Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in wild boar in Slovenia

The Role of Wild Boars in the Circulation of Tick-Borne Pathogens: The First Evidence of Rickettsia monacensis Presence

Most wild mammals can serve as hosts both for tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) and for the ticks themselves. Among these, wild boars, due to their large body size, habitat and life span, show high exposure to ticks and TBPs. These species are now one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world, as well as the most widespread suid. Despite the fact that certain local populations have been decimated by African swine fever (ASF), wild boars are still considered overabundant in most parts of the world, including Europe. Altogether, their long-life expectancy, large home ranges including migration, feeding and social behaviors, wide distribution, overabundance and increased chances of interactions with livestock or humans make them suitable sentinel species for general health threats, such as antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms, pollution and ASF geographical distribution, as well as for the distribution and abundance of hard ticks and also for certain TBPs, such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of rickettsial agents in wild boars from two counties in Romania. Among 203 blood samples of wild boars (Sus scrofa ssp. attila) collected during 3 (2019-2022) hunting seasons (September-February), 15 were found positive for tick-borne pathogen DNA. Six wild boars were positive for A. phagocytophilum DNA presence and nine for Rickettsia spp. The identified rickettsial species were R. monacensis (six) and R. helvetica (three). No animal was positive either for Borrelia spp., Ehrlichia spp. or Babesia spp. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of R. monacensis in European wild boars, thus adding the third species from the SFG Rickettsia, in the epidemiology of which this wild species may have a role as a reservoir host.

A Systematic Review of the Distribution of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Wild Animals and Their Ticks in the Mediterranean Rim between 2000 and 2021

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) can be divided into three groups: bacteria, parasites, and viruses. They are transmitted by a wide range of tick species and cause a variety of human, animal, and zoonotic diseases. A total of 148 publications were found on tick-borne pathogens in wild animals, reporting on 85 species of pathogens from 35 tick species and 17 wild animal hosts between 2000 and February 2021. The main TBPs reported were of bacterial origin, including Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. A total of 72.2% of the TBPs came from infected ticks collected from wild animals. The main tick genus positive for TBPs was Ixodes. This genus was mainly reported in Western Europe, which was the focus of most of the publications (66.9%). It was followed by the Hyalomma genus, which was mainly reported in other areas of the Mediterranean Rim. These TBPs and TBP-positive tick genera were reported to have come from a total of 17 wild animal hosts. The main hosts reported were game mammals such as red deer and wild boars, but small vertebrates such as birds and rodents were also found to be infected. Of the 148 publications, 12.8% investigated publications on Mediterranean islands, and 36.8% of all the TBPs were reported in seven tick genera and 11 wild animal hosts there. The main TBP-positive wild animals and tick genera reported on these islands were birds and Hyalomma spp. Despite the small percentage of publications focusing on ticks, they reveal the importance of islands when monitoring TBPs in wild animals. This is especially true for wild birds, which may disseminate their ticks and TBPs along their migration path.

Molecular Detection of Zoonotic and Non-Zoonotic Pathogens from Wild Boars and Their Ticks in the Corsican Wetlands

Corsica is the main French island in the Mediterranean Sea and has high levels of human and animal population movement. Among the local animal species, the wild boar is highly prevalent in the Corsican landscape and in the island’s traditions. Wild boars are the most commonly hunted animals on this island, and can be responsible for the transmission and circulation of pathogens and their vectors. In this study, wild boar samples and ticks were collected in 17 municipalities near wetlands on the Corsican coast. A total of 158 hunted wild boars were sampled (523 samples). Of these samples, 113 were ticks: 96.4% were Dermacentor marginatus, and the remainder were Hyalomma marginatum, Hyalomma scupense and Rhipicephalus sanguineus s.l. Of the wild boar samples, only three blood samples were found to be positive for Babesia spp. Of the tick samples, 90 were found to be positive for tick-borne pathogens (rickettsial species). These results confirm the importance of the wild boar as a host for ticks carrying diseases such as rickettsiosis near wetlands and recreational sites. Our findings also show that the wild boar is a potential carrier of babesiosis in Corsica, a pathogen detected for the first time in wild boars on the island.

The Occurrence of Zoonotic Anaplasma phagocytophilum Strains, in the Spleen and Liver of Wild Boars from North-West and Central Parts of Poland

PURPOSE

The Anaplasma genus includes a Gram-negative bacterium infecting the blood cells of wild and domestic mammals, causing tick-borne fever. Infection with pathogenic Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains may cause Human Granulocytic Anaplasmosis. Wild boars (Sus scrofa) may act as natural wild reservoir hosts for potentially zoonotic A. phagocytophilum strains; however, there is still little data to confirm this statement. The aim of this study was to verify whether wild boars can be classified as natural reservoirs of Anaplasma spp. and to compare the suitability of spleen and liver samples for such analysis.

METHODS

Liver and spleen samples were collected from 59 wild boars (2017-2019). The organs were tested for Anaplasma phagocytophilum using short (partial) fragments of three markers: 16S rRNA, groEL, ankA.

RESULTS

Anaplasma spp. DNA was detected in 12 out of 59 samples, with a prevalence of 20.34%. The presence of A. phagocytophilum was confirmed by sequencing of the partial 16S rRNA gene. Positive individuals were tested for the characteristic markers: groEL and ankA. The analysis of the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA, groEL and ankA, indicated that the strains of A. phagocytophilum detected in these studies are potentially zoonotic for humans.

CONCLUSION

Wild boars from Poland can be classified as a natural reservoir of the zoonotic strain of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Both the spleen and the liver tissues were found to be suitable materials for the detection of A. phagocytophilum.

Wild boar as a potential reservoir of zoonotic tick-borne pathogens

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) population has increased dramatically over the last decades throughout Europe and it has become a serious pest. In addition, the common habitat of wild boar and of the tick, Ixodes ricinus, indicates the potential of wild boar to play a role in epidemiology of epizootic and zoonotic tick-borne pathogens, including Anaplasma phagocytophilum. In Europe, epidemiological cycles and reservoirs of A. phagocytophilum, including its zoonotic haplotypes, are poorly understood. In this study, we focused on detection and further genetic characterization of A. phagocytophilum and piroplasmids in 550 wild boars from eleven districts of Moravia and Silesia in the Czech Republic. Using highly sensitive nested PCR targeting the groEL gene, the DNA of A. phagocytophilum was detected in 28 wild boars (5.1 %) representing six unique haplotypes. The dominant haplotype was found in 21 samples from 7 different districts. All detected haplotypes clustered in the largest clade representing the European ecotype I and the dominant haplotype fell to the subclade with the European human cases and strains from dogs and horses. Nested PCR targeting the variable region of the 18S rRNA gene of piroplasmids resulted in one positive sample with 99.8 % sequence identity to Babesia divergens. The presence of these two pathogens that are primarily circulated by I. ricinus confirms the local participation of wild boar in the host spectrum of this tick and warrants experimental studies to address wild boar as a reservoir of zoonotic haplotypes of A. phagocytophilum.

Presence of Roe Deer Affects the Occurrence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum Ecotypes in Questing Ixodes ricinus in Different Habitat Types of Central Europe

The way in which European genetic variants of Anaplasma phagocytophilum circulate in their natural foci and which variants cause disease in humans or livestock remains thus far unclear. Red deer and roe deer are suggested to be reservoirs for some European A. phagocytophilum strains, and Ixodes ricinus is their principal vector. Based on groEL gene sequences, five A. phagocytophilum ecotypes have been identified. Ecotype I is associated with the broadest host range, including strains that cause disease in domestic animals and humans. Ecotype II is associated with roe deer and does not include zoonotic strains. In the present study, questing I. ricinus were collected in urban, pasture, and natural habitats in the Czech Republic, Germany, and Slovakia. A fragment of the msp2 gene of A. phagocytophilum was amplified by real-time PCR in DNA isolated from ticks. Positive samples were further analyzed by nested PCRs targeting fragments of the 16S rRNA and groEL genes, followed by sequencing. Samples were stratified according to the presence/absence of roe deer at the sampling sites. Geographic origin, habitat, and tick stage were also considered. The probability that A. phagocytophilum is a particular ecotype was estimated by a generalized linear model. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was identified by genetic typing in 274 I. ricinus ticks. The majority belonged to ecotype I (63.9%), 28.5% were ecotype II, and both ecotypes were identified in 7.7% of ticks. Ecotype II was more frequently identified in ticks originating from a site with presence of roe deer, whereas ecotype I was more frequent in adult ticks than in nymphs. Models taking into account the country-specific, site-specific, and habitat-specific aspects did not improve the goodness of the fit. Thus, roe deer presence in a certain site and the tick developmental stage are suggested to be the two factors consistently influencing the occurrence of a particular A. phagocytophilum ecotype in a positive I. ricinus tick.

Diagnosis and molecular characteristics of human infections caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum in South Korea

Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) is a tick borne infection caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum. HGA cases in South Korea have been identified since the first report in 2014. In this study, we investigated the serological response in 594 clinical samples of patients with acute febrile illness and molecular characteristics of A. phagocytophilum clinical isolates obtained from HGA patients. In serological test for A. phagocytophilum, 7.91% (47/594 cases) were positive for IgG and Ig M and 13 of 47 cases showed seroconversion. In the detection rate of the 16S rRNA, msp2(p44), and ankA, genes were showed 3.68% (14/380 cases) for A. phagocytophilum-specific 16S rRNA gene. Phylogenetic analysis of three clinical isolates demonstrated high sequence similarity (98.58-100%) with A. phagocytophilum 16S rRNA sequences identified from public databases. Analysis of the msp2(p44) gene showed highly variable similarity rates (7.24-98.85%) even within isolated countries and host ranges. These results provide clues into the bacterial characterization of A. phagocytophilum originating from Korean patients, providing useful guidance for treatment and improving clinical outcomes.

Diverse tick-borne microorganisms identified in free-living ungulates in Slovakia

BACKGROUND

Free-living ungulates are hosts of ixodid ticks and reservoirs of tick-borne microorganisms in central Europe and many regions around the world. Tissue samples and engorged ticks were obtained from roe deer, red deer, fallow deer, mouflon, and wild boar hunted in deciduous forests of south-western Slovakia. DNA isolated from these samples was screened for the presence of tick-borne microorganisms by PCR-based methods.

RESULTS

Ticks were found to infest all examined ungulate species. The principal infesting tick was Ixodes ricinus, identified on 90.4% of wildlife, and included all developmental stages. Larvae and nymphs of Haemaphysalis concinna were feeding on 9.6% of wildlife. Two specimens of Dermacentor reticulatus were also identified. Ungulates were positive for A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was found to infect 96.1% of cervids, 88.9% of mouflon, and 28.2% of wild boar, whereas Theileria spp. was detected only in cervids (94.6%). Importantly, a high rate of cervids (89%) showed mixed infections with both these microorganisms. In addition to A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp., Rickettsia helvetica, R. monacensis, unidentified Rickettsia sp., Coxiella burnetii, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis", Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) and Babesia venatorum were identified in engorged I. ricinus. Furthermore, A. phagocytophilum, Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. were detected in engorged H. concinna. Analysis of 16S rRNA and groEL gene sequences revealed the presence of five and two A. phagocytophilum variants, respectively, among which sequences identified in wild boar showed identity to the sequence of the causative agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA). Phylogenetic analysis of Theileria 18S rRNA gene sequences amplified from cervids and engorged I. ricinus ticks segregated jointly with sequences of T. capreoli isolates into a moderately supported monophyletic clade.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that free-living ungulates are reservoirs for A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. and engorged ixodid ticks attached to ungulates are good sentinels for the presence of agents of public and veterinary concern. Further analyses of the A. phagocytophilum genetic variants and Theileria species and their associations with vector ticks and free-living ungulates are required.

Tick- and fly-borne bacteria in ungulates: the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, haemoplasmas and rickettsiae in water buffalo and deer species in Central Europe, Hungary

Background

Hunting constitutes an important industry in Europe. However, data on the prevalence of vector-borne bacteria in large game animal species are lacking from several countries. Blood or spleen samples (239 and 270, respectively) were taken from red, fallow and roe deer, as well as from water buffaloes, mouflons and wild boars in Hungary, followed by DNA extraction and molecular analyses for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, haemoplasmas and rickettsiae.

Results

Based on blood samples, the prevalence rate of A. phagocytophilum infection was significantly higher in red deer (97.9%) than in fallow deer (72.7%) and roe deer (60%), and in all these compared to mouflons (6.3%). In addition, 39.2% of the spleen samples from wild boars were PCR positive for A. phagocytophilum, but none of the buffalos. Based on blood samples, the prevalence rates of both Mycoplasma wenyonii (Mw) and ‘Candidatus M. haemobos’ (CMh) infections were significantly higher in buffaloes (Mw: 91.2%; CMh: 73.3%) than in red deer (Mw: 64.6%; CMh: 45.8%), and in both of them compared to fallow deer (Mw: 30.3%; CMh: 9.1%) and roe deer (Mw: 20%; CMh: 1.5%). The prevalence of Mw and CMh infection significantly correlated with the body sizes of these hosts. Furthermore, Mw was significantly more prevalent than CMh in buffaloes, red and roe deer. Mycoplasma ovis was detected in mouflons, M. suis in wild boars, R. helvetica in one fallow deer and one mouflon, and an unidentified Rickettsia sp. in a fallow deer.

Conclusions

Forest-dwelling game animal species were found to be important carriers of A. phagocytophilum. In contrast, animals grazing grassland (i.e. buffaloes) were less likely to get infected with this Ixodes ricinus-borne pathogen. Water buffaloes, deer species, mouflons and wild boars harbored haemoplasmas that may affect domestic ungulates. Evaluated animals with larger body size had significantly higher prevalence of infection with haemoplasmas compared to smaller deer species. The above host species rarely carried rickettsiae.

Wild boar (Sus scrofa) - reservoir host of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Slovakia

In Central Europe the wild boar population is permanently growing and consequently Cf foodborne infections. In this study serological and molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in wild boars was evaluated. Moreover, same samples were screened for the presence and genetic variability of tick-borne bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Blood samples collected from 113 wild boars from Southern Slovakia were examined for antibodies to T. gondii by indirect and to N. caninum by competitive ELISA. The presence of parasitic DNA in blood samples was determined by standard or real time PCR techniques. Antibodies against T. gondii and N. caninum were detected in 45 (39.8%) and 38 (33.6%) animals, respectively. Females were more frequently infected for both pathogens than males. The high seropositivity against both coccidia indicates a permanent occurrence of these pathogens in the studied locality. T. gondii DNA was confirmed in five seropositive boars (4.4%) and N. caninum in 23 blood samples (20.4%). Three out of 23 N. caninum PCR positive animals did not show seropositivity. Three out of 113 blood samples of wild boars were positive for A. phagocytophilum (2.7%). The obtained A. phagocytophilum sequences were 100% identical with GenBankTM isolates from Slovak dog (KC985242); German horse (JF893938) or wild boar (EF143810) and red deer (EF143808) from Poland. Coinfections of T. gondii with N. caninum and N. caninum with A. phagocytophilum were detected in single cases. Results suggest a potential zoonotic risk of toxoplasmosis transmission to humans and the spread of neosporosis to farm animals.

Diversity of ankA and msp4 genes of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Slovenia

Granulocytic anaplasmosis is a tick transmitted emerging disease in Europe and worldwide. The agent, Anaplasma phagocytophilum is transmitted by ticks of the genus Ixodes and causes infections in humans and domestic animals. The analysis of different target genes showed that in nature several genetic variants of A. phagocytophilum were present. The purpose of our study was to genetically characterize A. phagocytophilum strains from eight humans, 16 dogs, 12 wild boars, one bear and 18 tick pools from Slovenia. Therefore, the ankA and msp4 genes of A. phagocytophilum were chosen. The same genetic ankA and msp4 variant of A. phagocytophilum was detected in humans, wild boar and a part of the pooled ticks indicating that it circulates in a zoonotic cycle between wild boar and ticks. In dogs, three ankA variants of A. phagocytophilum were detected. One of them was identical to the one that was found in humans. In contrast, all dogs harboured the same msp4 variant as humans and wild boar. In ticks, numerous ankA and msp4 variants were present.

Molecular investigation for bacterial and protozoan tick-borne pathogens in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from southern Germany

Wild boars (Sus scrofa) have been suggested to be involved in the enzootic cycle of the tick-borne pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum. This observation raises the question whether they serve as reservoir hosts for A. phagocytophilum and potentially for other tick-borne pathogens of public health relevance. The aim of this study was to investigate wild boars and their ticks from a forest site in southern Germany for the presence of A. phagocytophilum, Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), Borrelia spp. of the relapsing fever group, and Babesia spp. Therefore, 24 wild boars collected from October, 2010, to February, 2013, were investigated by molecular methods. DNA of A. phagocytophilum was detected in three out of 24 (12.5%) wild boars and in four out of 16 (25%) ticks. DNA of none of the other pathogens was found in any wild boar, but Rickettsia spp., B. burgdorferi s.l., and Cand. N. mikurensis were found in one of the investigated ticks each. Sequences of the partial 16S rRNA gene of A. phagocytophilum from one spleen and two ticks showed 100% similarity to GenBank entries from human anaplasmosis cases (accession nos. U02521 and AY886761). The sequence from the third tick was 100% similar to sequences obtained from Ixodes ricinus and roe deer from the same study area previously. Detecting a potentially human pathogenic A. phagocytophilum variant in wild boar confirms previous findings and is of public health interest. To our knowledge, this is the first report of A. phagocytophilum in wild boars in Germany. Whether wild boars support the enzootic cycle of A. phagocytophilum variants involved in human disease requires further attention in future systematic studies.

Analysis of the population structure of Anaplasma phagocytophilum using multilocus sequence typing

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacterium that replicates in neutrophils. It is transmitted via tick-bite and causes febrile disease in humans and animals. Human granulocytic anaplasmosis is regarded as an emerging infectious disease in North America, Europe and Asia. However, although increasingly detected, it is still rare in Europe. Clinically apparent A. phagocytophilum infections in animals are mainly found in horses, dogs, cats, sheep and cattle. Evidence from cross-infection experiments that A. phagocytophilum isolates of distinct host origin are not uniformly infectious for heterologous hosts has led to several approaches of molecular strain characterization. Unfortunately, the results of these studies are not always easily comparable, because different gene regions and fragment lengths were investigated. Multilocus sequence typing is a widely accepted method for molecular characterization of bacteria. We here provide for the first time a universal typing method that is easily transferable between different laboratories. We validated our approach on an unprecedented large data set of almost 400 A. phagocytophilum strains from humans and animals mostly from Europe. The typability was 74% (284/383). One major clonal complex containing 177 strains was detected. However, 54% (49/90) of the sequence types were not part of a clonal complex indicating that the population structure of A. phagocytophilum is probably semiclonal. All strains from humans, dogs and horses from Europe belonged to the same clonal complex. As canine and equine granulocytic anaplasmosis occurs frequently in Europe, human granulocytic anaplasmosis is likely to be underdiagnosed in Europe. Further, wild boars and hedgehogs may serve as reservoir hosts of the disease in humans and domestic animals in Europe, because their strains belonged to the same clonal complex. In contrast, as they were only distantly related, roe deer, voles and shrews are unlikely to harbor A. phagocytophilum strains infectious for humans, domestic or farm animals.

Molecular evidence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Belgium

BACKGROUND

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a tick-borne pathogen of veterinary and human importance. Both ticks as vectors and vertebrates as reservoir hosts are essential for the cycle maintenance of this bacterium. Currently, the whole range of animal species reservoirs for A. phagocytophilum in natural environment is still unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of infection with A. phagocytophilum in the wild boar population in southern Belgium.

RESULTS

In the frame of a targeted surveillance program, 513 wild boars were sampled during the hunting season 2011. A nested 16S rRNA PCR was used to screen the presence of A. phagocytophilum DNA in spleen of boars. Within 513 samples, 5 (0,97%) were tested PCR positive and identification was confirmed by sequencing.

CONCLUSIONS

This study gives the first insight of presence of A. phagocytophilum in wild boars in southern Belgium.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains from voles and shrews exhibit specific ankA gene sequences

Background

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative bacterium that replicates obligate intracellularly in neutrophils. It is transmitted by Ixodes spp. ticks and causes acute febrile disease in humans, dogs, horses, cats, and livestock. Because A. phagocytophilum is not transmitted transovarially in Ixodes spp., it is thought to depend on reservoir hosts to complete its life cycle. In Europe, A. phagocytophilum was detected in roe deer, red deer, wild boars, and small mammals. In contrast to roe deer, red deer and wild boars have been considered as reservoir hosts for granulocytic anaplasmosis in humans, dogs, and horses according to groESL- and ankA-based genotyping. A. phagocytophilum variants infecting small mammals in Europe have not been characterized extensively to date.

Results

We amplified the total ankA open reading frames of 27 strains from voles and shrews. The analysis revealed that they harboured A. phagocytophilum strains that belonged to a distinct newly described ankA gene cluster. Further, we provide evidence that the heterogeneity of ankA gene sequences might have arisen via recombination.

Conclusions

Based on ankA-based genotyping voles and shrews are unlikely reservoir hosts for granulocytic anaplasmosis in humans, dogs, horses, and livestock in Europe.

Anaplasma infections in ticks and reservoir host from Slovakia

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a worldwide distributed bacterium with a significant medical and veterinary importance. It grows within the phagosome of infected neutrophils and is responsible for human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), tick-borne fever (TBF) of small ruminants and cattle, canine and equine granulocytic anaplasmosis, but infects also a great variety of wildlife species. Wild ungulates and rodents are considered reservoirs of infection in natural foci. The objective of this study was to determine the spectrum of animal species involved in the circulation of A. phagocytophilum in Slovakia and to analyze the variability of obtained nucleotide sequences, in order to determine whether genotypes from Slovakia cluster according to host-species or geographical location. Several animal species and vector ticks were screened for the presence of members of the family Anaplasmataceae using PCR based methods. Additional data on the molecular evidence of Anaplasma ovis and Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis are presented. These pathogens were detected in tested sheep flocks and rodents with the mean infection rates of 8.16% and 10.75%, respectively. A. phagocytophilum was genotyped by 16S rRNA and groEL gene sequencing. Bacterial DNA was confirmed in questing ixodid ticks, in domesticated canine, wild rodents and several species of wild ungulates. In European isolates, 16S rRNA gene does not seem to be an appropriate locus for the analyses of heterogeneity as it is too conservative. Similarly, 16S rRNA isolates from our study did not reveal any polymorphisms. All isolates were identical in overlapped region and showed identity with sequences from ticks, horses or ruminants previously isolated elsewhere in the world. On the other hand, the groESL heat shock operon is widely used for determination of diversity and the analyses have already revealed considerable degree of heterogeneity. Tested ungulates were infected with A. phagocytophilum to a considerable extent. High proportions of red and roe deer tested positive and the rates of infection reached over 60.0%. GroEL sequences from canine, wild ungulates and ticks from Slovakia clustered within a clade together with isolates from horses, humans, wild ungulates and ticks from Slovakia or elsewhere in the world. Sequences from rodents clustered apart from those obtained from wild ungulates, ticks and humans. These results suggest that European rodents do not harbour A. phagocytophilum strains with strong zoonotic potential such as those from United States.

Prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in European wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations from Transylvania, Romania

Between 2007-2008 and 2010-2012, 870 organ samples were collected from wild boars in 16 Transylvanian counties. Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA was identified using a nested PCR protocol that amplifies a fragment of the 16S rRNA gene. Prevalence was compared between sampling periods and counties using Fisher's exact test. In total, 39 (4·48%) samples tested positive, with significantly higher values recorded in the second period, caused by an increased infection rate in boars from Sibiu county. Positive cases tended to concentrate in the central part of the country. During the second sampling period, A. phagocytophilum was detected in two additional counties, suggesting a spatial spreading of the pathogen. The results confirm that Transylvanian wild boars are naturally infected with A. phagocytophilum, thus raising awareness concerning a potential zoonotic cycle. This is the first study to evaluate spatial and temporal variations of A. phagocytophilum distribution in wild boar populations from Transylvania.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum variants in sympatric red deer (Cervus elaphus) and sheep in southern Norway

Infections by the ixodid tick-transmitted bacterial pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum are common in domestic ruminants and cervids in the coastal areas of southern Norway. Previous experimental work has shown that A. phagocytophilum strains recovered from red deer (Cervus elaphus) are infective in lambs, but epidemiological links between infections in red deer and sheep have yet to be established. To address this shortfall, the present study explores the genotypic relatedness between A. phagocytophilum strains infecting sympatric red deer and sheep. Blood from 32 lambs grazing on tick-infested pasture, and blood and tissues from 8 red deer shot in proximity to these pastures were collected during the summer and autumn of 2007. The presence of A. phagocytophilum in these samples was determined by PCR-based methods, and genotyping of detected strains was performed using comparative sequence analysis of 16S rDNA and msp4 fragments. A. phagocytophilum DNA was detected in 12 lambs and 7 red deer, 11 and 4 individuals of which 16S rDNA and msp4 sequence data were obtained from, respectively. A total of 9 genotypes were delineated, and only different individuals of the same host species were infected with indistinguishable A. phagocytophilum genotypes. Although 3 of the red deer-infecting genotypes belonged to a cluster of exclusively deer-associated strains phylogenetically remote from those commonly encountered in sheep, one red deer-infecting genotype, although unique, clustered tightly with genotypes associated with a wide range of hosts including sheep.

Evidence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in game animals from Slovenia

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a tick-borne rickettsial pathogen responsible for granulocytic anaplasmosis in mammalian hosts including humans. Wild animals may play an important role in the epidemiology of this disease. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of infection with A. phagocytophilum among wildlife in Slovenia. Serum samples (n = 376) from the most important game species [red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and brown bear (Ursus arctos)] were examined by A. phagocytophilum-specific indirect fluorescent-antibody assay (IFA) and wild boar spleen samples (n = 160) were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A. phagocytophilum-specific antibodies were found in 72% of sera and A. phagocytophilum DNA was present in 6.2% of spleens. The data indicate that A. phagocytophilum is present and widespread in Slovenian game animals and that game species are involved in the natural life cycle of A. phagocytophilum.

Wild boars as hosts of human-pathogenic Anaplasma phagocytophilum variants

To investigate the potential of wild boars to host Anaplasma phagocytophilum, we analyzed bacterial 16S rRNA and ank genes. DNA sequencing identified several A. phagocytophilum variants, including a predominance of strains known to cause human disease. Boars are thus hosts for A. phagocytophilum, notably, strains associated with human granulocytic anaplasmosis.

Etiological [corrected] agents of rickettsiosis and anaplasmosis in ticks collected in Emilia-Romagna region (Italy) during 2008 and 2009

Ticks are the main vectors of rickettsiae of the spotted fever group, as well as of a variety of other Rickettsiales, including bacteria of the genus Anaplasma, that might cause diseases in humans and animals. Here we present the result of a survey for ticks and for tick-associated Rickettsiales in the Emilia Romagna region (Northern Italy). The study was focused on ticks collected from wild-hunted animals. Out of 392 ticks collected from these animals, 282 (72%) were identified as Ixodes ricinus, 110 (28%) as Dermacentor marginatus. The former was found on four vertebrate species, whereas the latter appeared more specific for wild boar. The presence of rickettsiae was demonstrated in 22.5% of I. ricinus (57/253) and in 29% of D. marginatus (32/110). Five ticks of the species I. ricinus were also positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum (2%). In addition, we collected ticks by dragging in a natural park of the same region. All of the ticks captured by dragging were identified as I. ricinus. Thirty-six out of 200 analyzed ticks proved positive for Rickettsia monacensis and R. helvetica (16.5 and 1.5%, respectively). Our results highlight that that ticks present in wild areas, widely exploited for recreation and hunting in Emilia-Romagna, represent a risk for the transmission of spotted fevers and anaplasmosis to humans.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum in ticks in Slovenia

Ticks act as vectors of many pathogens of domestic animals and humans. Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Europe is transmitted by the ixodid tick vector Ixodes ricinus. A. phagocytophilum causes a disease with diverse clinical signs in various hosts. A great genetic diversity of the groESL operon of A. phagocytophilum has been found in ticks elsewhere. In Slovenia, the variety of the groESL operon was conducted only on deer samples. In this study, the prevalence of infected ticks was estimated and the diversity of A. phagocytophilum was evaluated. On 8 locations in Slovenia, 1924 and 5049 (6973) I. ricinus ticks were collected from vegetation in the years 2005 and 2006, respectively. All three feeding stages of the tick's life cycle were examined. The prevalence of ticks infected with A. phagocytophilum in the year 2005 and in the year 2006 was 0.31% and 0.63%, respectively, and it did not differ considerably between locations. The similarity among the sequences of groESL ranged from 95.6% to 99.8%. They clustered in two genetic lineages along with A. phagocytophilum from Slovenian deer. One sequence formed a separate cluster. According to our study, the prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in ticks is comparable to the findings in other studies in Europe, and it does not vary considerably between locations and tick stages. According to groESL operon analysis, two genetic lineages have been confirmed and one proposed. Further studies on other genes would be useful to obtain more information on genetic diversity of A. phagocytophilum in ticks in Slovenia.