonstrated to potentially possess the ability to inhibit the invasion and metastasis of various cancers. In this review, we summarize the studies in recent decade on in vitro and in vivo effects and molecular mechanisms of natural bioactives, excluding the phenolics in food, in cancer invasion and metastasis. By combining this review of non-phenolics with the previous phenolics reviews, the puzzle for the contribution of natural dietary bioactives on cancer invasive or/and metastatic progress will be almost complete and more clear.

Perspective of Advanced Glycation End Products on Human Health

In the last 20 years, the effects of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) on health have received increasing attention. High AGE levels in the body correlate with the progression of many diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers. However, whether AGEs are a cause of these diseases or represent accompanying symptoms of these diseases still needs to be elucidated by more comprehensive research. Recently, many researchers have begun to investigate the effects of AGE intake-induced variations of gut microbiota on disease progression, which will further explain the impact of AGEs on health and open a new chapter in AGE research.

Hypouricemic effects of Mesona procumbens Hemsl. through modulating xanthine oxidase activity in vitro and in vivo

Uric acid is a metabolite obtained from purine by xanthine oxidase activity (XO) and high levels of serum uric acid leads to hyperuricemia and gout. Mesona procumbens Hemsl. has been used as a healthy beverage and a traditional remedy. In this study, the hypouricemic effects of M. procumbens extracts were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The 50% ethanol extract of M. procumbens (EE50) showed the strongest inhibitory effect on monosodium urate (MSU)-induced XO activity in THP-1 cells. However, the phenolics and flavonoids in EE50 may not serve as inhibitors of XO. EE50 prevented an increase in the serum uric acid level in potassium oxonate (PO)-challenged ICR mice and streptozocin (STZ)-induced SD rats. EE50 down-regulated STZ-induced liver XO activity, and it restored renal OAT1 and urate transporter expression. STZ-induced renal interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) level were inhibited by EE50 treatment. EE50 exhibits the hypouricemic effect via down-regulation of XO activity, suggesting that EE50 has potential to improve hyperuricemia and its complications.

Methylglyoxal displays colorectal cancer-promoting properties in the murine models of azoxymethane and CT26 isografts

Methylglyoxal (MG), a highly reactive carbonyl species (RCS) with pro-oxidant and proinflammatory properties, may be a colon tumor-promoting factor in food and biological systems. In the present study, we found that consumption of MG significantly deteriorated azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colonic preneoplastic lesions in ICR mice, in which biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation within the body and feces induced by MG-fueled carbonyl stress may have played important roles. Interestingly, exposure to MG also led to increases in the serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL)/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio and fecal bile acid levels in mice, which may be critical factors involved in MG-induced colonic lesions. Additionally, MG treatment (50mg/kg body weight (BW); intraperitoneally) promoted tumor growth of CT26 isografts in mice partly by carbonyl stress-evoked protumorigenic responses, including low-grade inflammation and oxidative stress. Furthermore, primary tumor cells isolated from mice with MG-induced CT26 isografts had greater proliferative and migratory activities as well as stem-like properties compared to those isolated from the vehicle controls. Excitingly, enhanced expression or activation of proteins that modulate cell survival, proliferation, or migration/invasion was also observed in those cells. In conclusion, it is conceivable that MG-induced carbonyl stress may be the pivotal promoter involved in colon cancer progression.

Beneficial Properties of Phytochemicals on NLRP3 Inflammasome-Mediated Gout and Complication

Gouty arthritis is characterized by the precipitation of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in the joint. Pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β is a critical manifestation in response to MSU crystals attack. IL-1β secretion is dependent on the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. Abnormal activation of the NLRP inflammasome is related to cellular oxidative stress. However, recent studies have illustrated that phytochemicals with potent antioxidant activity exert inhibitory effects on NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated diseases. This review focuses on the current findings of studies on the NLRP3 inflammasome and the proposed mechanisms that MSU crystals trigger inflammation via activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. We also summarized the potential use of phytochemicals on NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated diseases, suggesting that phytochemicals can further prevent acute gout attack.

Effect of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruit on methionine and choline-deficiency diet-induced nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

Phyllanthus emblica L. fruit contains abundant bioactive components and exhibits a variety of biological activities. In this study, the hepatoprotective effect of water extract of P. emblica (WEPE) on nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) was evaluated. C57BL/6 mice were fed methionine and choline-deficiency diet (MCD diet) for 4 or 8 weeks to induce NASH. Results showed that administration of WEPE could significantly reduce serum AST and ALT as compared to MCD diet-alone group. Administration of WEPE could significantly decrease lipid peroxidation and CYP2E1 mRNA expression, and elevate the antioxidant activities in mice livers. In addition, administration of WEPE after 8 weeks could significantly decrease the mRNA expressions of TNF-α and IL-1β in mice livers, but have less improving effect of hepatic steatosis and mononuclear cell infiltration. Taken together, MCD diet might cause serious hepatic steatosis and mild inflammation in mice livers, but administration of WEPE could ameliorate the rapid progression of NASH.

Protective Effect of Camellia Oil (Camellia oleifera Abel.) against Ethanol-Induced Acute Oxidative Injury of the Gastric Mucosa in Mice

Camellia oil, a common edible oil in Taiwan and China, has health effects for the gastrointestinal tract in folk medicine, and it contains abundant unsaturated fatty acids and phytochemicals. However, the preventive effect of camellia oil on ethanol-induced gastric ulcers remains unclear. This study was aimed to evaluate the preventive effect of camellia oil on ethanol-induced gastric injury in vitro and in vivo as well as its mechanisms of action. In an in vitro study, our results showed that pretreatment of RGM-1 cells with camellia oil enhanced the migration ability as well as increased heat shock protein expression and reduced apoptotic protein expression. In animal experiments, mice pretreated with camellia oil effectively showed improved ethanol-induced acute injury of the gastric muscosa and oxidative damage through the enhancement of antioxidant enzyme activities and heat shock protein and PGE₂ production, as well as the suppression of lipid peroxidation, apoptosis-related proteins, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and NO production. Histological injury score and hemorrhage score in ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage dramatically elevated from the control group (0.00 ± 0.0) to 3.40 ± 0.7 and 2.60 ± 0.5, respectively. However, treatments with camellia oil or olive oil (2 mL/kg bw) and lansoprazole (30 mg/kg bw) showed significant decreases in elevation of injury score and hemorrhage score (p < 0.05). Therefore, camellia oil has the potential to ameliorate ethanol-induced acute gastric mucosal injury through the inhibition of inflammation and oxidative stress.

The hepatoprotective effect of Phyllanthus emblica L. fruit on high fat diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in SD rats

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), the most common chronic liver disease, is closely associated with metabolic syndrome and refers to the accumulation of hepatic steatosis not due to excess alcohol consumption. Phyllanthus emblica L. is a rich source of gallic acid and many known medicinally phytochemicals such as tannins, lignans, flavonoids, alkaloids, vitamin C, mucic acid, and ellagic acid. Our previous study has revealed that P. emblica exhibits inhibitory effects on hepatic steatosis and liver fibrosis in vitro, as well as gallic acid improves high fat diet (HFD)-induced dyslipidaemia, hepatosteatosis, and oxidative stress in vivo. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of the water extract of P. emblica L. fruit (WEPE) on NAFLD in an animal model. The results showed that WEPE could significantly decrease body weight, peritoneal fat and epididymal fat, enhance the antioxidant enzyme activities, and improve steatosis through elevating adiponectin in adipocytes and PPAR-α in the liver as well as lowering SREBP-1c in the liver of rats fed with a high fat diet (HFD). This might be an explanation for the hepatic fat deposition-lowering effect of WEPE. These results demonstrate that WEPE could be beneficial for the amelioration of HFD-induced steatosis.

Phytochemicals enhance antioxidant enzyme expression to protect against NSAID-induced oxidative damage of the gastrointestinal mucosa

The gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa provides the first protective barrier for digested food and xenobiotics, which are easily attacked by toxic substances. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, including aspirin, diclofenac, indomethacin, and ketoprofen, are widely used in clinical medicine, but these drugs may cause oxidative stress, leading to GI damage such as ulcers. Lansoprazol, omeprazole, and other clinical drugs are widely used to treat duodenal and gastric ulcers and have been shown to have multiple biological functions, such as antioxidant activity and the ability to upregulate antioxidant enzymes in vivo. Therefore, the reduction of oxidative stress may be an effective curative strategy for preventing and treating nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug induced ulcers of the GI mucosa. Phytochemicals, such as dietary phenolic compounds, phenolic acids, flavan-3-ols, flavonols, flavonoids, gingerols, carotenes, and organosulfur, are common antioxidants in fruits, vegetables, and beverages. A large amount of evidence has demonstrated that natural phytochemicals possess bioactivity and potential health benefits, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial benefits, and they can prevent digestive disease processes. In this review, we summarize the literature on phytochemicals with biological effects, such as angiogenic, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and antiulceration effects, and their related mechanisms are also discussed.

Subchronic Immunotoxicity Assessment of Genetically Modified Virus-Resistant Papaya in Rats

Papaya is an important fruit that provides a variety of vitamins with nutritional value and also holds some pharmacological properties, including immunomodulation. Genetically modified (GM) papaya plants resistant to Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) infection have been generated by cloning the coat protein gene of the PRSV which can be used as a valuable strategy to fight PRSV infection and to increase papaya production. In order to assess the safety of GM papaya as a food, this subchronic study was conducted to assess the immunomodulatory responses of the GM papaya line 823-2210, when compared with its parent plant of non-GM papaya, Tainung-2 (TN-2), in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Both non-GM and GM 823-2210 papaya fruits at low (1 g/kg bw) and high (2 g/kg bw) dosages were administered via daily oral gavage to male and female rats consecutively for 90 days. Immunophenotyping, mitogen-induced splenic cell proliferation, antigen-specific antibody response, and histopathology of the spleen and thymus were evaluated at the end of the experiment. Results of immunotoxicity assays revealed no consistent difference between rats fed for 90 days with GM 823-2210 papaya fruits, as opposed to those fed non-GM TN-2 papaya fruits, suggesting that with regard to immunomodulatory responses, GM 823-2210 papaya fruits maintain substantial equivalence to fruits of their non-GM TN-2 parent.