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Noell K, Pitula JS. A Dual Omics Approach to Evaluate Transcriptional and Metabolic Responses During Lipid Deprivation in an Oyster Parasite, Perkinsus marinus. OMICS-A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2021; 25:93-101. [PMID: 33571063 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2020.0172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan and the causative agent of perkinsosis (dermo disease) is a prevalent parasite found within the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica). In this study, we explore metabolic processes of P. marinus cells under lipid-depleted medium conditions to elucidate the interchanging flux of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Although P. marinus can synthesize their own lipids from available nutrients, they display a slower growth in medium not supplemented with lipids as opposed to medium with lipids. Under these conditions, using transcriptomics, we surprisingly observed evidence of stimulated lipid degradation through increased transcription of two core β-oxidation pathway enzymes. Simultaneously, phospholipid biosynthetic pathways were downregulated. Metabolomic analysis supported the transcriptomic results. Most fatty acids were decreased in lipid-deplete medium as opposed to lipid-replete medium, and available glucose was fermented to lactate. A significant increase in the cholesterol derivative zymosterol further supported a downregulation of membrane synthesis under the experimental conditions. A robust tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle was apparent by enhanced citrate synthase transcription, and a simultaneous reduction in branched chain amino acids. It is concluded that although P. marinus has the capacity for synthesizing its own lipids, it can respond to lipid deprivation in medium by oxidizing readily available stores, and likely transitioning into a resting stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Noell
- Department of Natural Science, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, Maryland, USA
| | - Joseph S Pitula
- Department of Natural Science, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, Maryland, USA
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Maeda K, Yoshinaga T, Itoh N. Development of a simple host-free medium for efficient prezoosporulation of Perkinsus olseni trophozoites cultured in vitro. Parasitol Int 2020; 80:102186. [PMID: 32916259 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2020.102186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The parasitizing stage (trophozoite) of the protozoan parasite Perkinsus olseni progresses to the dormant stage (prezoosporangium) immediately after the death of the host through physiologically and morphologically drastic changes. This development is reproducible in Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM). In this study, supplementation with tissue extract from a host, the Manila clam, significantly improved the efficiency of development, as determined by the numbers and sizes of developed prezoosporangia. Similar results were seen following supplementation with boiled host tissue extract, which indicates that a thermally stable component of the host is required for the parasite's development. Subsequently, we found that a commercially available lipid concentrate significantly increased prezoosporulation without host tissue, suggesting that the lipids in host tissue enhance prezoosporangia development. Moreover, we determined that yeast extract, sodium thioglycollate, and sodium chloride were the only components of RFTM required for prezoosporulation. Based on these findings, we prepared a simple, host-free medium for P. olseni prezoosporulation-Lipid concentrate Yeast extract Medium (LpcYM)-consisting of yeast extract, lipid concentrate, sodium thioglycollate, and sodium chloride. We confirmed that the prezoosporangia developed in LpcYM produce zoospores that are infectious to Manila clams and that trophozoites of other Perkinsus species (P. marinus, P. honshuensis, and P. chesapeaki) also develop to prezoosporangia in this host-free medium. As LpcYM has the simplest composition of prezoosporulation media available thus far, it enables us to conduct molecular and biochemical studies examining the drastic transformation process of this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Maeda
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoyoshi Yoshinaga
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoki Itoh
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan.
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Brazenor AK, Francis DS, Conlan JA, Carton AG, Hutson KS. Temperature alters reproduction and maternal provisioning in a fish ectoparasite. Int J Parasitol 2020; 50:839-849. [PMID: 32663501 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study quantified the effects of temperature on reproduction and maternal provisioning of the ectoparasite, Neobenedenia girellae (Platyhelminthes: Monogenea), a species known to cause detrimental impacts to aquaculture fishes in tropical and subtropical environments worldwide. At 20 and 25 °C, parasites exhibited relatively slower production of larger eggs that were energy-dense. In contrast, parasites at 30 °C attained sexual maturity faster, were reproductively active over a shorter period, grew to a smaller size and laid smaller, less energy-rich eggs at a faster rate. As such, parasites exhibited two distinct reproductive patterns in response to temperature: parasites at lower temperatures produced larger eggs with higher energy content, while those at the higher temperature had a higher rate of egg production. Larger eggs produced under cooler conditions were better provisioned with energetic reserves and important, membrane-bound lipids that would likely facilitate larval longevity and development success. This is commensurate with previous observations of epizootics of this parasite species in aquaculture systems during winter. Meanwhile, eggs produced at 30 °C contained higher proportions of saturated fatty acids compared with polyunsaturated fatty acids, likely reflecting metabolic regulation of cell membrane fluidity, which is necessary for larvae to survive warm conditions. This study demonstrates that fish ectoparasites have evolved substantial reproductive and metabolic flexibility to maximise infection success under variable environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander K Brazenor
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture and the College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - David S Francis
- Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB No 3, Townsville, Queensland 4810, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Jessica A Conlan
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia
| | - Alexander G Carton
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture and the College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia; School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences and Coastal Marine Ecosystems Research Centre (CMERC) Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Queensland 4701, Australia
| | - Kate S Hutson
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture and the College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia; Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
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QUEIROGA FERNANDORAMOS, MARQUES-SANTOS LUISFERNANDO, DE MEDEIROS ISACALMEIDA, DA SILVA PATRÍCIAMIRELLA. Effects of salinity and temperature on in vitro cell cycle and proliferation of Perkinsus marinus from Brazil. Parasitology 2016; 143:475-87. [PMID: 26888407 PMCID: PMC4800715 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182015001602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Field and in vitro studies have shown that high salinities and temperatures promote the proliferation and dissemination of Perkinsus marinus in several environments. In Brazil, the parasite infects native oysters Crassostrea gasar and Crassostrea rhizophorae in the Northeast (NE), where the temperature is high throughout the year. Despite the high prevalence of Perkinsus spp. infection in oysters from the NE of Brazil, no mortality events were reported by oyster farmers to date. The present study evaluated the effects of salinity (5, 20 and 35 psu) and temperature (15, 25 and 35 °C) on in vitro proliferation of P. marinus isolated from a host (C. rhizophorae) in Brazil, for a period of up to 15 days and after the return to the control conditions (22 days; recovery). Different cellular parameters (changes of cell phase's composition, cell density, viability and production of reactive oxygen species) were analysed using flow cytometry. The results indicate that the P. marinus isolate was sensitive to the extreme salinities and temperatures analysed. Only the highest temperature caused lasting cell damage under prolonged exposure, impairing P. marinus recovery, which is likely to be associated with oxidative stress. These findings will contribute to the understanding of the dynamics of perkinsiosis in tropical regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- FERNANDO RAMOS QUEIROGA
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados, Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, CEP 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - LUIS FERNANDO MARQUES-SANTOS
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e do Desenvolvimento, Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, CEP 58051–900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - ISAC ALMEIDA DE MEDEIROS
- Laboratório de Farmacologia Cardiovascular, Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, CEP 58051–900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - PATRÍCIA MIRELLA DA SILVA
- Laboratório de Imunologia e Patologia de Invertebrados, Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, CEP 58051-900, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
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Host–parasite interactions: Marine bivalve molluscs and protozoan parasites, Perkinsus species. J Invertebr Pathol 2013; 114:196-216. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Lipid content and fatty acid composition of the monogeneanNeobenedenia girellaeand comparison between the parasite and host fish species. Parasitology 2008; 135:967-75. [DOI: 10.1017/s0031182008004575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYNeobenedenia girellae, a capsalid monogenean, is a destructive fish parasite. We studied the lipid content and fatty acid composition ofN. girellaeand the skin and cutaneous mucus of a host fish, the amberjackSeriola dumerili(Carangidae). The lipid content of adultN. girellaewas less than one-fourth that of both the skin and cutaneous mucus of its host. AdultN. girellae,S. dumeriliskin and mucus had a relatively high weight-percentage of C16:0, C18:1(n-9), C18:0 and C22:6(n-3) fatty acids. WhenS. dumeriliwere fed a diet supplemented with [13C] fatty acids, [13C] fatty acids were detected inS. dumeriliskin and adultN. girellaeonS. dumerili, but no [13C] fatty acids were detected in theS. dumerilicutaneous mucus. In addition, the epidermis ofS. dumerili, attached withN. girellae, was markedly thin. These results suggest thatN. girellaefeeds primarily on host epithelial cells. We then infected 2 host fishes,S. dumeriliand the spotted halibutVerasper variegatus(Pleuronectidae; a host less susceptible toN. girellaeinfection), and compared the fatty acid composition ofN. girellaewith that of the skin and cutaneous mucus of the hosts. The fatty acid profiles from all samples were qualitatively and quantitatively similar. Thus, the fatty acid composition of the host may not contribute to the difference in susceptibility betweenS. dumeriliandV. variegatus. These results may serve to develop new strategies for the control ofN. girellaeinfections.
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Lund ED, Chu FLE, Soudant P, Harvey E. Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan parasite of the eastern oyster, has a requirement for dietary sterols. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2007; 146:141-7. [PMID: 17112755 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2006] [Revised: 10/04/2006] [Accepted: 10/04/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan parasite of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, causes high mortality in its host along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America. P. marinus meronts cultured in vitro in medium containing complete lipid supplement (cod liver oil, cholesterol and alpha tocopherol acetate in detergent) are able to synthesize a wide variety of lipids, yet cultures cannot be maintained in lipid-free medium. To determine P. marinus lipid requirements meronts were inoculated into media containing different combinations of lipid components in detergent. Treatments included complete lipid supplement (positive control), detergent only (negative control), cholesterol in detergent, alpha tocopherol acetate in detergent and cholesterol+alpha tocopherol acetate in detergent. Meronts proliferated in the positive control medium and media containing cholesterol or cholesterol+alpha tocopherol acetate, but failed to proliferate in the negative control medium and the medium containing just alpha tocopherol acetate. Gas chromatography analysis of P. marinus meronts grown in medium with added (13)C sodium acetate (0.5 mg mL(-1)) revealed the presence of fatty acids containing (13)C, but the only sterol present was cholesterol containing no (13)C. These results suggest that P. marinus cannot synthesize sterols and must sequester them from its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric D Lund
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Chu FLE, Soudant P, Lund ED. Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan parasite of the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica): effects of temperature on the uptake and metabolism of fluorescent lipid analogs and lipase activities. Exp Parasitol 2003; 105:121-30. [PMID: 14969689 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2003.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2003] [Revised: 09/08/2003] [Accepted: 11/11/2003] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The effects of temperature on the uptake and metabolism of fluorescent labeled palmitic acid (FLC16) and phosphatidylcholine (FLPC) and lipase activities in the oyster protozoan parasite, Perkinsus marinus, meront stage were tested at 10, 18, and 28 degrees C. Temperature significantly affected not only the uptake, assimilation, and metabolism of both FLC16 and FLPC in P. marinus, but also its triacylglycerol (TAG) lipase activities. The incorporation of both FLC16 and FLPC increased with temperature and paralleled the increase in the amount of total fatty acids in P. marinus meront cultures. The incorporation of FLC16 was higher than FLPC at all temperatures. The percentage of FLC16 metabolized to TAG was significantly higher at higher temperatures. Trace amounts of incorporated FLC16 were detected in monoacylglycerol (MAG) and PC at 18 and 28 degrees C. P. marinus meronts metabolized FLPC to TAG, diacylglycerol (DAG), monoacylglycerol (MAG), free fatty acids (FFA), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and cardiolipin (CL). The conversion of FLPC to TAG and PE was highest at 28 degrees C. The relative proportions of individual fatty acids and total saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids changed with temperatures. While total saturated fatty acids (SAFAs) increased with temperature, total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) decreased with temperature. Total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) increased from 28 to 18 degrees C. The findings of increase of total SAFAs and decrease of total MUFAs with the increase of temperatures and upward shift of total PUFAs from 28 to 18 degrees C suggest that, as in other organisms, P. marinus is capable of adapting to changes in environmental temperatures by modifying its lipid metabolism. Generally, higher lipase activities were noted at higher cultivation temperatures. Both TAG lipase and phospholipase activities were detected in P. marinus cells and their extra cellular products (ECP), but phospholipase activities in both the cell pellets and ECP were very low. Also, lipase activities were much lower in ECP than in the cells. The observations of low metabolism, bioconversion of incorporated fluorescent lipid analogs and lipase activities at low temperatures are consistent with the low in vitro growth rate and low infectivity of P. marinus at low temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Lin E Chu
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA.
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Lund ED, Chu FLE. Phospholipid biosynthesis in the oyster protozoan parasite, Perkinsus marinus. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2002; 121:245-53. [PMID: 12034458 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(02)00046-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Perkinsus marinus is a protozoan parasite that causes high mortality in its commercially and ecologically important host, the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. In order to understand the host-parasite relationship in lipid metabolism, the ability of P. marinus to synthesize phospholipids from polar headgroup precursors was investigated. Pulse/chase experiments were conducted using radiolabled serine, choline, ethanolamine and inositol. Timecourse incubations revealed that in vitro cultured P. marinus meronts can utilize the cytidine diphosphate-diacylglycerol (CDP-DAG) pathway to synthesize phosphatidylinositol (PI) from inositol and phosphatidylserine (PS) from serine. Serine label was also incorporated into phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine (PC) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). Incubations of P. marinus cells with increasing concentrations of radiolabeled serine resulted in more radioactivity recovered in neutral lipids than in polar lipids at the highest substrate concentration tested (344 microM). This suggests that excess serine label was being utilized for fatty acid synthesis and stored as triacylglycerols. Additional incubations were conducted with radiolabeled choline and ethanolamine at concentrations equimolar to the highest serine concentration tested. Ethanolamine label was also incorporated into PE, PS, PC and LPC. Choline label was incorporated into PC. These results suggest the presence of three pathways for de novo synthesis of phospholipids in P. marinus: CDP-choline, CDP-ethanolamine and CDP-DAG. At equivalent substrate concentrations (344 microM) the highest incorporation of labeled substrate into total phospholipids was with serine followed by ethanolamine and choline, respectively. P. marinus phospholipid biosynthetic capabilities appear to be similar to those of Plasmodium and Trypanosoma species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric D Lund
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
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Chu FLE, Lund E, Soudant P, Harvey E. De novo arachidonic acid synthesis in Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan parasite of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2002; 119:179-90. [PMID: 11814570 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(01)00413-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The capability of synthesizing fatty acids de novo in the meront stage of the oyster protozoan parasite, Perkinsus marinus, was investigated employing stable-isotope-labeled precursors (1,2 13C-acetate and palmitic-d(31) acid). Fatty acid methyl esters derived from 1,2 13C-acetate and palmitic-d(31) acid were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/flame ionization detection. Results revealed that in vitro cultured P. marinus meronts utilized 13C-acetate to synthesize a range of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The saturated fatty acids 14:0, 16:0, 18:0, 20:0, 22:0, 24:0 and the unsaturated fatty acids, 18:1(n-9), 18:2(n-6), 20:1(n-9), 20:2(n-6), 20:2(n-9), 20:3(n-6), 20:4(n-6) were found to contain 13C, after 7, 14, and 21 days incubation with the precursor. This indicates that meronts can synthesize fatty acid de novo using acetate as a substrate. Meronts efficiently elongated 16:0-d(31) to 18:0, 20:0, 22:0, 24:0, but desaturation activity was limited, after 7 and 14 days cultivation. Only a small quantity of 18:1-d(29) was detected. This suggests that meronts cannot directly convert exogenous palmitic acid or its products of elongation to unsaturated counterparts. The ability to synthesize 20:4(n-6) from acetate is particularly interesting. No parasitic protozoan has been reported to be capable of synthesizing long chain essential fatty acids, such as 20:4(n-6) de novo. Future study will be directed to determine whether the observed in vitro activities indeed reflect the in vivo activities, when meronts are associated with the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Lin E Chu
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
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