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Ding Y, Xu N, Gao Y, Wu Z, Li L. The role of the deeper layers of the superior colliculus in attentional modulations of prepulse inhibition. Behav Brain Res 2019; 364:106-113. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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De la Casa LG, Mena A, Ruiz-Salas JC. Effect of stress and attention on startle response and prepulse inhibition. Physiol Behav 2016; 165:179-86. [PMID: 27484698 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The startle reflex magnitude can be modulated when a weak stimulus is presented before the onset of the startle stimulus, a phenomenon termed prepulse inhibition (PPI). Previous research has demonstrated that emotional processes can modulate PPI and startle intensity, but the available evidence is inconclusive. In order to obtain additional evidence in this domain, we conducted two experiments intended to analyze the effect of induced stress and attentional load on PPI and startle magnitude. Specifically, in Experiment 1 we used a between subject strategy to evaluate the effect on startle response and PPI magnitude of performing a difficult task intended to induce stress in the participants, as compared to a group exposed to a control task. In Experiment 2 we evaluated the effect of diverting attention from the acoustic stimulus on startle and PPI intensity. The results seem to indicate that induced stress can reduce PPI, and that startle reflex intensity is reduced when attention is directed away from the auditory stimulus that induces the reflex.
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Williams C, Wood RL. Affective modulation of the startle reflex following traumatic brain injury. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2012; 34:948-61. [DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2012.703641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle reflex as a function of the frequency difference between prepulse and background sounds in mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45123. [PMID: 22984620 PMCID: PMC3439429 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Prepulse inhibition (PPI) depicts the effects of a weak sound preceding strong acoustic stimulus on acoustic startle response (ASR). Previous studies suggest that PPI is influenced by physical parameters of prepulse sound such as intensity and preceding time. The present study characterizes the impact of prepulse tone frequency on PPI. Methods Seven female C57BL mice were used in the present study. ASR was induced by a 100 dB SPL white noise burst. After assessing the effect of background sounds (white noise and pure tones) on ASR, PPI was tested by using prepulse pure tones with the background tone of either 10 or 18 kHz. The inhibitory effect was assessed by measuring and analyzing the changes in the first peak-to-peak magnitude, root mean square value, duration and latency of the ASR as the function of frequency difference between prepulse and background tones. Results Our data showed that ASR magnitude with pure tone background varied with tone frequency and was smaller than that with white noise background. Prepulse tone systematically reduced ASR as the function of the difference in frequency between prepulse and background tone. The 0.5 kHz difference appeared to be a prerequisite for inducing substantial ASR inhibition. The frequency dependence of PPI was similar under either a 10 or 18 kHz background tone. Conclusion PPI is sensitive to frequency information of the prepulse sound. However, the critical factor is not tone frequency itself, but the frequency difference between the prepulse and background tones.
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Kumari V, Premkumar P, Fannon D, Aasen I, Raghuvanshi S, Anilkumar AP, Antonova E, Peters ER, Kuipers E. Sensorimotor gating and clinical outcome following cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis. Schizophr Res 2012; 134:232-8. [PMID: 22138048 PMCID: PMC3278596 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Revised: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response refers to the ability of a weak prestimulus to transiently inhibit the response to a closely following strong sensory stimulus. PPI provides an operational index of sensorimotor gating and is reduced, on average, in people with schizophrenia, relative to healthy people. Given the variable response to Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for psychosis (CBTp) and positive associations between pre-therapy brain and cognitive functions and CBT outcome across disorders, we examined whether pre-therapy level of PPI is associated with clinical outcome following CBTp. METHOD Fifty-six outpatients stable on medication with at least one distressing symptom of schizophrenia and willing to receive CBTp in addition to their usual treatment were assessed on acoustic PPI. Subsequently, 28 patients received CBTp (CBTp+treatment-as-usual, 23 completers) for 6-8months and 28 continued with their treatment-as-usual (TAU-alone, 17 completers). Symptoms were assessed (blindly) at entry and follow-up. RESULTS The CBTp+TAU and TAU-alone groups did not differ demographically, clinically or in PPI at baseline. The CBTp+TAU group showed improved symptoms relative to the TAU-alone group, which showed no change, at follow-up. Pre-therapy PPI level correlated positively with post-CBTp symptom improvement. CONCLUSIONS Relatively intact sensorimotor gating is associated with a good clinical response following a 6-8months course of NICE compliant CBTp in schizophrenia. Pharmacological or psychological interventions capable of improving PPI may enhance the effectiveness of CBTp in people with schizophrenia, particularly in those who fail to show clinical improvement with currently available antipsychotic drugs and adjunctive CBTp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veena Kumari
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Preethi Premkumar
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK,Division of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Dominic Fannon
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ingrid Aasen
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Satya Raghuvanshi
- University College London Medical School, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Elena Antonova
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Emmanuelle R. Peters
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK,NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Elizabeth Kuipers
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK,NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Ashare RL, Hawk LW, Shiels K, Rhodes JD, Pelham WE, Waxmonsky JG. Methylphenidate enhances prepulse inhibition during processing of task-relevant stimuli in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychophysiology 2010; 47:838-45. [PMID: 20233343 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01001.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
ADHD is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and disinhibition, including the inability to screen out distracting stimuli. Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle indexes a related gating process and is enhanced during attended compared to ignored stimuli. We predicted that PPI during attended stimuli would be enhanced by the stimulant methylphenidate (MPH) and that this effect would be moderated by baseline PPI. Children with ADHD (n=36) completed a baseline day and a randomized, double-blind medication trial (placebo vs. sustained release MPH). Bilateral startle eyeblink EMG was measured during a tone discrimination task. MPH enhanced PPI during attended, but not during ignored stimuli. Extending findings that pretreatment functioning moderates stimulant effects on PPI, this effect tended to be inversely related to baseline PPI. These data fit with the clinical literature on ADHD and the hypothesis that MPH enhances interference control for important environmental stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Ashare
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, SUNY, Buffalo, New York 14260-4110, USA
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Scholes KE, Martin-Iverson MT. Disturbed prepulse inhibition in patients with schizophrenia is consequential to dysfunction of selective attention. Psychophysiology 2010; 47:223-35. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00927.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Fedorova I, Alvheim AR, Hussein N, Salem N. Deficit in prepulse inhibition in mice caused by dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency. Behav Neurosci 2010; 123:1218-25. [PMID: 20001105 DOI: 10.1037/a0017446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) may be biosynthesized from a precursor alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) or obtained preformed in the diet. Dams were fed four diets with different levels of the various n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation, and their offspring were weaned to the same diets: "n-3 Deficient," containing (as % total fatty acids) 0.07% of LNA; "Low LNA" (0.4%); "High LNA" (4.8%); and a "DHA + EPA" diet, containing 0.4% of LNA, 2% DHA, and 2% EPA. Sensorimotor gating was measured by prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response in C57Bl6 mice. The n-3 Deficient and Low LNA diets caused a substantial deficit in PPI compared to the DHA + EPA diet, whereas the High LNA diet induced a less pronounced, but significant reduction of PPI. These are the first data that demonstrate a deficit in sensorimotor gating in rodents caused by an inadequate amount of the n-3 fatty acids in the diet. Our results differentiate the effects of a High LNA diet from one with added EPA and DHA even though the difference in brain DHA content is only 12% between these dietary groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Fedorova
- Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry & Biophysics, National Institutes on Alcohol Abuse & Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Greenstein JE, Kassel JD. The effects of smoking on selective attention as measured by startle reflex, skin conductance, and heart rate responses to auditory startle stimuli. Psychophysiology 2010; 47:15-24. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00882.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Li L, Du Y, Li N, Wu X, Wu Y. Top–down modulation of prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex in humans and rats. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:1157-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 02/02/2009] [Accepted: 02/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Grillon C. Models and mechanisms of anxiety: evidence from startle studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 199:421-37. [PMID: 18058089 PMCID: PMC2711770 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-1019-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2007] [Accepted: 11/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Preclinical data indicates that threat stimuli elicit two classes of defensive behaviors, those that are associated with imminent danger and are characterized by flight or fight (fear), and those that are associated with temporally uncertain danger and are characterized by sustained apprehension and hypervigilance (anxiety). OBJECTIVE The objectives of the study are to (1) review evidence for a distinction between fear and anxiety in animal and human experimental models using the startle reflex as an operational measure of aversive states, (2) describe experimental models of anxiety, as opposed to fear, in humans, (3) examine the relevance of these models to clinical anxiety. RESULTS The distinction between phasic fear to imminent threat and sustained anxiety to temporally uncertain danger is suggested by psychopharmacological and behavioral evidence from ethological studies and can be traced back to distinct neuroanatomical systems, the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Experimental models of anxiety, not fear, are relevant to non-phobic anxiety disorders. CONCLUSIONS Progress in our understanding of normal and abnormal anxiety is critically dependent on our ability to model sustained aversive states to temporally uncertain threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Grillon
- Unit of Affective Psychophysiology, Mood and Anxiety Disorder Program, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-2670, USA.
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Hazlett EA, Dawson ME, Schell AM, Nuechterlein KH. Probing attentional dysfunctions in schizophrenia: Startle modification during a continuous performance test. Psychophysiology 2008; 45:632-42. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00653.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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The effects of nicotine on the attentional modification of the acoustic startle response in nonsmokers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 198:93-101. [PMID: 18338158 PMCID: PMC2650080 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1094-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE Research on nicotine and attention has mainly utilized samples of deprived smokers and tasks requiring volitional responses, raising the question of whether nicotine improves attention or simply alleviates withdrawal or improves motor speed. This study used the startle eyeblink reflex to assess nicotine effects on auditory attention in nonsmokers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sixty-seven healthy young adult nonsmokers completed a tone discrimination task. Acoustic startle probes were presented 60, 120, 240, or 4,500 ms after the onset of two-thirds of the tones and during intertrial intervals. Attention was assessed via (1) short-lead prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle, a measure of early filtering; (2) long-lead prepulse facilitation (PPF) of startle, a measure of sustained processing; and (3) the modification of PPI and PPF by focused attention. Participants completed two laboratory sessions, once while wearing a 7-mg transdermal nicotine patch and once while wearing a placebo patch. Patches were administered in a double-blind procedure. RESULTS Nicotine increased overall PPI, eta2(p)=0.09. Attention increased long-lead PPF, eta2(p)=0.25, but not short-lead PPI. Nicotine did not reliably enhance early or late controlled attentional processing in the sample overall. However, correlational analyses demonstrated that nicotine most improved attentional modification of short-lead PPI among participants with the weakest early attentional processing under placebo conditions. CONCLUSIONS Nicotine enhanced early attentional filtering in general, and the effects of nicotine on early focused attention were dependent upon individual differences in placebo levels of attentional processing. The present data suggest that the effects of nicotine on attention extend beyond the alleviation of withdrawal and simple motor speeding.
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Baschnagel JS, Hawk LW, Colder CR, Richards JB. Motivated attention and prepulse inhibition of startle in rats: using conditioned reinforcers as prepulses. Behav Neurosci 2008; 121:1372-82. [PMID: 18085891 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.121.6.1372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In humans, prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle is greater during attended prestimuli than it is during ignored prestimuli, whereas in rats, most work has focused on passive PPI, which does not require attention. In the work described in this article, researchers developed a paradigm to assess attentional modification of PPI in rats using motivationally salient prepulses. Water-deprived rats were either conditioned to attend to a conditioned stimulus (CS; 1-s, 7-dB increase in white noise) paired with water (CS(+) group), or they received uncorrelated presentations of white noise and water (CS0 group). After 10 conditioning sessions, startle probes (50 ms, 115 dB) were introduced, with the CS serving as a continuous prepulse. Three experiments examined PPI across a range of prepulse intensities (4-10 dB) and stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs; 30-960 ms). PPI was consistently reduced in the CS(+) group, particularly with a 10-dB prepulse and a 60-ms SOA. Thus, PPI in rats differed between attended and ignored prestimuli, but the effect was reversed in the results of research with humans. A fourth study eliminated the group difference by reversing the CS-water contingency. Methodological and motivational hypotheses regarding the current findings are discussed.
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Kumari V, Fannon D, Geyer MA, Premkumar P, Antonova E, Simmons A, Kuipers E. Cortical grey matter volume and sensorimotor gating in schizophrenia. Cortex 2008; 44:1206-14. [PMID: 18761134 PMCID: PMC2845812 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2007.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2007] [Revised: 11/26/2007] [Accepted: 11/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response, a cross-species measure of sensorimotor gating, provides a valuable tool to study the known inability of a large proportion of individuals with schizophrenia to effectively screen out irrelevant sensory input. The cortico-striato-pallido-thalamic circuitry is thought to be responsible for modulation of PPI in experimental animals. The involvement of this circuitry in human PPI is supported by observations of deficient PPI in a number of neuropsychiatric disorders that are characterised by abnormalities at some level in this circuitry, and findings of recent functional neuroimaging studies in healthy participants. The current study sought to investigate the structural neural correlates of PPI in a sample of 42 stable male outpatients with schizophrenia. Participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 1.5T and were assessed (off-line) on acoustic PPI using electromyographic recordings of the orbicularis oculi muscle beneath the right eye. Optimised volumetric voxel-based morphometry implemented in SPM2 was used to investigate the relationship of PPI (prepulse onset-to-pulse onset interval 120msec) to regional grey matter (GM) volumes. Significant positive correlations were obtained between PPI and GM volume in the dorsolateral prefrontal, middle frontal and the orbital/medial prefrontal cortices. Our findings are consistent with (a) previous suggestions of susceptibility of PPI to cognitive processes controlled in a 'top down' manner by the cortex and (b) the hypothesis that compromised neural resources in the frontal cortex contribute to reduced PPI in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veena Kumari
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK.
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Rissling AJ, Dawson ME, Schell AM, Nuechterlein KH. Effects of cigarette smoking on prepulse inhibition, its attentional modulation, and vigilance performance. Psychophysiology 2007; 44:627-34. [PMID: 17521379 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00528.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Startle eyeblink modification was measured during a degraded stimulus continuous performance test following both smoking and overnight abstinence among student smokers to measure the effects of smoking on both early and late attentional processes. A group of nonsmokers was tested twice without nicotine manipulation. A startling noise was presented either 240 or 1200 ms following target and nontarget stimuli presented during the task. Startle inhibition at 240 ms was greater following targets than nontargets following smoking and during both nonsmoker tests, but this attentional modulation was absent following abstinence. At the 1200-ms probe position, target and nontarget stimuli produced nondifferential inhibition during both tests for both groups. Abstinence among smokers produced reliably lower vigilance performance compared to ad lib smoking. The results indicate that smoking abstinence affects the early stages of stimulus processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Rissling
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1061, USA.
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Zou D, Huang J, Wu X, Li L. Metabotropic glutamate subtype 5 receptors modulate fear-conditioning induced enhancement of prepulse inhibition in rats. Neuropharmacology 2007; 52:476-86. [PMID: 17011597 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2005] [Revised: 06/14/2006] [Accepted: 08/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Non-startling acoustic events presented shortly before an intense startling sound can inhibit the acoustic startle reflex. This phenomenon is called prepulse inhibition (PPI), and is widely used as a model of sensorimotor gating. The present study investigated whether PPI can be modulated by fear conditioning, whose acquisition can be blocked by the specific antagonist of metabotropic glutamate receptors subtype 5 (mGluR5), 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP). The results show that a gap embedded in otherwise continuous noise sounds, which were delivered by two spatially separated loudspeakers, could inhibit the startle reflex induced by an intense sound that was presented 50 ms after the gap. The inhibitory effect depended on the duration of the gap, and was enhanced by fear conditioning that was introduced by temporally pairing the gap with footshock. Intraperitoneal injection of MPEP (0.5 or 5mg/kg) 30 min before fear conditioning blocked the enhancing effect of fear conditioning on PPI, but did not affect either the baseline startle magnitude or PPI if no fear conditioning was introduced. These results indicate that PPI is enhanced when the prepulse signifies an aversive event after fear conditioning. Also, mGlu5Rs play a role in preserving the fear-conditioning-induced enhancement of PPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Zou
- Department of Psychology, National Key Laboratory on Machine Perception, Speech and Hearing Research Center, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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Huang J, Yang Z, Ping J, Liu X, Wu X, Li L. The influence of the perceptual or fear learning on rats’ prepulse inhibition induced by changes in the correlation between two spatially separated noise sounds. Hear Res 2007; 223:1-10. [PMID: 17098386 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2006.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2006] [Revised: 09/25/2006] [Accepted: 09/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Perceptually grouping a sound source with its reflections and separating them from irrelevant background noise sounds need computation of sound correlations and are critical for identifying and localizing the sound source in a complex acoustic environment. Using the prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex (ASR) as a measure, the present study investigated whether rats are able to detect correlation changes between sounds from different spatial locations. The results show that the rat's ASR amplitude was suppressed when the startle-eliciting stimulus was preceded by either an uncorrelated noise fragment or an anti-phase noise fragment that was embedded in two identical (correlated) but spatially separated noises. Suppression of the ASR amplitude increased as the duration of the noise fragment increased from 5ms to 40ms. The suppressive effect was also progressively enhanced after rats underwent successive testing sessions. Moreover, an enhanced suppression of the ASR amplitude was observed after rats were exposed to footshock that was precisely paired with a 100-ms correlation-change fragment. The results indicate that rats are able to detect the correlation change between sounds from two separated spatial locations, and the detection can be facilitated by both perceptual learning and emotional learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Huang
- Department of Psychology, National Key Laboratory on Machine Perception, Speech and Hearing Research Center, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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Neumann DL. Prepulse inhibition of the startle blink reflex is modulated during a memory task requiring prepulses to be encoded for later report. Int J Psychophysiol 2006; 63:55-63. [PMID: 17011652 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2005] [Revised: 06/20/2006] [Accepted: 08/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle blink reflex in humans can be modulated by selective attention to the prepulse. The present experiment used a memory task to determine whether the encoding of information for later report can modulate PPI. Participants were briefly presented with a display of one or three letters followed by a pattern mask and asked to make a delayed report of the letter(s) shown. Memory recall was better in the 1-letter condition than in the 3-letter condition. Prepulse inhibition was greater in the 3-letter condition than in the 1-letter condition at lead intervals of 120 and 240 ms following the onset of the letter display. Blink modulation did not differ between the letter conditions at lead intervals of 120, 240, 360, or 2600 ms following the mask, ruling out other explanations (e.g., rehearsal) for the earlier difference in PPI. The results suggest that the short-term consolidation of memory, and possibly any cognitive process that requires access to a theoretical limited capacity central processing mechanism modulates PPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Neumann
- Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Research Centre and School of Psychology, Griffith University (Gold Coast Campus), Queensland, Australia.
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Thorne GL, Dawson ME, Schell AM. Effects of perceptual load on startle reflex modification at a long lead interval. Psychophysiology 2006; 43:498-503. [PMID: 16965612 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00420.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of the startle eyeblink response at long lead intervals has been hypothesized to occur when attention is directed away from the modality of the startle stimulus, particularly if attention is directed to a stimulus of high perceptual load. In a test of this hypothesis, participants performed a delayed-matching-to-sample task. On each trial a pattern of dots (the sample) was followed by a second pattern of dots (the target). The task was to say whether the sample and target patterns matched. Perceptual load was manipulated by varying the number of dots in the sample. Auditory startle stimuli were presented 1200 ms after onset of the samples. A linear increase in startle magnitude was found as the number of dots increased. The results are not consistent with the hypothesis that startle inhibition occurs when the lead and startle stimuli are in different modalities under conditions of high perceptual load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary L Thorne
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1061, USA
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Kedzior KK, Martin-Iverson MT. Chronic cannabis use is associated with attention-modulated reduction in prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex in healthy humans. J Psychopharmacol 2006; 20:471-84. [PMID: 16174673 DOI: 10.1177/0269881105057516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Regardless of a wide research interest the nature of a relationship between cannabis use and schizophrenia is controversial. One of the physiological abnormalities in schizophrenia is attention-modulated deficit in prepulse inhibition (PPI), which is a normal reduction in the startle reflex magnitude when a non-startling stimulus (prepulse) precedes the startling stimulus (pulse). This experiment was designed to determine whether or not otherwise healthy people using cannabis would exhibit attention-modulated deficit in PPI. The startle reflex was recorded in carefully screened healthy humans attending to and ignoring auditory pulse and prepulse stimuli separated by short (20-200 ms) and long prepulse intervals (1600 ms). In contrast to 12 non-using controls, cannabis use in 16 healthy humans was associated with significant reduction in%PPI while attending to auditory stimuli, but not while ignoring them. The PPI was correlated with the duration of cannabis use but not with the concentration of cannabinoid metabolites in urine and the recency of cannabis use in the preceding 24 hours. Cannabis use was not associated with changes in prepulse facilitation of startle reflex magnitude (%PPF) at long prepulse intervals, prepulse facilitation of startle reflex latency and startle reflex magnitude in the absence of prepulses. These results suggest that chronic, but not acute, use of cannabis is associated with schizophrenia-like disruption in PPI in healthy controls. Such reduction in PPI is attention-dependent and does not reflect a global deficit in sensorimotor gating in cannabis users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina K Kedzior
- Centre for Clinical Research in Neuropsychiatry, Graylands Hospital, Mt Claremont WA 6190, Australia.
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22
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Bitsios P, Giakoumaki SG, Theou K, Frangou S. Increased prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response is associated with better strategy formation and execution times in healthy males. Neuropsychologia 2006; 44:2494-9. [PMID: 16698050 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2005] [Revised: 03/29/2006] [Accepted: 04/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) refers to the attenuation of the amplitude of the startle reflex in response to sudden intense stimuli (pulse) if preceded by a weaker sensory stimulus (prepulse). PPI reflects the ability to filter out irrelevant information in the early stages of processing so that attention can be directed to more salient environmental features. Inhibition at this early stage of information processing appears modulated by the prefrontal cortex in a "top-down" fashion and this may account for the normal inter-individual variability in PPI and in cognitive performance. PPI data were calculated from 82 healthy male subjects who were also tested in problem solving (Stockings of Cambridge; SoC), spatial working memory (SWM) and 5-choice reaction time (RT) tests from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Correlations between PPI scores and cognitive test variables were examined. In addition PPI scores were divided in quartiles which were used as grouping factors in examining cognitive test performance. Compared to individuals in the lowest quartile those in the highest had (a) shorter execution but not reaction times on the 5-choice RT, (b) shorter subsequent but not initial thinking times in the SoC where they also solved more problems correctly with the minimum number of moves, and (c) better strategy but not errors scores in the SWM. Our findings suggest that greater PPI is associated with superior abilities in strategy formation and execution times. We suggest that this is due to more efficient early information processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panos Bitsios
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical School, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
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23
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Rissling AJ, Dawson ME, Schell AM, Nuechterlein KH. Effects of perceptual processing demands on startle eyeblink modification. Psychophysiology 2005; 42:440-6. [PMID: 16008772 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00296.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Startle eyeblink modification was measured during a continuous performance test (CPT) with either clearly focused stimuli or visually degraded stimuli to measure the effects of early perceptual processing demands on startle modification. A startling noise was presented either 120, 240, or 1200 ms following target and nontarget CPT stimuli. In the degraded stimulus CPT, startle inhibition at 240 ms was greater following targets than nontargets and was as great during targets at 240 ms as at 120 ms, whereas in the clearly focused CPT, inhibition declined significantly from 120 to 240 ms. The results indicate that maximum prepulse inhibition is extended in time when the task involves discrimination of degraded visual stimuli and when early perceptual processing demands are high. At 1200 ms, targets and nontargets produced nondifferential inhibition during both CPTs, suggesting that modality-specific attention occurred equally for the two tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Rissling
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-1061, USA.
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24
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Wynn JK, Sergi MJ, Dawson ME, Schell AM, Green MF. Sensorimotor gating, orienting and social perception in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2005; 73:319-25. [PMID: 15653277 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2003] [Revised: 07/14/2004] [Accepted: 07/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Basic neurocognition and social cognition appear to influence the social impairments of persons with schizophrenia. This study examined relationships between two very basic automatic processes (i.e., sensorimotor gating and orienting) and social perception in schizophrenic patients. Thirty outpatients with schizophrenia completed psychophysiological measures of sensorimotor gating (prepulse inhibition, PPI), orienting (prepulse facilitation, PPF), and social perception (the Half Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity, Half PONS). A median split was used to divide patients into poor and good gaters and poor and good orienters. Analyses revealed that patients with good PPI scored significantly higher on the Half PONS than patients with poor PPI. PPI showed a significant correlation (r=-0.54) with Half PONS performance, indicating that schizophrenia patients who were better able to gate out competing stimuli (i.e., less startle) were also better at detecting relevant social cues. Orienting (PPF) and social perception were not related. This study is the first to our knowledge to demonstrate an association between sensorimotor gating and social perception. The findings are consistent with other studies that have demonstrated relationships between basic neurocognition and social cognition. By showing a link between sensorimotor gating and social perception, this study supports social cognition's potential role as a mediator of the relationship between neurocognition and social functioning in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan K Wynn
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Science, Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, United States.
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25
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Bitsios P, Giakoumaki SG. Relationship of prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex to attentional and executive mechanisms in man. Int J Psychophysiol 2005; 55:229-41. [PMID: 15649554 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2004.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2003] [Revised: 06/20/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle reflex at short lead intervals is thought to reflect the operation of a preattentive "sensorimotor gating" mechanism, which suggests that processing of the prepulse stimulus should not be modulated prior to its inhibitory effects on startle. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether PPI is affected following habituation to the prepulse. PPI was measured in two sessions associated with either the presence (habituation condition) or the absence (control condition) of prepulse repetition. There was a trend for prepulse repetition to reduce the effectiveness of that prepulse in inhibiting the startle response. We also explored the relationship of PPI to scores in tests of selective and sustained attention and planning ability. Overall PPI performance was correlated to performance indices of planning ability and there was a trend level correlation with scores in selective but not sustained attention tests. These preliminary results merit further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panos Bitsios
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
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26
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Thorne GL, Dawson ME, Schell AM. Attention and prepulse inhibition: the effects of task-relevant, irrelevant, and no-task conditions. Int J Psychophysiol 2005; 56:121-8. [PMID: 15804447 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2004.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2004] [Revised: 10/26/2004] [Accepted: 11/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether attentional modulation of prepulse inhibition (PPI) is due to increased protection of processing of attended lead stimuli, decreased protection of processing of ignored lead stimuli, or a combination of both processes. Task and no-task trials, pre-cued by red and blue dots on a computer screen, were randomly intermixed. College student participants were instructed to do a tone duration judgment task on trials preceded by one color (task condition) and to do nothing on trials preceded by the other color (no-task condition). On task condition trials participants were instructed to count the number of longer duration tones of a particular pitch (attended condition) and to ignore tones of a different pitch (ignored condition). White noise startle stimuli were presented at 60 ms and 120 ms lead intervals on some trials in each condition. Additional startle stimuli were presented during the inter-trial intervals to measure baseline (unmodified) startle response. PPI in the attended condition was reliably greater than that in both the ignored and no-task conditions. PPI did not differ between the ignored and no-task conditions. The results are consistent with the conclusion that attentional modulation of PPI is due to increased protection of attended stimuli and not to decreased protection of ignored stimuli. Possible reasons for robust attentional modulation at the 60 ms lead interval as well as the usual 120 ms lead interval are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary L Thorne
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Seeley G. Mudd Building, Room 501, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1061, USA
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27
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Wynn JK, Dawson ME, Schell AM. The functional relationship between visual backward masking and prepulse inhibition. Psychophysiology 2004; 41:306-12. [PMID: 15032996 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2004.00153.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This experiment demonstrated a relationship between prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle eyeblink and visual backward masking in college students. It was hypothesized that recovery from backward masking effects is due in part to sensory gating, as assessed by auditory and visual PPI. Visual presentations of letters served as targets or visual prepulses in an intermixed session of backward masking and PPI. Backward masking and PPI (both auditory and visual) were assessed at stimulus onset asynchronies of 30, 45, 60, 120, and 150 ms. A repeated-measures regression revealed that there was a relationship between backward masking and PPI for both visual and auditory PPI, with higher levels of PPI being associated with greater recovery from backward masking. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that recovery from backward masking effects is affected by sensory gating acting in part to gate out the interruptive effects of the mask.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan K Wynn
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA.
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28
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Filion DL, Poje AB. Selective and nonselective attention effects on prepulse inhibition of startle: a comparison of task and no-task protocols. Biol Psychol 2004; 64:283-96. [PMID: 14630408 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0511(03)00077-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The effects of selective and nonselective attentional processes on prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response were examined by assessing PPI under intermixed task and no-task conditions. Results for the task condition revealed that greater PPI was produced by an attended than an ignored prepulse at a lead interval of 120 ms (marginally significant in the early trial block and significant in the late trial block), indicating an effect of selective attention at this lead interval. Comparisons between the task and no-task conditions revealed significantly greater PPI in the task than no-task condition at a 60-ms lead interval, during early and late trial blocks, indicating a nonselective attention effect at this lead interval. Overall, these results suggest that PPI is sensitive to selective and nonselective attentional influences and indicate that task and no-task PPI protocols reveal unique aspects of sensorimotor gating ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane L Filion
- University of Missouri - Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA.
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29
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Blumenthal TD, Elden A, Flaten MA. A comparison of several methods used to quantify prepulse inhibition of eyeblink responding. Psychophysiology 2004; 41:326-32. [PMID: 15032998 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2003.00144.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Several methods of quantifying prepulse inhibition (PPI) of eyeblink responding were compared in adult volunteers. Blink-eliciting stimuli were noise bursts at 85 or 100 dB, and prepulses were also noise bursts, at 55 or 70 dB and lead intervals of 60 or 120 ms. PPI was evaluated by comparing reactivity on prepulse and control trials within participants using the following methods: (1) difference between reactivity on prepulse and control trials; (2) reactivity on prepulse trials divided by that on control trials (proportion of control); (3) difference between reactivity on prepulse and control trials, divided by that on control trials (proportion of the difference from control); (4) range correction (maximum minus minimum reactivity, divided by the range of reactivity), across all control and prepulse trials; (5) z scores across all prepulse and control trials. Prepulses inhibited eyeblink response magnitude in all cases. Proportion of difference was the method least affected by differences in control reactivity, and is the preferred method to use when quantifying PPI, both from a practical and a neurophysiological perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry D Blumenthal
- Department of Psychology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109, USA.
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30
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Wynn JK, Dawson ME, Schell AM, McGee M, Salveson D, Green MF. Prepulse facilitation and prepulse inhibition in schizophrenia patients and their unaffected siblings. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55:518-23. [PMID: 15023580 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2003] [Revised: 08/26/2003] [Accepted: 10/24/2003] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Deficits in schizophrenia patients and their first-degree relatives have been reported in prepulse inhibition (PPI), a phenomenon that measures an early stage of information processing (sensorimotor gating). It is less clear whether these information processing deficits extend to prepulse facilitation (PPF), which measures a later stage of generalized alerting or orienting. METHODS This study examined three separate issues: first, whether schizophrenia patients have deficits in PPI and PPF; second, whether the siblings of patients show deficits in these processes; and third, whether prepulse duration influences the degree of the deficits. These issues were examined in 76 schizophrenia patients, 36 of their siblings, and 41 normal control subjects. RESULTS Patients and siblings did not differ from control subjects in PPI, perhaps due to the use of different procedural parameters compared with other laboratories that have consistently found PPI deficits in schizophrenia patients. Patients and their siblings produced significantly less PPF than control subjects. For both PPI and PPF, prepulse duration was not a significant factor. CONCLUSIONS These results imply that PPF deficits reveal a generalized alerting or orienting deficit that is present in both schizophrenia patients and their siblings, suggesting that this deficit may be tapping an endophenotypic vulnerability factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan K Wynn
- Department of Psychology (MED), University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90073, USA
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31
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Vanman EJ, Mejia VY, Dawson ME, Schell AM, Raine A. Modification of the startle reflex in a community sample: do one or two dimensions of psychopathy underlie emotional processing? PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00052-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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32
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Elden A, Flaten MA. Similar effects of attention directed to acoustic and tactile stimuli on prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle. Scand J Psychol 2003; 44:363-72. [PMID: 12887558 DOI: 10.1111/1467-9450.00356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) is assumed to index automatic and controlled processing. In three experiments (n= 32, 22, and 30) participants were asked to judge the duration of a prepulse in comparison with a stimulus presented 4000 ms before the prepulse. A distracter was presented simultaneously with the prepulse to increase the cognitive demands of the task. PPI was assessed at stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 30-150 ms, and 420 ms. The prepulse was either a tone (60 dB) or a tactile stimulus (21 kPa), and startle was elicited by 95 dB white noise. Directing attention to the prepulse increased PPI at SOAs of 60 ms and longer in all experiments, but the sensory modality to which attention was directed played only a minor role. We conclude that directing attention to both acoustic and tactile prepulses increased PPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ake Elden
- Department of Psychology, University of Tromsø, Norway
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33
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Steele-Laing S, Hicks LH. Startle eyeblink modulation: detecting changes in directed attentional allocation during early preattentive processing. Int J Psychophysiol 2003; 48:43-53. [PMID: 12694900 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-8760(03)00003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Startle eyeblink modification was examined as a measure of allocation of attentional resources during active attention tasks in the early stage of information processing. Fifty-five participants were presented with a series of 250- and 40-ms tones of either high or low pitch which were followed by startle-eliciting stimuli at a lead interval of 120 ms. Attentional allocation was manipulated by instructing one group (Passive) to simply listen to the tones; the second group (Active 1) to count the number of low tones and the third group (Active 2) to count the long high-pitched tones and the short low-pitched tones. Startle eyeblink was significantly more inhibited for the Active 1 group than the Passive group (control) with no significant difference between the two directed attentional conditions (Active 1 and Active 2 groups). However, across the three attentional groups, the degree of startle eyeblink modulation appeared to reflect the degree of attention allocated to the task. The results support the utility of the startle probe in evaluating controlled attentional allocation during the early stages of information processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Steele-Laing
- Psychophysiology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Howard University, 525 Bryant Street, Washington, DC 20059, USA.
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34
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Neumann DL. Effect of varying levels of mental workload on startle eyeblink modulation. ERGONOMICS 2002; 45:583-602. [PMID: 12167201 DOI: 10.1080/00140130210148546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Previous research using punctuate reaction time and counting tasks has found that the startle eyeblink reflex is sensitive to attentional demands. The present experiment explored whether startle eyeblink is also modulated during a complex continuous task and is sensitive to different levels of mental workload. Participants (N = 14) performed a visual horizontal tracking task either alone (single-task condition) or in combination with a visual gauge monitoring task (multiple-task condition) for three minutes. On some task trials, the startle eyeblink reflex was elicited by a noise burst. Results showed that startle eyeblink was attenuated during both tasks and that the attenuation was greater during the multiple-task condition than during the single-task condition. Subjective ratings, endogenous eyeblink rate, heart period, and heart period variability provided convergent validity of the workload manipulations. The findings suggest that the startle eyeblink is sensitive to the workload demands associated with a continuous visual task. The application of startle eyeblink modulation as a workload metric and the possibility that it may be diagnostic of workload demands in different stimulus modalities is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Neumann
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia.
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35
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Elden Å, Flaten MA. The Relationship of Automatic and Controlled Processing to Prepulse Inhibition. J PSYCHOPHYSIOL 2002. [DOI: 10.1027//0269-8803.16.1.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract When a weak stimulus, or prepulse, is presented immediately prior to a startle reflex-eliciting stimulus, the startle reflex is inhibited. This is called prepulse inhibition (PPI). Directing attention to a prepulse increases PPI. In two experiments (N = 43 and N = 29), attention was directed to the prepulse by having the participants judge the duration of the prepulse. Prepulse inhibition was assessed at stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) assumed to index automatic and controlled processing. The prepulse was a 60dB tone, and startle was elicited by 95dB white noise. We predicted that attention directed to the prepulse should increase PPI, and that PPI should increase on trials with correct judgments of prepulse duration compared to trials with incorrect judgments. The results from both experiments showed that attention directed toward the prepulse increased PPI at SOAs assumed to index both automatic and controlled processing. This indicates that controlled attention exerted an influence on automatic processes. There was no evidence that PPI was increased on trials with correct judgment of prepulse duration. It is concluded that attention to the prepulse increased PPI, but PPI did not differentiate between automatic and controlled processing under the present experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Åke Elden
- Department of Psychology, University of Tromsø, Norway
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36
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Hazlett EA, Buchsbaum MS, Tang CY, Fleischman MB, Wei TC, Byne W, Haznedar MM. Thalamic activation during an attention-to-prepulse startle modification paradigm: a functional MRI study. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50:281-91. [PMID: 11522263 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01094-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle reflex reflects early stages of information processing and is modulated by selective attention. Animal models indicate medial frontal-thalamic circuitry is important in PPI modulation. We report data from the first functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study examining whether attending to or ignoring a prepulse differentially activates brain areas within this circuitry. METHODS Ten healthy subjects received structural and functional MRI. During fMRI acquisition, subjects heard intermixed attended and ignored tones serving as prepulses to the startle stimulus. Regions of interest were traced on structural MRI and coregistered to fMRI images. RESULTS Greater amplitude fMRI blood-oxygen-level-dependent response to attended than ignored PPI conditions occurred in the right thalamus, and bilaterally in the anterior and mediodorsal thalamic nuclei, whereas the startle-alone condition showed deactivation. In transitional medial cortex (Brodmann Area 32), which is involved in affective processing of noxious stimuli, the startle-alone condition elicited the greatest response, the attended-PPI condition showed the smallest response, and the ignored-PPI condition was intermediate. CONCLUSIONS These findings extend animal models to humans by indicating thalamic involvement in the modulation of PPI. Further fMRI investigations may elucidate other key structures in the circuitry underlying normal and disordered modulation of PPI.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Hazlett
- Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029, USA
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37
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Dawson ME, Schell AM, Hazlett EA, Nuechterlein KH, Filion DL. On the clinical and cognitive meaning of impaired sensorimotor gating in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2000; 96:187-97. [PMID: 11084215 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-1781(00)00208-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia patients have been shown to have a defective sensorimotor gating process as indexed by impaired prepulse inhibition of the startle eyeblink reflex. Moreover, we have previously reported that schizophrenia patients have dysfunctional attentional modulation of prepulse inhibition. The present experiment combined our previous sample of 14 schizophrenia outpatients and 12 demographically matched control subjects with a new sample of 10 outpatients and 6 control subjects. All participants performed a tone-length judgement task that involved attending to one pitch of tone (the attended prepulse) and ignoring another pitch of tone (the ignored prepulse). During this task the acoustic startle eyeblink reflex was electromyographically recorded from the orbicularis oculi muscle. The results replicated the finding of impaired attentional modulation of prepulse inhibition in the new sample of schizophrenia outpatients compared to demographically matched control subjects. Specifically, the new control group exhibited greater startle modification during the attended prepulse, whereas the new patient group failed to show this differential effect. In addition, impaired prepulse inhibition following the attended prepulse was significantly correlated with heightened delusions, conceptual disorganization, and suspiciousness as measured with the expanded Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. These correlations were significant with prepulse inhibition to the attended prepulse but not with prepulse inhibition to the ignored prepulse. Impaired prepulse inhibition was not correlated with negative symptoms. All in all, the results support the hypothesis that impaired attentional modulation of startle prepulse inhibition reflects basic neurocognitive processes related to thought disorder in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Dawson
- Department of Psychology, SGM 501, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1061, USA.
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38
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Abstract
Startle is a fast response to sudden, intense stimuli and probably protects the organism from injury by a predator or by a blow. The acoustic startle response (ASR) of mammals is mediated by a relatively simple neuronal circuit located in the lower brainstem. Neurons of the caudal pontine reticular nucleus (PnC) are key elements of this primary ASR pathway. The ASR in humans and animals has a non-zero baseline, that is, the response magnitude can be increased or decreased by a variety of pathological conditions and experimental manipulations. Therefore, the ASR has been used as a behavioral tool to assess the neuronal basis of behavioral plasticity and to model neuropathological dysfunctions of sensorimotor information processing. Cross-species examples for the increase of the ASR magnitude are sensitization, fear-potentiation and drug-induced enhancement. Examples for the reduction of the ASR magnitude are habituation, prepulse inhibition, drug-induced inhibition and the attenuation by positive affect. This review describes the neuronal basis underlying the mediation of the ASR, as well as the neuronal and neurochemical substrates of different phenomena of enhancement and attenuation of the ASR. It also attempts to elucidate the biological background of these forms of behavioral plasticity. Special emphasis is put on the potential relevance of ASR modulations for the understanding of human psychiatric and neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Koch
- Tierphysiologie, Universität Tübingen, Germany
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39
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Böhmelt AH, Schell AM, Dawson ME. Attentional modulation of short- and long-lead-interval modification of the acoustic startle eyeblink response: comparing auditory and visual prestimuli. Int J Psychophysiol 1999; 32:239-50. [PMID: 10437635 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-8760(99)00019-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Studies in our laboratory have shown that modification of startle by lead stimuli with short- and long-lead-intervals is modulated by stimulus significance. The significant stimulus in a tone duration judgement task generates enhanced short-lead-interval startle inhibition as well as pronounced long-lead-interval startle facilitation. The present study was designed to compare tones with simple visual stimuli as lead stimuli in a counterbalanced within-subjects design (Experiment I) or between-subjects design (Experiment II). The results show that auditory compared to visual lead stimuli generate more short-lead-interval inhibition but comparable amounts of long-lead-interval startle facilitation, which was significantly enhanced on to-be-attended trials independent of sensory modality. The attentional manipulation did not yield short-lead-interval effects in Experiment I, but previously reported attention effects were replicated in Experiment II. The results suggest early modality effects on startle modification, reflected by the differing levels of inhibition. Late effects of both modality and attention, however, seem to reflect a sensory modality independent process in startle modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Böhmelt
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089, USA
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Filion DL, Dawson ME, Schell AM. The psychological significance of human startle eyeblink modification: a review. Biol Psychol 1998; 47:1-43. [PMID: 9505132 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0511(97)00020-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The human startle eyeblink reflex is reliably modified by both cognitive and emotional processes. This review provides a comprehensive survey of the current literature on human startle modification and its psychological significance. Issues raised for short lead interval startle inhibition include its interpretation as a measure of protection of processing, sensorimotor gating and early attentional processing. For long lead interval effects, interpretations related to attentional and emotional processing are discussed. Also reviewed are clinical applications to information processing dysfunctions in the schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and to emotional processing disorders. Finally, an integrative summary that incorporates most of the cognitive findings is presented and directions for future research are identified regarding both cognitive and emotional modification of startle.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Filion
- University of Kansas Medical Center, Department of Occupational Therapy Edu., Kansas City 66160-7602, USA,
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Abstract
The effects of darkness on startle reactivity and prepulse inhibition were investigated in two studies with 25 subjects participating in each study. Acoustic startle stimuli that were or were not preceded by an acoustic prepulse were delivered in alternating periods of complete darkness or light. In both studies, darkness significantly increased the magnitude of startle but did not affect prepulse inhibition (PPI). The PPI results suggest that darkness did not increase attention to the auditory modality, so that the startle facilitation in the dark probably did not result from an attentional process. The increased startle in the dark was significantly correlated with the intensity of subjects' fear of the dark as children based on retrospective rating scales. It is hypothesized that the startle facilitation in the dark results from a change in affect rather than from a change in attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Grillon
- Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, USA
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Vanman EJ, Boehmelt AH, Dawson ME, Schell AM. The varying time courses of attentional and affective modulation of the startle eyeblink reflex. Psychophysiology 1996; 33:691-7. [PMID: 8961791 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1996.tb02365.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In previous research on modulation of the startle eyeblink reflex, emotional effects have been demonstrated only at late probe positions, whereas attentional effects have been found at both early and late positions but only when the prepulses were affectively neutral. In Experiment 1, participants viewed emotionally valenced pictures and were instructed to attend to the duration of half of the slides. Affective modulation of the startle eyeblink occurred at long lead intervals, but attentional modulation also occurred late. In Experiment 2, participants viewed the same slides used in Experiment 1 but were instructed to attend to the duration of only the positive or the negative slides. Affective modulation occurred at both early and late probe positions, whereas attentional effects occurred only following slide offset. Early (250 ms) affective modification of startle eyeblink has not been previously reported. These results suggest that the time courses of emotional and attentional modulation of startle are variable and can occur at both early and late startle probe positions, depending on task requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Vanman
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089-1061, USA
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