What young children do and do not know about the spelling of inflections and derivations

Effects of Affix Type and Base Word Transparency on Students' Performance on Different Morphological Awareness Measures

PURPOSE

We examined whether affix type and base word transparency explained variation in third- through sixth-grade students' performance on a number of morphological awareness tasks.

METHOD

Third- through sixth-grade students (n > 500 at each grade) completed morphological awareness tasks from the Morphological Awareness Test for Reading and Spelling, which represent the ways individuals may use their morphological awareness to support reading and spelling. Explanatory item response models were used to understand the role of affix type and base word transparency on students' performance on six morphological awareness tasks.

RESULTS

For all grades, 73%-83% of variance in students' performance was due to differences across individual items. Furthermore, when task effects, affix type, and base word transparency were included simultaneously in the model, affix type was not a significant predictor; there was a significant effect of base word transparency and task. Specifically, the probability of a correct response was greater on task items in which inflected or derived words were transparent with their base word (e.g., friend > friendly) compared to items in which there was a shift in both the phonological and orthographic aspects of the base word (e.g., attend > attention).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings emphasize the importance of considering base word transparency when assessing students' morphological awareness skills with less emphasis on affix type, at least for third- through sixth-grade students. Our results also point to the importance of administering a variety of morphological awareness tasks to fully capture an individual's morphological awareness skills. Collectively, researchers and practitioners should ensure assessment items on multiple measures of morphological awareness vary in their base word transparency to potentially capture a range of student performances.

Dynamic assessment in spelling and morphological awareness in Greek: The case of a transparent orthography

BACKGROUND

Recent research is in favor of the use of dynamic assessment as an important method of combining assessment and intervention in a unified framework for typically and non-typically developing children. However, research is still sparse, in the evaluation of morphological awareness, especially for phonologically regular languages.

AIMS

This study aimed to investigate the role of dynamic assessment in the evaluation of morphological awareness in Greek children.

METHODS

Forty Greek participants (7-8 years old) allocated to an experimental (N = 21) and a control group (N = 19) were preliminary assessed on reading syllables/words, spelling words, vocabulary and morphological awareness. They were also evaluated on static assessments of spelling and word-formation of morphologically complex words, while only the experimental group was evaluated on dynamic assessments of the same tasks.

RESULTS

Children achieved significantly higher performance on the dynamic assessment tasks in comparison to their static ones. Correlations indicated that the degree of children's progress depended greatly on their initial literacy and language skills, while regression analyses revealed that static tasks made a unique contribution to their dynamic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The results underline the role of dynamic assessment in the evaluation of morphological awareness in a phonologically regular language with rich morphology, such as Greek.

Silent word-reading fluency is strongly associated with orthotactic sensitivity among elementary school children

Some written languages (the so-called "deep orthographies" such as English) have often unpredictable links to word sounds, making some written words difficult to associate with their spoken forms (i.e., to decode), thereby impeding comprehension. To read these languages efficiently for comprehension, readers require visual cues such as predictable spelling patterns (orthotactic conventions). Sensitivity to English orthotactic conventions (e.g., which letters are sometimes doubled, where configurations such as wh can typically be found in a word) was assessed in a cross-sectional sample of children (N = 271, ages 5-11 years) in kindergarten through Grade 5 using a word-likeness task. Orthotactic sensitivity was strongly correlated with silent word-reading fluency, an important reading skill used frequently in daily life to obtain information, and was modestly correlated with lexical spelling recognition. Among fluent decoders of predictable letter-sound relations, orthotactic sensitivity began to emerge prior to formal reading instruction and developed rapidly from kindergarten to Grade 2. About two thirds of dysfluent decoders (a proxy for dyslexia) demonstrated above-chance orthotactic sensitivity; however, their performance lagged behind that of fluent decoders through Grade 5. Orthotactic acquisition, possible reasons for impairment, and classroom implications are discussed.

A Dynamic Measure of Morphological Awareness and First-Grade Literacy Skill

Purpose

The purpose of this feasibility study was to investigate an early dynamic measure of morphological awareness (MA) involving graduated prompts to measure early MA skill and determine whether this task relates to and predicts performance on other language and/or literacy measures in first-grade children with language abilities typically found in the classroom.

Method

In addition to a battery of language and literacy measures, a dynamic assessment of MA was designed and administered to 74 first-grade children with a range of language abilities.

Results

The dynamic measure of MA was found to be valid, reliable, and measured early school–age MA performance for children with typical language and those at risk for developmental language disorder. For children with typical language, the developed dynamic MA measure was related to and predictive of performance on other language and literacy measures above and beyond static phonological and MA measures.

Conclusions

The results provide preliminary support for the use of dynamic assessment to measure MA in first-grade children with a range of language abilities.

Supplemental Material

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12591767

Quick reorganization of memory traces for morphologically complex words in young children

Formation of neural mechanisms for morphosyntactic processing in young children is still poorly understood. Here, we addressed neural processing and rapid online acquisition of familiar and unfamiliar combinations of morphemes. Three different types of morphologically complex words - derived, inflected, and novel (pseudostem + real suffix) - were presented in a passive listening setting to 16 typically developing 3-4-year old children (as part of a longitudinal Helsinki SLI follow-up study). The mismatch negativity (MMN) component of event-related potentials (ERP), an established index of long-term linguistic memory traces in the brain, was analysed separately for the initial and final periods of the exposure to these items. We found MMN response enhancement for the inflected words towards the end of the recording session, whereas no response change was observed for the derived or novel complex forms. This enhancement indicates rapid build-up of a new memory trace for the combination of real morphemes, suggesting a capacity for online formation of whole-form lexicalized representations as one of the morphological mechanisms in the developing brain. Furthermore, this enhancement increased with age, suggesting the development of automatic morphological processing circuits in the age range of 3-4 years.

Parâmetros Psicométricos da Prova de Consciência Morfológica Derivacional

Resumo A aprendizagem da escrita requer múltiplas habilidades linguístico-cognitivas, entre elas a consciência fonológica e a morfológica. Dada a escassez de instrumentos para avaliar as habilidades morfológicas, o estudo objetivou elaborar e analisar os parâmetros psicométricos de uma prova de consciência morfológica derivacional. Participaram 111 estudantes do 4.º ano do Ensino Fundamental, respondendo provas de consciência morfológica, consciência fonológica e vocabulário. Para a prova de consciência morfológica, foram encontrados índices de fidedignidade adequados em relação à consistência interna (coeficientes alfa de 0,79) e à estabilidade temporal (correlações teste-reteste de 0,81). A evidência de validade foi verificada com bases em variáveis externas, uma vez que foram encontradas correlações moderadas e significativas da prova de consciência morfológica com provas de consciência fonológica e vocabulário. Sugerem-se novos estudos, com participantes diversificados, incluindo comparações com outras variáveis potencialmente relevantes, o que fornecerá outras evidências de validade e precisão da prova de consciência morfológica apresentada.

Relations between Reading and Writing: A Longitudinal Examination from Grades 3 to 6

We investigated developmental trajectories of and the relation between reading and writing (word reading, reading comprehension, spelling, and written composition), using longitudinal data from students in Grades 3 to 6 in the US. Results revealed that word reading and spelling were best described as having linear growth trajectories whereas reading comprehension and written composition showed nonlinear growth trajectories with a quadratic function during the examined developmental period. Word reading and spelling were consistently strongly related (.73 ≤ rs ≤ .80) whereas reading comprehension and written composition were weakly related (.21 ≤ rs ≤ .37). Initial status and linear slope were negatively and moderately related for word reading (-.44) whereas they were strongly and positively related for spelling (.73). Initial status of word reading predicted initial status and growth rate of spelling; and growth rate of word reading predicted growth rate of spelling. In contrast, spelling did not predict word reading. When it comes to reading comprehension and writing, initial status of reading comprehension predicted initial status (.69), but not linear growth rate, of written comprehension. These results indicate that reading-writing relations are stronger at the lexical level than at the discourse level and may be a unidirectional one from reading to writing at least between Grades 3 and 6. Results are discussed in light of the interactive dynamic literacy model of reading-writing relations, and component skills of reading and writing development.

Preschool Phonological and Morphological Awareness As Longitudinal Predictors of Early Reading and Spelling Development in Greek

Different language skills are considered fundamental for successful reading and spelling acquisition. Extensive evidence has highlighted the central role of phonological awareness in early literacy experiences. However, many orthographic systems also require the contribution of morphological awareness. The goal of this study was to examine the morphological and phonological awareness skills of preschool children as longitudinal predictors of reading and spelling ability by the end of first grade, controlling for the effects of receptive and expressive vocabulary skills. At Time 1 preschool children from kindergartens in the Greek regions of Attika, Crete, Macedonia, and Thessaly were assessed on tasks tapping receptive and expressive vocabulary, phonological awareness (syllable and phoneme), and morphological awareness (inflectional and derivational). Tasks were administered through an Android application for mobile devices (tablets) featuring automatic application of ceiling rules. At Time 2 one year later the same children attending first grade were assessed on measures of word and pseudoword reading, text reading fluency, text reading comprehension, and spelling. Complete data from 104 children are available. Hierarchical linear regression and commonality analyses were conducted for each outcome variable. Reading accuracy for both words and pseudowords was predicted not only by phonological awareness, as expected, but also by morphological awareness, suggesting that understanding the functional role of word parts supports the developing phonology-orthography mappings. However, only phonological awareness predicted text reading fluency at this age. Longitudinal prediction of reading comprehension by both receptive vocabulary and morphological awareness was already evident at this age, as expected. Finally, spelling was predicted by preschool phonological awareness, as expected, as well as by morphological awareness, the contribution of which is expected to increase due to the spelling demands of Greek inflectional and derivational suffixes introduced at later grades.

Morphology and spelling in French students with dyslexia: the case of silent final letters

Spelling is a challenge for individuals with dyslexia. Phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence rules are highly inconsistent in French, which make them very difficult to master, in particular for dyslexics. One recurrent manifestation of this inconsistency is the presence of silent letters at the end of words. Many of these silent letters perform a morphological function. The current study examined whether students with dyslexia (aged between 10 and 15 years) benefit from the morphological status of silent final letters when spelling. We compared, their ability to spell words with silent final letters that are either morphologically justified (e.g., tricot, "knit," where the final "t" is pronounced in morphologically related words such as tricoter, "to knit" and tricoteur "knitter") or not morphologically justified (e.g., effort, "effort") to that of a group of younger children matched for reading and spelling level. Results indicated that the dyslexic students' spelling of silent final letters was impaired in comparison to the control group. Interestingly, morphological status helped the dyslexics improve the accuracy of their choice of final letters, contrary to the control group. This finding provides new evidence of morphological processing in dyslexia during spelling.

Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW)

We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from 193 children in Grade 1. In this model, working memory was hypothesized to be a foundational cognitive ability for language and cognitive skills as well as transcription skills, which, in turn, contribute to writing. Foundational oral language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and higher-order cognitive skills (inference and theory of mind) were hypothesized to be component skills of text generation (i.e., discourse-level oral language). Results from structural equation modeling largely supported a complete mediation model among four variations of the DIEW model. Discourse-level oral language, spelling, and handwriting fluency completely mediated the relations of higher-order cognitive skills, foundational oral language, and working memory to writing. Moreover, language and cognitive skills had both direct and indirect relations to discourse-level oral language. Total effects, including direct and indirect effects, were substantial for discourse-level oral language (.46), working memory (.43), and spelling (.37), followed by vocabulary (.19), handwriting (.17), theory of mind (.12), inference (.10), and grammatical knowledge (.10). The model explained approximately 67% of variance in writing quality. These results indicate that multiple language and cognitive skills make direct and indirect contributions, and it is important to consider both direct and indirect pathways of influences when considering skills that are important to writing.

So, Morphological Awareness Contributes to Reading in Brazilian Portuguese?

Abstract The present study aims to answer a recently raised controversy regarding the role that morphological awareness has to reading skills acquisition in Brazilian Portuguese. The aim was to investigate whether morphological awareness contributes to reading after controlling for non-verbal intelligence and phonological awareness in Brazilian Portuguese variables. The study included 52 elementary school students enrolled in a public school in the municipality of São Gonçalo, state of Rio de Janeiro. The hierarchical regression analyses showed that derivational morphological awareness contributes to reading independently of phonological processing and non-verbal ability. The results of this study indicate that morphological awareness contributes to reading words but not to reading comprehension. The results of this study corroborate with the hypothesis that even in an alphabetic language, such as Portuguese, morphological awareness is important to reading acquisition.

O Impacto do Ensino de Regras Morfológicas na Escrita

<p>Este estudo investiga a contribuição do ensino de regras morfológicas para a escrita de palavras e pseudopalavras. Participaram 111 (cento e onze) alunos do 4º ano fundamental de uma escola pública, separados em três grupos experimentais e um grupo de controle. Os estudantes foram submetidos a pré-teste e pós-teste (imediato e diferido) em medidas de controle e discriminação escrita. A intervenção trabalhou com o ensino explícito de regras abordando os seguintes elementos mórficos: "-esa"/"-eza" (morfologia derivacional), "-am"/"-ão" (morfologia flexional), "-iu"/"-il" (morfologia flexional e derivacional). Os resultados mostraram que a intervenção provocou um impacto específico no aumento de desempenho na escrita de palavras e, principalmente, na escrita de pseudopalavras, cuja grafia não pode ser acessada de informações lexicais. Os resultados corroboram os de outros estudos, confirmando o efeito positivo e duradouro do ensino explícito de regras morfológicas sobre a escrita de palavras complexas.</p>

Evidências de validade e consistência interna de tarefas de analogia gramatical

O presente estudo investigou a validade de duas tarefas de analogia gramatical, focando nos morfemas derivacionais e flexionais. Participaram da pesquisa 217 crianças de escolas públicas matriculadas no segundo, terceiro e quarto ano do ensino fundamental. As crianças responderam a uma tarefa de consciência fonológica (RAFC) e duas de consciência morfológica. Foram encontradas evidências de validade de critério, pois os escores se diferenciaram pelos anos escolares para o escore composto e para a tarefa focando na morfologia derivacional. Outra evidência de validade foi detectada quando se verificou a associação dos escores do RACF com as tarefas de consciência morfológica. O escore composto da tarefa obteve índices de consistência interna adequados, mas com carência, Alfa de Cronbach de 0,66. Enfim, os resultados mostram que o escore composto da tarefa é sensível para mensurar a habilidade morfológica das crianças.

The contributions of vocabulary and letter writing automaticity to word reading and spelling for kindergartners

In the present study we examined the relation between alphabet knowledge fluency (letter names and sounds) and letter writing automaticity, and unique relations of letter writing automaticity and semantic knowledge (i.e., vocabulary) to word reading and spelling over and above code-related skills such as phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge. These questions were addressed using data from 242 English-speaking kindergartners and employing structural equation modeling. Results showed letter writing automaticity was moderately related to and a separate construct from alphabet knowledge fluency, and marginally (p = .06) related to spelling after accounting for phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge fluency, and vocabulary. Furthermore, vocabulary was positively and uniquely related to word reading and spelling after accounting for phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge fluency, and letter writing automaticity.

Children benefit from morphological relatedness when they learn to spell new words

Use of morphologically related words often helps in selecting among spellings of sounds in French. For instance, final /wa/ may be spelled oi (e.g., envoi “sendoff”), oit (e.g., exploit “exploit”), ois (e.g., siamois, “siamese”), or oie (e.g., joie “joy”). The morphologically complex word exploiter “to exploit”, with a pronounced t, can be used to indicate that the stem exploit is spelled with a silent t. We asked whether 8-year-old children benefited from such cues to learn new spellings. Children read silently stories which included two target nonwords, one presented in an opaque condition and the other in a morphological condition. In the opaque condition, the sentence provided semantic information (e.g., a vensois is a musical instrument) but no morphological information that could justify the spelling of the target word's final sound. Such justification was available in the morphological condition (e.g., the vensoisist plays the vensois instrument, which justifies that vensois includes a final silent s). 30 min after having read the stories, children's orthographic learning was assessed by asking them to choose the correct spelling of each nonword from among three phonologically plausible alternatives (e.g., vensois, vensoit, vensoie). Children chose correct spellings more often in the morphological condition than the opaque condition, even though the root (vensois) had been presented equally often in both conditions. That is, children benefited from information about the spelling of the morphologically complex word to learn the spelling of the stem.

Explanatory multidimensional multilevel random item response model: an application to simultaneous investigation of word and person contributions to multidimensional lexical representations

This paper presents an explanatory multidimensional multilevel random item response model and its application to reading data with multilevel item structure. The model includes multilevel random item parameters that allow consideration of variability in item parameters at both item and item group levels. Item-level random item parameters were included to model unexplained variance remaining when item related covariates were used to explain variation in item difficulties. Item group-level random item parameters were included to model dependency in item responses among items having the same item stem. Using the model, this study examined the dimensionality of a person's word knowledge, termed lexical representation, and how aspects of morphological knowledge contributed to lexical representations for different persons, items, and item groups.

Há uma relação específica entre consciência morfológica e reconhecimento de palavras?

Estudos realizados em línguas alfabéticas mostram que a consciência morfológica - habilidade de refletir sobre os morfemas que compõem as palavras - está associada ao sucesso no reconhecimento e compreensão de palavras na leitura e na escrita. O português é uma língua com uma ortografia que se encontra no meio do espectro quando falamos da transparência nas correspondências entre letra e som. Em línguas transparentes, com correspondência grafema-fonema regulares, a consciência morfológica pode não ter o mesmo impacto na aquisição da escrita. Neste estudo investigamos se o processamento da morfologia derivacional em crianças do ensino fundamental contribui para leitura no português e se essa contribuição é independente da decodificação. Utilizou-se uma tarefa de spooneirismo e outra de subtração de fonemas para acessar a decodificação e o TDE para leitura de palavras. Os resultados mostram que a decodificação é uma habilidade muito importante na leitura e que a habilidade de refletir sobre os morfemas contribui para leitura e que essa contribuição é até certo ponto independente da consciência fonológica.

The relation of linguistic awareness and vocabulary to word reading and spelling for first-grade students participating in response to intervention

PURPOSE

The relations of phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness and vocabulary to word reading and spelling were examined for 304 first-grade children who were receiving differentiated instruction in a Response to Intervention (RtI) model of instruction.

METHOD

First-grade children were assessed on their phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness; expressive vocabulary; word reading; and spelling. Year-end word reading and spelling were outcome variables, and phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness; expressive vocabulary; and RtI status (Tiers 1, 2, & 3) were predictor variables.

RESULTS

The 3 linguistic awareness skills were unique predictors of word reading, and phonological and orthographic awareness were unique predictors of spelling. The contributions that these linguistic awareness skills and vocabulary made to word reading and spelling did not differ by children's RtI tier status.

CONCLUSION

These results, in conjunction with previous studies, suggest that even beginning readers and spellers draw on multiple linguistic awareness skills for their word reading and spelling regardless of their level of literacy abilities. Educational implications are discussed.

Deaf and hearing children's plural noun spelling

The present study examines deaf and hearing children's spelling of plural nouns. Severe literacy impairments are well documented in the deaf, which are believed to be a consequence of phonological awareness limitations. Fifty deaf (mean chronological age 13;10 years, mean reading age 7;5 years) and 50 reading-age-matched hearing children produced spellings of regular, semiregular, and irregular plural nouns in Experiment 1 and nonword plurals in Experiment 2. Deaf children performed reading-age appropriately on rule-based (regular and semiregular) plurals but were significantly less accurate at spelling irregular plurals. Spelling of plural nonwords and spelling error analyses revealed clear evidence for use of morphology. Deaf children used morphological generalization to a greater degree than their reading-age-matched hearing counterparts. Also, hearing children combined use of phonology and morphology to guide spelling, whereas deaf children appeared to use morphology without phonological mediation. Therefore, use of morphology in spelling can be independent of phonology and is available to the deaf despite limited experience with spoken language. Indeed, deaf children appear to be learning about morphology from the orthography. Education on more complex morphological generalization and exceptions may be highly beneficial not only for the deaf but also for other populations with phonological awareness limitations.

Explorando a relação entre consciência morfológica, processamento cognitivo e escrita

Estudos realizados em línguas alfabéticas mostram que a habilidade de refletir sobre os morfemas que compõem as palavras - consciência morfológica - está associada ao sucesso no reconhecimento e compreensão de palavras na leitura. O português é uma língua com uma ortografia bastante regular em termos das correspondências entre letra e som. Neste estudo, investiga-se se o processamento da morfologia contribui para a escrita no português e se essa contribuição é independente de outros aspectos cognitivos da linguagem, como vocabulário e memória auditiva. Crianças de 2º ano e 3º ano do Ensino Fundamental constituíram a amostra. Os resultados das correlações de Pearson mostram que a consciência morfológica está associada à escrita; quando se controla a memória e o vocabulário, essa relação passa a ser significativa.

When cues collide: children's sensitivity to letter- and meaning-patterns in spelling words in English

In many learning situations, we need to determine to which cues to attend, particularly in cases when these cues conflict. These conflicts appear often in English orthography. In two experiments, we asked children to spell two-syllable words that varied on two dimensions: morphological and orthographic structure. In one set of these words, the two sources of information conflicted. Results of Experiment 1 suggest that seven- to nine-year-old children are sensitive to both orthographic and morphological dimensions of words, and that this dual sensitivity sometimes leads to correct spelling and sometimes to incorrect spelling. Results of Experiment 2 suggest that orthographic information dominates young (six-year-old) children's spelling, at least in a case when there is a strong orthographic regularity. Taken together, these experiments suggest that children are sensitive to the multiple dimensions of regularity in English orthography and that this sensitivity can lead to mistakes.

Mastering inflectional suffixes: a longitudinal study of beginning writers' spellings*

This study tracked the order in which ten beginning spellers (M age=5 ; 05; SD=0·21 years) mastered the correct spellings of common inflectional suffixes in English. Spellings from children's journals from kindergarten and grade 1 were coded. An inflectional suffix was judged to be mastered when children spelled it accurately in 90 percent of the contexts in which it was grammatically required, a criterion used to study the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in oral language. The results indicated that the order in which children learned to spell inflectional suffixes correctly is similar to the order in which they learn to use them in oral language, before school age. Discrepancies between the order of mastery for inflectional suffixes in written and oral language are discussed in terms of English spelling conventions, which introduce variables into the spelling of inflected words that are not present in oral language.

Relações entre capacidade de segmentação lexical, consciência morfossintática e desempenho em leitura e escrita

A partir do estágio alfabético de aquisição da escrita o aprendiz precisa enfrentar questões relativas à ortografia, entre elas a segmentação do escrito em palavras gráficas. Este estudo investiga relações entre a segmentação convencional de palavras, a consciência morfossintática, a ortografia e a compreensão da leitura de alunos do 4º e 5º anos do ensino fundamental em escolas públicas de Curitiba. Resultados revelam maior dificuldade na identificação oral de palavras do que na segmentação da escrita. Análises estatísticas mostraram correlações positivas e significativas entre todas as variáveis investigadas. Infere-se que as habilidades morfossintáticas favorecem o estabelecimento da noção convencional de palavra e sugere-se que os professores promovam o desenvolvimento dessas habilidades, para garantir aos alunos maior domínio na linguagem escrita.

Consciência metalinguística e a representação da nasalização na escrita do Português Brasileiro

OBJETIVO: examinar a representação da nasalização por crianças na escrita e a influência de habilidades metalinguísticas nesta representação. MÉTODOS: crianças com escolaridade entre o 2º e 5º anos do ensino fundamental realizaram tarefas para avaliação de suas habilidades de análise fonológica (aliteração, subtração e manipulação de fonemas), de consciência morfológica e ditados de palavras que visavam respectivamente a avaliação do conhecimento ortográfico e particularmente o domínio de diferentes contextos e marcadores da nasalização. RESULTADOS: a representação da nasalização para a criança é feita com relativa facilidade para a vogal nasalizada por "n" antes de consoante como pelo ditongo nasal "ão" em substantivos. Porém, os contextos de ocorrência da nasalização que se referem tanto a regularidades de posição como a regularidades de natureza morfossintática apresentam dificuldade para as crianças dos anos iniciais do ensino fundamental, tornando-se relativamente mais fáceis com o progresso na escolaridade. A consciência fonológica e a consciência morfológica correlacionam-se positiva e significativamente com a marcação da nasalização. No entanto, controlada a escolaridade, apenas as tarefas de subtração e manipulação de fonemas contribuem significativamente para a representação da nasalização. CONCLUSÃO: a criança não dá um tratamento uniforme para a nasalização, entendendo que existem marcadores diferentes para os sons nasais e que estes são diferenciados segundo sua posição na palavra, embora não os usem todos de forma convencional. Diferentemente da consciência fonológica, a consciência morfológica não teve uma contribuição independente da escolaridade para a representação da nasalização.

Morphological constancy in spelling: a comparison of children with dyslexia and typically developing children

The spellings of many English words follow a principle of morphological constancy. For example, musician includes the c of music, even though the pronunciation of this letter changes. With other words, such as explanation and explain, the spellings of morphemes are not retained when affixes are added. We asked whether children with dyslexia use root morphemes to aid their spelling of morphologically complex words. If so, they should sometimes produce misspellings such as 'explaination' for explanation. Our results suggest that children with dyslexia adhere to the principle of morphological constancy to the same extent as typically developing younger children of the same spelling level. In this and other ways, the spellings of older dyslexic children are remarkably similar to those of typical younger children.

The metric matters: determining the extent of children's knowledge of morphological spelling regularities

All developmental research needs to carefully consider how children's knowledge is measured. The study of children's knowledge of spelling conventions, or the ways in which the English orthography encodes the roots and affixes and the sounds in words, is no exception. This experiment examined the extent of 7- to 9-year-old children's knowledge of the role of root morphemes in spelling words across different contexts and with different units of assessment. Different writing contexts did not appear to affect children's performance; children were better able to spell the first components of two- than of one-morpheme words (e.g. only free in freely and freeze), both when writing whole words and their first sections (e.g. completing__ or __ly for freely). A second analysis revealed that the unit of coding can influence conclusions. Children demonstrated similar abilities across ages 7 to 9 when only the first segments of words were coded; in contrast, there was evidence of age-related differences when whole word spelling accuracy was assessed. In combination, these results suggest that children's knowledge of the principle of root consistency is remarkably robust to changes in writing context, but that coding is key when drawing conclusions. These findings remind us that the metric matters in studies of spelling, as in other domains, and they offer a manner to reconcile previously conflicting data on spelling development.