Seniors with chronic health conditions and prescription drugs: benefits, wealth, and health

Barriers and Facilitators in Access to Diabetes, Hypertension, and Dyslipidemia Medicines: A Scoping Review

Objective: Identify barriers and facilitators in access to medicines for diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia, considering patient, health provider, and health system perspectives.

Methods: Scoping review based on Joanna Briggs methodology. The search considered PubMed, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Academic Search Ultimate, Web of Science, SciELO Citation Index, and grey literature. Two researchers conducted screening and eligibility phases. Data were thematically analyzed.

Results: The review included 219 documents. Diabetes was the most studied condition; most of the evidence comes from patients and the United States. Affordability and availability of medicines were the most reported dimension and specific barrier respectively, both cross-cutting concerns. Among high- and middle-income countries, identified barriers were cost of medicines, accompaniment by professionals, long distances to facilities, and cultural aspects; cost of transportation emerges in low-income settings. Facilitators reported were financial accessibility, trained health workers, medicines closer to communities, and patients’ education.

Conclusion: Barriers and facilitators are determined by socioeconomic and cultural conditions, highlighting the role of health systems in regulatory and policy context (assuring financial coverage and free medicines); providers’ role bringing medicines closer; and patients’ health education and disease management.

Environmental risk factors and their footprints in vivo - A proposal for the classification of oxidative stress biomarkers

Environmental agents, including socioeconomic condition, and host factors can act as causal agents and risk factors in disease. We use biomarkers and sociomarkers to study causal factors, such as overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which could play a role in disease through oxidative stress. It is therefore important to define the exact meaning of the biomarker we measure. In this review we attempt a classification of biomarkers related to oxidative stress based on their biological meaning. We define as type zero biomarkers the direct measurement of ROS in vivo in patients. Type 1 biomarkers are the most frequently used indicators of oxidative stress, represented by oxidized lipids, proteins or nucleic acids and their bases. Type 2 biomarkers are indicators of the activation of biochemical pathways that can lead to the formation of ROS. Type 3 biomarkers are host factors such as small-molecular weight antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes, while type 4 biomarkers measure genetic factors and mutations that could modify the susceptibility of an individual to oxidative stress. We also discuss whether biomarkers are actionable or not, that is if the specific blockade of these molecules can ameliorate disease or if they are just surrogate markers.

The proposed classification of biomarkers of oxidative stress based on their meaning and ambiguities, within the theoretical framework of the oxidative stress theory of disease may help identify those diseases, and individuals, where oxidative stress has a causal role, to allow targeted therapy and personalized medicine.

Impact of CKD on Household Income

Introduction

The impact of chronic kidney disease (CKD) on income is unclear. We sought to determine whether CKD severity, serious adverse events, and CKD progression affected household income.

Methods

Analyses were undertaken in a prospective cohort of adults with moderate-to-severe CKD in the Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP), with household income information available at baseline screening and study end. Logistic regressions, adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, smoking, and prior diseases at baseline, estimated associations during the 5-year follow-up, among (i) baseline CKD severity, (ii) incident nonfatal serious adverse events (vascular or cancer), and (iii) CKD treatment modality (predialysis, dialysis, or transplanted) at study end and the outcome “fall into relative poverty.” This was defined as household income <50% of country median income.

Results

A total of 2914 SHARP participants from 14 countries were included in the main analysis. Of these, 933 (32%) were in relative poverty at screening; of the remaining 1981, 436 (22%) fell into relative poverty by study end. Compared with participants with stage 3 CKD at baseline, the odds of falling into poverty were 51% higher for those with stage 4 (odds ratio [OR]: 1.51; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.09–2.10), 66% higher for those with stage 5 (OR: 1.66; 95% CI: 1.11–2.47), and 78% higher for those on dialysis at baseline (OR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.22–2.60). Participants with kidney transplant at study end had approximately half the risk of those on dialysis or those with CKD stages 3 to 5.

Conclusion

More advanced CKD is associated with increased odds of falling into poverty. Kidney transplantation may have a role in reducing this risk.

Access to Care, Treatment Ambivalence, Medication Nonadherence, and Long-Term Mortality Among Severely Hypertensive African Americans: A Prospective Cohort Study

African Americans living in poor neighborhoods bear a high burden of illness and early mortality. Nonadherence may contribute to this burden. In a prospective cohort study of urban African Americans with poorly controlled hypertension, mortality was 47.6% over a median follow-up of 6.1 years. Patients with pill-taking nonadherence were more likely to die (hazard ratio, 1.80; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.18-2.76) after adjustment for potential confounders. With regard to factors related to nonadherence, poor access to care such as difficulty paying for medications was associated with prescription refill nonadherence (odds ratio [OR], 4.12; 95% CI, 1.88-9.03). Pill-taking nonadherence was not associated with poor access to care; however, it was associated with factors related to treatment ambivalence including lower hypertension knowledge (OR, 2.97; 95% CI, 1.39-6.32), side effects (OR, 3.44; 95% CI, 1.47-8.03), forgetfulness (OR, 3.62; 95% CI, 1.78-7.34), and feeling that the medications do not help (OR, 2.78; 95% CI, 1.09-7.09). These data suggest that greater access to care is a necessary but insufficient remedy to the disparities experienced by urban African Americans with hypertension. To achieve its full promise, health reform must also address treatment ambivalence.

The economic burden of inappropriate drug prescribing, lack of adherence and compliance, adverse drug events in older people: a systematic review

Adverse drug events (ADEs) are an increasingly relevant issue for healthcare systems as they are associated with poorer health outcomes and avoidable misuse of resources. The rates of ADEs are higher in the elderly population, as many older patients have comorbidities, multiple drug prescriptions and deteriorated physical and cognitive functioning. The occurrence of ADEs can lead to a perceived lack of therapy efficacy and further underuse or suboptimal adherence in elderly people, with detrimental clinical outcomes. The present article systematically reviews the studies evaluating the economic impact of ADEs occurring as consequence of poor therapy adherence, inappropriate drug use, underuse of effective treatments and poor adherence, medication errors, drug-drug and drug-disease interactions.A Medline systematic literature review of studies evaluating the economic consequences of inappropriate drug prescribing, lack of adherence and compliance, ADEs in older people was performed. English-language articles were screened through a three-step approach (title review, abstract review, full article review) to select pertinent studies quantitatively evaluating costs. We systematically reviewed evidence from767 articles. After title, abstract and full text review, 21 articles were found to measure economic implications ofADEs, inappropriate drug prescribing and poor adherence in elderly patients. Studies suggested that the economic impact of these undesired effects is substantial: hospital costs were the main cost driver, with a relevant part of them being preventable (consequences of inappropriate prescribing). Healthcare costs for unused drug wastage and destruction were also surprisingly high.Although economic evidence in elderly patients is still limited, all studies seemed to confirm that the financial burden due to pharmacological treatment issues is relevant in elderly people. Including economic effects of adverse events in pharmacoeconomic analysis would be beneficial to improve the reliability of results. Preliminary evidence suggests that programmes aimed at comprehensively assessing geriatric conditions, detecting 'high-risk' prescriptions and training patients to comply with prescribed therapies could be costeffective measures to reduce the burden of ADEs.

Perceptions of generic drug discount programs among low-income women: a qualitative study

PURPOSE

Increasing the awareness and use of generic drug discount programs (GDDP) may improve access to essential prescription drugs. However, little is known about public perceptions of GDDPs. The purpose of this study is to understand the perceptions and utilization patterns of low-income women regarding GDDP.

METHODS

Using a purposive sampling strategy, we conducted seven focus groups with a total of 50 participants using a semistructured guide to assess awareness and utilization of GDDP. Transcripts of the focus groups were systematically analyzed across groups with a general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis.

RESULTS

Five major categorical themes emerged from the focus group content analysis: 1) Perceived differences between generic and brand-name prescription drugs, 2) barriers to utilizing GDDP, 3) lack of adequate communication between pharmacy, physician and patient about GDDP, 4) perceived health impact of utilizing GDDPs, and 5) perceived health care savings. Most participants indicated that they perceive no difference between generic and brand-name prescription drugs. Lack of awareness was indicated as a barrier to utilization. There was general agreement among participants that GDDP can help to maintain health while saving money.

CONCLUSION

Study participants demonstrated generally favorable perceptions regarding GDDPs. Our findings underscore the need for policies that encourage expansion of the GDDP formulary and increasing awareness and utilization of GDDP.

Health insurance coverage is the single most prominent socioeconomic factor associated with cardiovascular drug delivery in the French population

OBJECTIVE

Although the French population benefits from universal health coverage, prescribed drugs are in most cases only partially reimbursed by the national insurance plan (65% of the cost), raising the possibility of reduced drug access for patients with low socioeconomic status.

METHODS

To explore this question, the delivery of cardiovascular drugs in relation to socioeconomic position was analysed in a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of patients with cardiovascular condition (n = 4646).

RESULTS

Among eight socioeconomic indicators and after adjustment for healthcare needs, only health coverage is independently associated with cardiovascular drug delivery, which is reduced by half [odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 0.54 (0.39-0.74), P = 0.0001] in patients partially covered by universal health insurance compared with those fully covered by supplemental insurance. This reduced delivery in patients with partial health coverage seems to apply to all cardiovascular drug classes as it is observed for both antihypertensive and hypolipemic drugs when these classes are tested separately. Although physician access is also reduced in patients with partial health coverage [0.54 (0.40-0.75), P = 0.0002], this does not explain the decreased delivery of cardiovascular drugs that is still observed [0.59 (0.43-0.82), P = 0.001] after further adjustment for the number of physician visits during the survey.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that health insurance coverage has a prominent role among socioeconomic factors in determining the delivery of prescribed medications as essential as cardiovascular drugs in the French population. They emphasize that full health coverage should remain a priority for public health policies in this country.

Income-, education- and gender-related inequalities in out-of-pocket health-care payments for 65+ patients - a systematic review

Background

In all OECD countries, there is a trend to increasing patients' copayments in order to balance rising overall health-care costs. This systematic review focuses on inequalities concerning the amount of out-of-pocket payments (OOPP) associated with income, education or gender in the Elderly aged 65+.

Methods

Based on an online search (PubMed), 29 studies providing information on OOPP of 65+ beneficiaries in relation to income, education and gender were reviewed.

Results

Low-income individuals pay the highest OOPP in relation to their earnings. Prescription drugs account for the biggest share. A lower educational level is associated with higher OOPP for prescription drugs and a higher probability of insufficient insurance protection. Generally, women face higher OOPP due to their lower income and lower labour participation rate, as well as less employer-sponsored health-care.

Conclusions

While most studies found educational and gender inequalities to be associated with income, there might also be effects induced solely by education; for example, an unhealthy lifestyle leading to higher payments for lower-educated people, or exclusively gender-induced effects, like sex-specific illnesses. Based on the considered studies, an explanation for inequalities in OOPP by these factors remains ambiguous.

Pharmacoeconomics and aging

The aging of the general population in industrialized countries has brought to public attention the increasing incidence of age-related clinical conditions, because the long-term impact of diseases on functional status and on costs are greater in older people than in any other age group. With the aging of the population, it is becoming increasingly important to quantify the burden of illness in the elderly; this will be vital not only in planning for the necessary health services that will be required in coming years, but also in order to measure the benefit to be expected from interventions to prevent disability in older people. The management of multiple and chronic disorders has become a more important issue for healthcare authorities because of increasing requests for medical assistance and healthcare interventions. Among these, pharmacological treatments and drug utilization in older people are pressing issues for healthcare managers and politicians; indeed, a relatively small proportion of the population accounts for a substantial part of public drug costs. Two key sources of pressure are well known: the growing number of elderly persons, who are the highest per-capita users of medicines, and the introduction of new, often more expensive, medicines. On the other hand, the development of strategies for controlling costs, while providing the elderly with equitable access to needed pharmaceuticals, should be based on an evaluation of the economic impact of pharmacological care in older people, taking into account the burden of illness, drug utilization data, drug technology assessment evidence and results. Furthermore, there are major factors affecting pharmacological care in older people: for example inappropriate prescribing, lack of adherence and compliance, and the burden of adverse drug events. The assessment of these factors should be considered a priority in pharmacoeconomic evaluations in the aging population, and the most relevant evidence will be reviewed in this paper with examples referring to particular settings or conditions and diseases, such as the presence of cardiovascular risk factors, diabetes and chronic pain.

Factors influencing cost-related nonadherence to medication in older adults: a conceptually based approach

OBJECTIVE

Although multiple noncost factors likely influence a patient's propensity to forego treatment in the face of cost pressures, little is known about how patients' sociodemographic characteristics, physical and behavioral health comorbidities, and prescription regimens influence cost-related nonadherence (CRN) to medications. We sought to determine both financial and nonfinancial factors associated with CRN in a nationally representative sample of older adults.

METHODS

We used a conceptual model developed by Piette and colleagues that describes financial and nonfinancial factors that could increase someone's risk of CRN, including income, comorbidities, and medication regimen complexity. We used data from the 2004 wave of the Health and Retirement Study and the 2005 HRS Prescription Drug Study to examine the influence of factors within each of these domains on measures of CRN (including not filling, stopping, or skipping doses) in a nationally representative sample of Americans age 65+ in 2005.

RESULTS

Of the 3071 respondents who met study criteria, 20% reported some form of CRN in 2005. As in prior studies, indicators of financial stress such as higher out-of-pocket payments for medications and lower net worth were significantly associated with CRN in multivariable analyses. Controlling for these economic pressures, relatively younger respondents (ages 65-74) and depressive symptoms were consistent independent risk factors for CRN.

CONCLUSIONS

Noncost factors influenced patients' propensity to forego treatment even in the context of cost concerns. Future research encompassing clinician and health system factors should identify additional determinants of CRN beyond patients' cost pressures.

Predictors of rheumatoid arthritis patient-physician communication about medication costs during visits to rheumatologists

OBJECTIVE

To examine the frequency with which medication costs are discussed, and the predictors of these discussions, during visits between rheumatologists and their patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

Audiotapes of medical visits, patient questionnaires, medical records, and physician questionnaires were collected from March 2003 to December 2005. Data were collected from 200 RA patients from 4 rheumatology clinics. Audiotapes were coded for the presence of communication about medication costs using a detailed coding instrument. The final analysis sample included 193 patients and 8 rheumatologists. Stepwise multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the role of patient, physician, medication, and relationship characteristics on discussions of medication costs.

RESULTS

Despite medication changes being made in more than 50% of the visits, only 34% of those visits included discussions of medication-related costs; 48% of these discussions were initiated by patients. In multivariable logistic regression models, communication about medication costs occurred more often when patients were white (compared with nonwhite) and reported an annual income of $20,000-$59,999 (compared with those earning > or =$60,000). Discussions about medication costs also were more common when physicians were white.

CONCLUSION

Although medication changes were common, medication costs were only discussed in one-third of the visits. Communication about medication costs was more common among patients who were white and in a middle income category. Disparities in communication about medication costs have the potential to negatively impact prescribing and subsequent medication use. Further research should examine potential disparities in communication about medication costs.

Lived experience of diabetes among older, rural people

AIM

This paper is a report of a study conducted to elucidate experiences and perceptions of self-management of diabetes as narrated by older people diagnosed with insulin-dependent diabetes living in a rural area.

BACKGROUND

Older people worldwide are disproportionately affected by diabetes and are more likely to have co-morbidities and disabilities. Guidelines for management, developed by the American Diabetes Association, are not targeted for this population. A plethora of quantitative research has investigated self-management issues, with little change to outcomes. This pleads for consideration of a new diabetes education model, which includes consideration of experiences within clients' worldviews.

METHOD

Unstructured interviews starting with an open question were conducted from a purposive sample in 2005. Interviews were transcribed and analysed according to the tenets of existential phenomenology, a process which began with bracketing the researcher's biases. Findings. Living with poorly controlled diabetes led participants to introspection and existential questioning. Four connected themes were identified: 'Your Body Will Let You Know'; 'I Thought I Was Fine, But I Wasn't'; 'The Only Way Out is to Die'; and 'You Just Go On'.

CONCLUSION

Currently designed from a medical perspective, diabetes education should be based on a nursing model incorporating the client's insights and experiences. When managing diabetes is viewed from a client's perspective, the focus becomes solving problems that arise in self-regulation of one's own regimen rather than in complying with doctor's orders. Nurses need to reframe the problem by excluding the compliance/noncompliance model and developing a conceptual perspective on self-management that is grounded in world and body.

Estudo de base populacional da subutilização de medicamentos por motivos financeiros entre idosos na Região Metropolitana de Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estimar a prevalência e avaliar os fatores associados à subutilização de medicamentos por motivos financeiros em amostra representativa de 1.134 idosos, residentes na Região Metropolitana de Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil. A prevalência da subutilização foi de 12,9%, estando independentemente associada à renda pessoal mensal inferior a dois salários mínimos (RP = 0,57; IC95%: 0,34-0,97), à filiação a plano privado de saúde (RP = 0,68; IC95%: 0,46-0,99), à freqüência com que o profissional de saúde esclareceu sobre a saúde/tratamento (raramente/nunca, RP = 1,79; IC95%: 1,10-2,90), à auto-avaliação de saúde (razoável, RP = 1,66; IC95%: 0,95-2,90 e ruim/muito ruim, RP = 2,49; IC95%: 1,38-4,48) e ao número de condições crônicas (uma, RP = 2,51; IC95%: 0,99-6,35; duas, RP = 3,51; IC95%: 1,40-8,72 e três ou mais, RP = 4,52; IC95%: 1,79-11,41). Os resultados confirmam a importância dos aspectos sócio-econômicos para a subutilização, mas indicam que sua determinação também está ligada à qualidade da comunicação médico-paciente. Evidencia-se ainda uma situação de risco para idosos em piores condições de saúde.

Service utilization and health-care costs in the advanced elderly

OBJECTIVES

Despite their increasing importance, the advanced elderly are often neglected in service utilization and costing studies. The purpose of this study was to analyze from societal perspective service utilization and direct health-care costs and its predictors in the advanced elderly population.

METHODS

A bottom-up costing study was conducted using a cross-sectional primary care sample aged 75+ (n = 452) in Germany. The main instruments were a questionnaire of service utilization and costs administered by an interviewer and the chronic disease score (CDS). Predictors were derived by means of multivariate regression models.

RESULTS

Respondents caused mean direct costs of Euro 3730 (95% CI 3203-4257) in prices of 2004/2005. This included inpatient care 34%, pharmaceuticals 29%, outpatient physician services 15%, nursing care 10%, medical supply and dentures 6%, outpatient nonphysician providers 5%, assisted living 1%, and transportation 2%. A shift from lower to middle education and a one-point increase in CDS were associated with an increase of 1678 Euro (95% CI 250-3369) and 482 Euro (95% CI 316-654), respectively. Total mean direct costs did not differ significantly between sexes. Ischemic heart disease and diabetes mellitus were associated with excess costs of 711 Euro and 290 Euro, both being not significant. Altogether 55% of the respondents accounted for 90% of total direct costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Advanced elderly used a wide range of health services. Our study still underestimates the true costs to society. Further research should focus on economic evaluation of new health-care programs for this increasingly important age group.

Effect of prescription drug coverage on health of the elderly

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the effect of prescription drug insurance on health, as measured by self-reported poor health status, functional disability, and hospitalization among the elderly.

DATA

Analyses are based on a nationally representative sample of noninstitutionalized elderly (≥65 years of age) from the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey (MCBS) for years 1992-2000.

STUDY DESIGN

Estimates are obtained using multivariable regression models that control for observed characteristics and unmeasured person-specific effects (i.e., fixed effects).

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In general, prescription drug insurance was not associated with significant changes in self-reported health, functional disability, and hospitalization. The lone exception was for prescription drug coverage obtained through a Medicare HMO. In this case, prescription drug insurance decreased functional disability slightly. Among those elderly with chronic illness and older (71 years or more) elderly, prescription drug insurance was associated with slightly improved functional disability.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that prescription drug coverage had little effect on health or hospitalization for the general population of elderly, but may have some health benefits for chronically ill or older elderly.

Drug use patterns in severely mentally ill Medicare beneficiaries: impact of discontinuities in drug coverage

OBJECTIVE

To describe the extent of drug coverage among severely mentally ill Medicare beneficiaries and to determine whether and to what extent discontinuities in prescription drug coverage influence the use of medications used to treat serious mental health conditions.

DATA SOURCE

1997-2001 Medicare Current Beneficiary Surveys.

STUDY DESIGN

We use a zero-inflated negative binomial model to estimate: (1) the probability of not receiving any mental health drug and (2) the number of medications received, adjusting for age, race, income, census region, health status, and comorbidity. Severe mental illness is defined using inpatient and outpatient claims with ICD-9 codes of schizophrenia, other psychotic disorders, bipolar disorders, and major depression. Mental health medications include antidepressants, antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, anxiolytic/sedative-hypnotics, and stimulants. Prescription drug coverage is assessed as full coverage (0 percent discontinuities), no coverage (100 percent discontinuities), or as discontinuous coverage, measured as 1-25, 26-50, and 51-99 percent of time without coverage.

DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS

We constructed three 3-year longitudinal cohorts of severely mentally ill Medicare beneficiaries residing in the community (n=901).

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Severely mentally ill Medicare beneficiaries with drug coverage discontinuities are more likely than their continuously insured peers not to receive medications used to treat mental health disorders, with the most significant impact seen in the probability of receiving any psychiatric medications. Analysis of two therapeutic classes-antidepressants and antipsychotics-revealed varying impacts of drug gaps on both probability of any drug use, as well as number of medications received among users.

CONCLUSIONS

Severely mentally ill Medicare beneficiaries may be particularly vulnerable to the Medicare Part D drug benefit design and, as such, warrant close evaluation and monitoring to insure adequate access to and utilization of medications used to manage mental illness.

Should health studies measure wealth? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Health researchers rarely measure accumulated wealth to reflect socioeconomic status/position (SES). In order to determine whether health research should more frequently include measures of wealth, this study assessed the relationship between wealth and health.

METHODS

Studies published between 1990 to 2006 were systematically reviewed. Included studies used wealth and at least one other SES measure as independent variables, and a health-related dependent variable.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies met inclusion criteria. Measures of wealth varied greatly. In most studies, greater wealth was associated with better health, even after adjusting for other SES measures. The findings appeared most consistent when using detailed wealth measures on specific assets and debts, rather than a single question. Adjusting for wealth generally decreased observed racial/ethnic disparities in health.

CONCLUSIONS

Health studies should include wealth as an important SES indicator. Failure to measure wealth may result in under-estimating the contribution of SES to health, such as when studying the etiology of racial/ethnic disparities. Validation is needed for simpler approaches to measuring wealth that would be feasible in health studies.

Burden of Common Multiple-Morbidity Constellations on Out-of-Pocket Medical Expenditures Among Older Adults

PURPOSE

On average, adults aged 60 years or older have 2.2 chronic diseases, contributing to the over 60 million Americans with multiple morbidities. We aimed to understand the financial implications of the most frequent multiple morbidities among older adults.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We analyzed Health and Retirement Study data, determining out-of-pocket medical expenses from 1998 and 2002 separately and examining differences in the impact of multiple-morbidity constellations on these expenses. We paid particular attention to the most common disease constellations - hypertension, arthritis, and heart disease.

RESULTS

An increasing prevalence of multiple morbidity (58% compared with 70% of adults had two or more chronic conditions in 1998 and 2002, respectively) was accompanied by escalating out-of-pocket expenditures (2,164 dollars in 1998, increasing by 104% to 3,748 dollars in 2002). Individuals with two, three, and four chronic conditions had health care expenditure increases of 41%, 85%, and 100%, respectively, over 4 years. Such patterns were particularly noticeable among the oldest old, those with higher educational attainment, and women, although having supplementary health insurance or Medicaid mitigated these expenses. Finally, there were significant differences in out-of-pocket expenditure levels among the multiple-morbidity combinations.

IMPLICATIONS

Increasing rates of multiple morbidities in conjunction with escalating health care costs and stable or declining incomes among elders warrant creative attention from providers, researchers, and policy makers. Further understanding how specific multiple-morbidity constellations impact out-of-pocket spending moves us closer to effective interventions to support vulnerable elders.

Patients at-risk for cost-related medication nonadherence: a review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

Up to 32% of older patients take less medication than prescribed to avoid costs, yet a comprehensive assessment of risk factors for cost-related nonadherence (CRN) is not available. This review examined the empirical literature to identify patient-, medication-, and provider-level factors that influence the relationship between medication adherence and medication costs.

DESIGN

We conducted searches of four databases (MEDLINE, CINAHL, Sciences Citations Index Expanded, and EconLit) from 2001 to 2006 for English-language original studies. Articles were selected if the study included an explicit measure of CRN and reported results on covarying characteristics.

MAIN RESULTS

We found 19 studies with empirical support for concluding that certain patients may be susceptible to CRN: research has established consistent links between medication nonadherence due to costs and financial burden, but also to symptoms of depression and heavy disease burden. Only a handful of studies with limited statistical methods provided evidence on whether patients understand the health risks of CRN or to what extent clinicians influence patients to keep taking medications when faced with cost pressures. No relationship emerged between CRN and polypharmacy.

CONCLUSION

Efforts to reduce cost-related medication nonadherence would benefit from greater study of factors besides the presence of prescription drug coverage. Older patients with chronic diseases and mood disorders are at-risk for CRN even if enrolled in Medicare's new drug benefit.

The demise of Oregon's Medically Needy program: effects of losing prescription drug coverage

BACKGROUND

In January 2003, people covered by Oregon's Medically Needy program lost benefits owing to state budget shortfalls. The Medically Needy program is a federally matched optional Medicaid program. In Oregon, this program mainly provided prescription drug benefits.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the Medically Needy population and determine how benefit loss affected this population's health and prescription use.

DESIGN

A 49-question telephone survey instrument created by the research team and administered by a research contractor.

PARTICIPANTS

A random sample of 1,269 eligible enrollees in Oregon's Medically Needy Program. Response rate was 35% with 439 individuals, ages 21-91 and 64% women, completing the survey.

MEASUREMENTS

Demographics, health information, and medication use at the time of the survey obtained from the interview. Medication use during the program obtained from administrative data.

RESULTS

In the 6 months after the Medically Needy program ended, 75% had skipped or stopped medications. Sixty percent of the respondents had cut back on their food budget, 47% had borrowed money, and 49% had skipped paying other bills to pay for medications. By self-report, there was no significant difference in emergency department visits, but a significant decrease in hospitalizations comparing 6 months before and after losing the program. Two-thirds of respondents rated their current health as poor or fair.

CONCLUSIONS

The Medically Needy program provided coverage for a low-income, chronically ill population. Since its termination, enrollees have decreased prescription drug use and increased financial burden. As states make program changes and Medicare Part D evolves, effects on vulnerable populations must be considered.

"Working hard with it": self-management of type 2 diabetes by rural African Americans

The specific aims of this study were to describe the experience of self-managing type 2 diabetes among rural dwelling African Americans, to identify facilitators and barriers to self-management, to describe the use of prescribed and alternative therapies, and to elicit recommendations for programs of diabetes care. Ten focus groups were held in 3 rural communities. Men and women were in separate groups with facilitators matched by race and gender. Seventy-three participants attended the focus groups to discuss the management of diabetes. Group sessions were tape-recorded and transcribed; field notes were also taken. Data were analyzed using Folio Views software and were reviewed by the multidisciplinary team. Results indicate both unique and common themes from this population.

Stories of diagnosis from rural Blacks with diabetes

Diabetes has a disproportionate impact on people of color, including Black Americans. An understanding of the perspectives of rural Blacks is needed to design effective programs of diabetes care. The purpose of this study was to examine the experience of being diagnosed with diabetes as described by rural Blacks. This descriptive, exploratory study conducted gender-separated focus groups in 3 rural communities to capture diagnosis perspectives. Findings may be useful to healthcare professionals providing diabetes care to rural Blacks. Participants could describe events surrounding diagnosis with clarity. For many, the diagnosis was not an emotional and/or surprising experience. Participants commonly used expressive or figurative language to relate their stories of diagnosis, and gender differences were noted. Descriptions of diagnosis revealed valuable infor-mation about participants' perceptions of their diabetes.

Medicare coverage for patients with diabetes. A national plan with individual consequences

The prevalence of diabetes in the U.S. Medicare population is growing at an alarming rate. From 1980 to 2004, the number of people aged 65 or older with diagnosed diabetes increased from 2.3 million to 5.8 million. According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS), 32% of Medicare spending is attributed to the diabetes population. Since its inception, Medicare has expanded medical coverage of monitoring devices, screening tests and visits, educational efforts, and preventive medical services for its diabetic enrollees. However, oral antidiabetic agents and insulin were excluded from reimbursement. In 2003, Congress passed the Medicare Modernization Act that includes a drug benefit to be administered either through Medicare Advantage drug plans or privately sponsored prescription drug plans for implementation in January 2006. In this article we highlight key patient and drug plan characteristics and resources that providers may focus upon to assist their patients choose a coverage plan. Using a case example, we illustrate the variable financial impact the adoption of Medicare part D may have on beneficiaries with diabetes due to their economic status. We further discuss the potential consequences the legislation will have on diabetic patients enrolled in Medicare, their providers, prescribing strategies, and the diabetes market.

Reliability of Group Health Cooperative automated pharmacy data by drug benefit status

PURPOSE

Evaluate the reliability of health plan pharmacy records in determining medication use among seniors with and without a drug benefit.

METHODS

Subjects included 3610 seniors, enrolled in Group Health Cooperative's Medicare (GHC) + Choice program during 1998-1999, receiving care in an integrated group practice (IGP), and diagnosed with one or more of four chronic conditions (hypertension, diabetes, congestive heart failure, and coronary artery disease). We compared pharmacy records to self-reported medication use for antidepressant, antihypertensive, acid suppressant, cardiac, diabetic, hormone, and lipid lowering drugs.

RESULTS

Agreement between pharmacy records and self-report was substantial to almost perfect (prevalence-adjusted and bias-adjusted kappa (PABAK) range: 0.69 for antihypertensives to 0.95 for cardiac agents) among seniors with a drug benefit. Agreement was slightly less for seniors without a drug benefit (PABAK range: 0.51 for antihypertensives to 0.92 for cardiac agents) and differences varied by drug class. Among seniors without a benefit, the prevalence of medication use was lower when based on pharmacy records than when based on self-report for all medication classes of interest.

CONCLUSIONS

While GHC may not be representative of all health plans, our study indicates that health plan pharmacy records are a reliable source of data for seniors receiving care within an IGP. However, the reliability of pharmacy records appears better among seniors with a drug benefit. Researchers should consider factors such as drug benefit status when conducting studies using pharmacy data. More studies are needed in different populations and delivery systems, as well as over varied types of drug benefits.