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Kumatia EK, Zoiku FK, Asase A, Tung NH. Anti-malarial activity of the alkaloid, heptaphylline, and the furanocoumarin, imperatorin, from Clausena anisata against human Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites: ex vivo trophozoitocidal, schizonticidal and gametocytocidal approach. Malar J 2023; 22:264. [PMID: 37689679 PMCID: PMC10492307 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-023-04678-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The erythrocytic stage of the life cycle of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, consists of trophozoite, schizont and gametocyte stages in humans. Various anti-malarial agents target different stages of the parasite to produce treatment outcomes. This study reports on the stage-specific anti-malarial activity of heptaphylline and imperatorin against human P. falciparum in addition to their cytotoxicity and selectivity indices (SI). METHODS The compounds were isolated from Clausena anisata using column chromatography and their structures elucidated using NMR spectroscopy. The anti-malarial activity was determined by measuring the trophozoitocidal, schizonticidal and gametocytocidal activities of the compounds using the SYBR green assay. Cytotoxicity was evaluated using the tetrazolium-based colorimetric assay. RESULTS Heptaphylline and imperatorin produced trophozoitocidal, schizonticidal and gametocytocidal activities with IC50s of 1.57 (0.2317)-26.92 (0.3144) µM with those of artesunate (the standard drug) being 0.00024 (0.0036)-0.0070 (0.0013) µM. In the cytotoxicity assay, the compounds produced CC50S greater than 350 µM and SI of 13.76-235.90. Also, the trophozoitocidal and schizonticidal activities of the compounds were more pronounced than their gametocytocidal activity. Imperatorin was 42.04% more trophozoitocidal than hepthaphyline. However, hepthaphyline has more schizonticidal and gametocytocidal properties than imperatorin. CONCLUSION Heptaphylline and imperatorin are promising anti-malarial agents, since they possess potent anti-malarial activity with weak cytotoxicity on RBCs. However, imperatorin is a better anti-malarial prophylactic agent whereas heptaphylline is a better malaria treatment agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Kofi Kumatia
- Department of Phytochemistry, Centre for Plant Medicine Research, P.O. Box 73, Mampong-Akuapem, Ghana.
- Department of Quality Management, Centre for Plant Medicine Research, Mampong-Akuapem, Ghana.
| | - Felix Kwame Zoiku
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Health Science, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Alex Asase
- Plant Development Department, Centre for Plant Medicine Research, Mampong-Akuapem, Ghana
| | - Nguyen Huu Tung
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Phenikaa University, Hanoi, 12116, Vietnam.
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Behnia M, Latifi A, Rezaian M, Kharazi S, Mohebali M, Yasami S, Saghafi S, Chahardoli R, Anasori N, Torkian H, Soleimani M, Niyyati M, Kazemirad E. In Vitro Activity of Pentamidine Isethionate against Trophozoite and Cyst of Acanthamoeba. Iran J Parasitol 2021; 16:560-566. [PMID: 35082884 PMCID: PMC8710197 DOI: 10.18502/ijpa.v16i4.7868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acanthamoebae are a causative agent of Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) in immunocompetent individuals. Since access to propamidine isethionate (Brolene®) as a first-line treatment has been limited in recent years, in the current study, we examined the effects of pentamidine isethionate against trophozoite and cyst forms of Acanthamoeba. METHODS This experimental study was conducted in the Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, during 2019-2020. Pentamidine isethionate at concentrations of 50, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 μM were tested against trophozoites and cyst stages of T4 genotype, at 24- and 48-hour incubation period, and the viability was determined by trypan blue staining. In addition, the cytotoxic effect of the drug was examined in Vero cells using the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. RESULTS The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of pentamidine isethionate on trophozoite after 24 and 48h were 97.4 μM and 60.99 μM. These results on cyst after 24 and 48h were 470 μM and 175.5 μM, respectively. In MTT assay, the drug showed an inhibitory effect on Vero cell growth with IC50 values of 115.4 μM and 87.42 μM after 24h and 48h, respectively. CONCLUSION Pentamidine isethionate exhibited an inhibitory effect on trophozoite and cyst. Given that the trophozoicidal activity of the drug is in the safe dose, it could be suggested as an alternative in patients with AK; however, further investigation is needed in an animal model to confirm the data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massoud Behnia
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Latifi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mostafa Rezaian
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sharmin Kharazi
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Mohebali
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Setayesh Yasami
- Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shiva Saghafi
- Immunology, Asthma and Allergy Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Chahardoli
- School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Narges Anasori
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hakimeh Torkian
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Soleimani
- Department of Ocular Trauma and Emergency, Farabi Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Niyyati
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elham Kazemirad
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Watanabe K, Yanagawa Y, Gatanaga H, Kikuchi Y, Oka S. Performance of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent-based serological assay for Entamoeba histolytica: Comparison with an indirect immunofluorescence assay using stored frozen samples. J Infect Chemother 2021; 27:736-739. [PMID: 33483275 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2020.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Entamoeba histolytica infections are increasingly diagnosed as sexually transmitted infections in Japan. However, the stool ova-parasite examination (O&P) test has been the only approved diagnostic method used in Japan since production of the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) serum antibody test was discontinued at the end of 2017. Herein, we assessed whether an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based serological test could substitute for IFA. METHODS This cross-sectional study used stored frozen serum samples from the Biobank of the National Center for Global Health and Medicine. A serological ELISA-based test was performed on these samples and their titers were compared with those previously measured by IFA based on the medical record data. RESULTS Sixty seven stored frozen serum samples with differing recorded IFA antibody titers (16 samples with titers < ×100, 13 samples × 100, 16 samples × 200, 11 samples × 400, and 11 samples ≥ × 800) were analyzed. The sensitivity and specificity values for ELISA vs. IFA were 92.2% [95% confidential interval: 81.5-96.9] and 87.5% [64.0-97.8], respectively. A strong correlation between the antibody titers was confirmed by a one-way ANOVA (R square 0.83, p value < 0.0001) for the two diagnostic methods. CONCLUSION The ELISA and IFA antibody titers for E. histolytica were well correlated, and results from these methods were highly concordant. Introduction of an ELISA-based serological test for E. histolytica should be considered to improve E. histolytica infection diagnosis in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Watanabe
- AIDS Clinical Center, National Center of Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Yasuaki Yanagawa
- AIDS Clinical Center, National Center of Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Gatanaga
- AIDS Clinical Center, National Center of Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan; Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Kikuchi
- AIDS Clinical Center, National Center of Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinichi Oka
- AIDS Clinical Center, National Center of Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan; Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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Ghergab A, Selin C, Tanner J, Brassinga AK, Dekievit T. Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 metabolites protect against protozoan grazing by the predator Acanthamoeba castellanii. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10756. [PMID: 33552738 PMCID: PMC7831366 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Pseudomonas chlororaphis strain PA23 is a biocontrol agent that is able to protect canola against the pathogenic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. This bacterium secretes a number of metabolites that contribute to fungal antagonism, including pyrrolnitrin (PRN), phenazine (PHZ), hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and degradative enzymes. In order to be successful, a biocontrol agent must be able to persist in the environment and avoid the threat of grazing predators. The focus of the current study was to investigate whether PA23 is able to resist grazing by the protozoan predator Acanthamoeba castellanii (Ac) and to define the role of bacterial metabolites in the PA23-Ac interaction. Methods Ac was co-cultured with PA23 WT and a panel of derivative strains for a period of 15 days, and bacteria and amoebae were enumerated on days 1, 5, 10 and 15. Ac was subsequently incubated in the presence of purified PRN, PHZ, and KCN and viability was assessed at 24, 48 and 72 h. Chemotactic assays were conducted to assess whether PA23 compounds exhibit repellent or attractant properties towards Ac. Finally, PA23 grown in the presence and absence of amoebae was subject to phenotypic characterization and gene expression analyses. Results PRN, PHZ and HCN were found to contribute to PA23 toxicity towards Ac trophozoites, either by killing or inducing cyst formation. This is the first report of PHZ-mediated toxicity towards amoebae. In chemotaxis assays, amoebae preferentially migrated towards regulatory mutants devoid of extracellular metabolite production as well as a PRN mutant, indicating this antibiotic has repellent properties. Co-culturing of bacteria with amoebae led to elevated expression of the PA23 phzI/phzR quorum-sensing (QS) genes and phzA and prnA, which are under QS control. PHZ and PRN levels were similarly increased in Ac co-cultures, suggesting that PA23 can respond to predator cues and upregulate expression of toxins accordingly. Conclusions PA23 compounds including PRN, PHZ and HCN exhibited both toxic and repellent effects on Ac. Co-culturing of bacteria and amoebae lead to changes in bacterial gene expression and secondary metabolite production, suggesting that PA23 can sense the presence of these would-be predators and adjust its physiology in response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akrm Ghergab
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Carrie Selin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Jennifer Tanner
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Ann Karen Brassinga
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Teresa Dekievit
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Maeda K, Yoshinaga T, Itoh N. Development of a simple host-free medium for efficient prezoosporulation of Perkinsus olseni trophozoites cultured in vitro. Parasitol Int 2020; 80:102186. [PMID: 32916259 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2020.102186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The parasitizing stage (trophozoite) of the protozoan parasite Perkinsus olseni progresses to the dormant stage (prezoosporangium) immediately after the death of the host through physiologically and morphologically drastic changes. This development is reproducible in Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium (RFTM). In this study, supplementation with tissue extract from a host, the Manila clam, significantly improved the efficiency of development, as determined by the numbers and sizes of developed prezoosporangia. Similar results were seen following supplementation with boiled host tissue extract, which indicates that a thermally stable component of the host is required for the parasite's development. Subsequently, we found that a commercially available lipid concentrate significantly increased prezoosporulation without host tissue, suggesting that the lipids in host tissue enhance prezoosporangia development. Moreover, we determined that yeast extract, sodium thioglycollate, and sodium chloride were the only components of RFTM required for prezoosporulation. Based on these findings, we prepared a simple, host-free medium for P. olseni prezoosporulation-Lipid concentrate Yeast extract Medium (LpcYM)-consisting of yeast extract, lipid concentrate, sodium thioglycollate, and sodium chloride. We confirmed that the prezoosporangia developed in LpcYM produce zoospores that are infectious to Manila clams and that trophozoites of other Perkinsus species (P. marinus, P. honshuensis, and P. chesapeaki) also develop to prezoosporangia in this host-free medium. As LpcYM has the simplest composition of prezoosporulation media available thus far, it enables us to conduct molecular and biochemical studies examining the drastic transformation process of this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Maeda
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoyoshi Yoshinaga
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoki Itoh
- Laboratory of Fish Diseases, Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan.
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Fakae LB, Stevenson CW, Zhu XQ, Elsheikha HM. In vitro activity of Camellia sinensis (green tea) against trophozoites and cysts of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2020; 13:59-72. [PMID: 32512260 PMCID: PMC7281304 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2020.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The effect of Camellia sinensis (green tea) on the growth of Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoites was examined using a microplate based-Sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay. C. sinensis hot and cold brews at 75% and 100% concentrations significantly inhibited the growth of trophozoites. We also examined the structural alterations in C. sinensis-treated trophozoites using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This analysis showed that C. sinensis compromised the cell membrane integrity and caused progressive destruction of trophozoites. C. sinensis also significantly inhibited the parasite's ability to form cysts in a dose-dependent manner and reduced the rate of excystation from cysts to trophozoites. C. sinensis exhibited low cytotoxic effects on primary corneal stromal cells. However, cytotoxicity was more pronounced in SV40-immortalized corneal epithelial cells. Chromatographic analysis showed that both hot and cold C. sinensis brews contained the same number and type of chemical compounds. This work demonstrated that C. sinensis has anti-acanthamoebic activity against trophozoite and cystic forms of A. castellanii. Further studies are warranted to identify the exact substances in C. sinensis that have the most potent anti-acanthamoebic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenu B Fakae
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK; School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK; Rivers State University, Nkpolu - Oroworukwo P.M.B 5080, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
| | - Carl W Stevenson
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, China
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK.
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Pogula PK, De Chatterjee A, Chi M, VanKoten HW, Das S, Patterson SE. Triazoxins: Novel nucleosides with anti-Giardia activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127175. [PMID: 32327222 PMCID: PMC11069466 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Novel nucleoside analogues named "triazoxins" were synthesized. Of these, two analogues were found to be highly effective against Giardia lamblia, an intestinal parasite and a major cause of waterborne infection, worldwide. While compound 7 reduced the growth of trophozoites in culture (IC50, ~5 μM), compound 21 blocked the in vitro cyst production (IC50 ~5 μM). Compound 21 was also effective against trophozoites (IC50, ~36 μM). A third analogue (compound 8) was effective against both trophozoites (IC50, ~36 μM) and cysts (IC50, ~20 μM) although at higher concentration. Thus triazoxin analogues are unique and exhibit morphology (i.e., trohozoites or cysts) -specific effects against Giardia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen K Pogula
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Atasi De Chatterjee
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968-0519, United States
| | - Miguel Chi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968-0519, United States
| | - Harrison W VanKoten
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Siddhartha Das
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968-0519, United States.
| | - Steven E Patterson
- Center for Drug Design, College of Pharmacy, Academic Health Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
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Liang Q, Lu YB, Fu H, Yan XB, Miao F. [Treatment of Chilomastix mesnili infection with traditional Chinese medicine: a case report]. Zhongguo Xue Xi Chong Bing Fang Zhi Za Zhi 2020; 33:327-328. [PMID: 34286541 DOI: 10.16250/j.32.1374.2019295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports a case with Chilomastix mesnili infections, and summarizes the diagnosis and treatment with traditional Chinese medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Liang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Gansu Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou 735000, China
| | - Y B Lu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Gansu Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou 735000, China
| | - H Fu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Gansu Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou 735000, China
| | - X B Yan
- Department of Paediatrics, Jining First People's Hospital, Shandong Province, China
| | - F Miao
- Shandong Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, China
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Umeda K, Yang X, Waki T, Yoshinaga T, Itoh N. The effects of environmental and nutritional conditions on the development of Perkinsus olseni prezoosporangia. Exp Parasitol 2019; 209:107827. [PMID: 31877276 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2019.107827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Perkinsus olseni is a widely distributed protozoan pathogen that infects a wide range of marine mollusks. Prezoosporulation of P. olseni trophozoites is easily observed in Ray's fluid thioglycollate medium, but in nature, trophozoites within host tissue should be able to develop into prezoosporangia without any additional artificial medium after the host dies. How this process might work in field conditions remains poorly understood, however, partly because of the lack of appropriate in vitro assays. In this study, we observed that trophozoites of P. olseni successfully developed into prezoosporangia when mixed with minced tissue of the Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum and placed in seawater. We were thus able to establish a new method to examine the development of P. olseni to prezoosporangia under artificially simulated natural environmental conditions. Using this method, we found that low temperatures (5 °C, 15 °C) significantly suppressed prezoosporangia development. In addition, we found that prezoosporangia were developed in a wide range of salinities (10-50 practical salinity unit) and that P. olseni requires some nutrition factors from host tissue for prezoosporulation to occur. Because the transmission of P. olseni among a host population highly depends on the developmental process of prezoosporangia, which leads to production of the infective zoospore stage, these results will help further our understanding of the parasite's infection dynamics in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kousuke Umeda
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan; National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Nishi-2-13, Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Xia Yang
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Waki
- Meguro Parasitological Museum, 4-1-1, Shimomeguro, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-0064, Japan; Graduate School of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, 274-8510, Japan
| | - Tomoyoshi Yoshinaga
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Naoki Itoh
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
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Sifaoui I, Reyes-Batlle M, López-Arencibia A, Chiboub O, Bethencourt-Estrella CJ, San Nicolás-Hernández D, Rodríguez Expósito RL, Rizo-Liendo A, Piñero JE, Lorenzo-Morales J. Screening of the pathogen box for the identification of anti-Acanthamoeba agents. Exp Parasitol 2019; 201:90-92. [PMID: 31059693 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2019.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba are free living amoeba that have been isolated from different environments like soil, water, air dust. Moreover, they are also able to act as opportunist pathogens, mainly causing a fatal encephalitis and also keratitis in both human and animals. This study was aimed to evaluate the activity of the Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) compounds against the trophozoite stage of Acanthamoeba castellanii Neff. Sixteen compounds showed ≥90% inhibition of parasite growth in the initial screen (10 μM). Those set were further evaluated to determine the inhibitor concentration that inhibit the 50% of the initial population and cytotoxicity against murine macrophages. Among the compounds included in the pathogen box, pentamidine and posaconazole were the most effective against this parasite with an of IC50 of 0.567 ± 0.04 and 0.630 ± 0.11, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Sifaoui
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain; Laboratoire Matériaux-Molécules et Applications, IPEST, B.P 51 2070, La Marsa, University of Carthage, Tunisia
| | - María Reyes-Batlle
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Atteneri López-Arencibia
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Olfa Chiboub
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain; Laboratoire Matériaux-Molécules et Applications, IPEST, B.P 51 2070, La Marsa, University of Carthage, Tunisia
| | - Carlos J Bethencourt-Estrella
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Desirée San Nicolás-Hernández
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Rubén L Rodríguez Expósito
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Aitor Rizo-Liendo
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - José E Piñero
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.
| | - Jacob Lorenzo-Morales
- University Institute of Tropical Diseases and Public Health, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda Francisco Sanchez s/n, Campus de Anchieta, 38271, la Laguna Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
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11
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Zhou W, Warrilow AGS, Thomas CD, Ramos E, Parker JE, Price CL, Vanderloop BH, Fisher PM, Loftis MD, Kelly DE, Kelly SL, Nes WD. Functional importance for developmental regulation of sterol biosynthesis in Acanthamoeba castellanii. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2018; 1863:1164-1178. [PMID: 30044954 PMCID: PMC6180906 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The sterol metabolome of Acanthamoeba castellanii (Ac) yielded 25 sterols. Substrate screening of cloned AcCYP51 revealed obtusifoliol as the natural substrate which converts to ∆8,14-sterol (<95%). The combination of [2H3-methyl]methionine incubation to intact cultures showing C28-ergosterol incorporates 2-2H atoms and C29-7-dehydroporiferasterol incorporates 5 2H-atoms, the natural distribution of sterols, CYP51 and previously published sterol methyltransferase (SMT) data indicate separate ∆24(28)- and ∆25(27)-olefin pathways to C28- and C29-sterol products from the protosterol cycloartenol. In cell-based culture, we observed a marked change in sterol compositions during the growth and encystment phases monitored microscopically and by trypan blue staining; trophozoites possess C28/C29-∆5,7-sterols, viable encysted cells (mature cyst) possess mostly C29-∆5-sterol and non-viable encysted cells possess C28/C29-∆5,7-sterols that turnover variably from stress to 6-methyl aromatic sterols associated with changed membrane fluidity affording lysis. An incompatible fit of steroidal aromatics in membranes was confirmed using the yeast sterol auxotroph GL7. Only viable cysts, including those treated with inhibitor, can excyst into trophozoites. 25-Azacycloartanol or voriconazole that target SMT and CYP51, respectively, are potent enzyme inhibitors in the nanomolar range against the cloned enzymes and amoeba cells. At minimum amoebicidal concentration of inhibitor amoeboid cells rapidly convert to encysted cells unable to excyst. The correlation between stage-specific sterol compositions and the physiological effects of ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors suggests that amoeba fitness is controlled mainly by developmentally-regulated changes in the phytosterol B-ring; paired interference in the ∆5,7-sterol biosynthesis (to ∆5,7) - metabolism (to ∆5 or 6-methyl aromatic) congruence during cell proliferation and encystment could be a source of therapeutic intervention for Acanthamoeba infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxu Zhou
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America
| | - Andrew G S Warrilow
- Center for Cytochrome P450 Biodiversity, Institute of Life Science, School of Medicine, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Crista D Thomas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America
| | - Emilio Ramos
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America
| | - Josie E Parker
- Center for Cytochrome P450 Biodiversity, Institute of Life Science, School of Medicine, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Claire L Price
- Center for Cytochrome P450 Biodiversity, Institute of Life Science, School of Medicine, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Boden H Vanderloop
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America
| | - Paxtyn M Fisher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America
| | - Michael D Loftis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America
| | - Diane E Kelly
- Center for Cytochrome P450 Biodiversity, Institute of Life Science, School of Medicine, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Steven L Kelly
- Center for Cytochrome P450 Biodiversity, Institute of Life Science, School of Medicine, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - W David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States of America.
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12
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Martín-Pérez T, Criado-Fornelio A, Ávila-Blanco M, Pérez-Serrano J. Development and optimization of new culture media for Acanthamoeba spp. (Protozoa: Amoebozoa). Eur J Protistol 2018; 64:91-102. [PMID: 29730482 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The isolation and growth in axenic liquid media of Acanthamoeba strains is necessary in order to carry out primary in vitro drug screening. Amoebic isolates which are hard to grow in the current liquid media have been reported. Such circumstances hampers the ability of conducting drug sensitivity tests. Therefore, finding suitable universal growth media for Acanthamoeba species is required. The present study was aimed at the development of liquid medium suitable for growing a fastidious (F) genotype T3 Acanthamoeba isolate, and eventually for other genotypes of this genus as well. Trophozoite growth was indirectly monitored by respiration analysis with oxygen-sensitive microplates (OSM) and further confirmed by manual counting. Media were empirically designed and tested first in a non-fastidious (NF) T3 isolate and then tested with 14 different strains, including the fastidious one. Combinations of nutritive components such as meat/vegetable broth, LB medium, malt and skimmed milk led to the design of new media suitable for culturing all the isolates tested, in conditions similar to those obtained in standard culture media such as PYG or CERVA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Martín-Pérez
- Departamento de Biomedicina y Biotecnología, Laboratorio de Parasitología, Grupo ECOMYP, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Angel Criado-Fornelio
- Departamento de Biomedicina y Biotecnología, Laboratorio de Parasitología, Grupo ECOMYP, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Ávila-Blanco
- Departamento de Biomedicina y Biotecnología, Laboratorio de Parasitología, Grupo ECOMYP, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain; Laboratorio de ciencias morfológicas, Departamento de Morfología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Ciudad Universitaria, Aguascalientes, Ags., México
| | - Jorge Pérez-Serrano
- Departamento de Biomedicina y Biotecnología, Laboratorio de Parasitología, Grupo ECOMYP, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
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13
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Edwinson A, Widmer G, McEvoy J. Glycoproteins and Gal-GalNAc cause Cryptosporidium to switch from an invasive sporozoite to a replicative trophozoite. Int J Parasitol 2016; 46:67-74. [PMID: 26432292 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The apicomplexan parasite Cryptosporidium causes cryptosporidiosis, a diarrheal disease that can become chronic and life threatening in immunocompromised and malnourished people. There is no effective drug treatment for those most at risk of severe cryptosporidiosis. The disease pathology is due to a repeated cycle of host cell invasion and parasite replication that amplifies parasite numbers and destroys the intestinal epithelium. This study aimed to better understand the Cryptosporidium replication cycle by identifying molecules that trigger the switch from invasive sporozoite to replicative trophozoite. Our approach was to treat sporozoites of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis, the species causing most human cryptosporidiosis, with various media under axenic conditions and examine the parasites for rounding and nuclear division as markers of trophozoite development and replication, respectively. FBS had a concentration-dependent effect on trophozoite development in both species. Trophozoite development in C. parvum, but not C. hominis, was enhanced when RPMI supplemented with 10% FBS (RPMI-FBS) was conditioned by HCT-8 cells for 3h. The effect of non-conditioned and HCT-8 conditioned RPMI-FBS on trophozoite development was abrogated by proteinase K and sodium metaperiodate pretreatment, indicating a glycoprotein trigger. Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis trophozoite development also was triggered by Gal-GalNAc in a concentration-dependent manner. Cryptosporidium parvum replication was greatest following treatments with Gal-GalNAc, followed by conditioned RPMI-FBS and non-conditioned RPMI-FBS (P<0.05). Cryptosporidium hominis replication was significantly less than that in C. parvum for all treatments (P<0.05), and was greatest at the highest tested concentration of Gal-GalNAc (1mM).
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14
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Santos SS, Nielsen TK, Hansen LH, Winding A. Comparison of three DNA extraction methods for recovery of soil protist DNA. J Microbiol Methods 2015; 115:13-9. [PMID: 25966645 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2015.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Revised: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of molecular methods to investigate protist communities in soil is in rapid development this decade. Molecular analysis of soil protist communities is usually dependant on direct genomic DNA extraction from soil and inefficient or differential DNA extraction of protist DNA can lead to bias in downstream community analysis. Three commonly used soil DNA extraction methods have been tested on soil samples from three European Long-Term Observatories (LTOs) with different land-use and three protist cultures belonging to different phylogenetic groups in different growth stages. The methods tested were: ISOm-11063 (a version of the ISO-11063 method modified to include a FastPrep ®-24 mechanical lysis step), GnS-GII (developed by the GenoSol platform to extract soil DNA in large-scale soil surveys) and a commercial DNA extraction kit - Power Lyzer™ PowerSoil® DNA Isolation Kit (MoBio). DNA yield and quality were evaluated along with DNA suitability for amplification of 18S rDNA fragments by PCR. On soil samples, ISOm-11063 yields significantly higher DNA for two of the three soil samples, however, MoBio extraction favors DNA quality. This method was also more effective to recover copies of 18S rDNA numbers from all soil types. In addition and despite the lower yields, higher DNA quality was observed with DNA extracted from protist cultures with the MoBio method. Likewise, a bead-beating step shows to be a good solution for DNA extraction of soil protists, since the recovery of DNA from protist cultures and from the different soil samples with the ISOm method proved to be efficient in recovering PCR-amplifiable DNA. This study showed that soil DNA extraction methods provide biased results towards the cyst stages of protist organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana S Santos
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Tue Kjærgaard Nielsen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Lars H Hansen
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Anne Winding
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
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15
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Ning TZ, Kin WW, Mustafa S, Ahmed A, Noordin R, Cheong TG, Alfonso OG, Huat LB. Detection of Entamoeba histolytica in experimentally induced amoebic liver abscess: comparison of three staining methods. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 2:61-5. [PMID: 23569836 DOI: 10.1016/s2221-1691(11)60191-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2011] [Revised: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the efficacy of three different tissue stains, namely haematoxylin and eosin (H&E), periodic-acid Schiff (PAS) and immunohistochemical (IHC) stains for detection of Entamoeba histolytica (E. histolytica) trophozoites in abscessed liver tissues of hamster. METHODS Amoebic liver abscess was experimentally induced in a hamster by injecting 1 × 10(6) of axenically cultured virulent E. histolytica trophozoites (HM1-IMSS strain) into the portal vein. After a week post-inoculation, the hamster was sacrificed and the liver tissue sections were stained with H&E, PAS and IHC stains to detect the amoebic trophozoite. RESULTS The three stains revealed tissue necrosis and amoebic trophozoites, but with varying clarity. H&E and PAS stained the trophozoites pink and magenta, respectively, however it was difficult to differentiate the stained trophozoites from the macrophages because of their similarity in size and morphology. On the other hand, IHC stain revealed distinct brown appearance of the trophozoites in the infected liver tissues. CONCLUSIONS It can be concluded that out of the three stains, IHC is the best for identification of E. histolytica trophozoites in tissue sections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tan Zi Ning
- School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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16
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Caumo KS, Monteiro KM, Ott TR, Maschio VJ, Wagner G, Ferreira HB, Rott MB. Proteomic profiling of the infective trophozoite stage of Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Acta Trop 2014; 140:166-72. [PMID: 25149354 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2014.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba polyphaga is a free-living protozoan pathogen, whose infective trophozoite form is capable of causing a blinding keratitis and fatal granulomatous encephalitis in humans. The damage caused by A. polyphaga trophozoites in human corneal or brain infections is the result of several different pathogenic mechanisms that have not yet been elucidated at the molecular level. We performed a comprehensive analysis of the proteins expressed by A. polyphaga trophozoites, based on complementary 2-DE MS/MS and gel-free LC-MS/MS approaches. Overall, 202 non-redundant proteins were identified. An A. polyphaga proteomic map in the pH range 3-10 was produced, with protein identification for 184 of 370 resolved spots, corresponding to 142 proteins. Additionally, 94 proteins were identified by gel-free LC-MS/MS. Functional classification revealed several proteins with potential importance for pathogen survival and infection of mammalian hosts, including surface proteins and proteins related to defense mechanisms. Our study provided the first comprehensive proteomic survey of the trophozoite infective stage of an Acanthamoeba species, and established foundations for prospective, comparative and functional studies of proteins involved in mechanisms of survival, development, and pathogenicity in A. polyphaga and other pathogenic amoebae.
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17
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Abstract
Differentiation of Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoites involves massive turnover of cellular components and remodelling of organelle structure and function so as to produce a cryptobiotic cell, resistant to desiccation, heat, freezing, and chemical treatments. This review presents a summary of a decade of research on the most studied aspects of the biochemistry of this process, with emphasis on problems of biocide and drug resistances, putative new targets, molecular and cell biology of the process of encystment, and the characteristics of the encysted state. As well as the intrinsic pathogenicity of the organism towards the cornea, and the ability of related species to invade the human brain, its propensity for harbouring and transmitting pathogenic bacteria and viruses is considerable and leads to increasing concerns. The long-term survival and resistance of cysts to drugs and biocides adds another layer of complexity to the problem of their elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Lloyd
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales CF10 3AT, UK.
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18
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Tavassoli M, Imani A, Tajik H, Moradi M, Pourseyed SH. Novel in Vitro Efficiency of Chitosan Biomolecule against Trichomonas gallinae. Iran J Parasitol 2012; 7:92-6. [PMID: 23133478 PMCID: PMC3488827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Development of new natural agents for parasitic diseases treatment has unexpectedly increased to overcome effectively against emergence and re-emergence of parasitic diseases, the appearance of drug resistant organisms and toxic side effects of current agents. The aim of the study was to evaluate antiprotozoal activities of chitosan biomolecule on trophozoites of Trichomonas gallinae. METHODS The antitrichomonal activity of various low molecular weight chitosan concentrations including 125, 250, 500 and 1250 µg ml(-1) against T. gallinae trophozoites cultured in trypticase-yeast extract-maltose medium supplemented with heat-inactivated cold horse serum was evaluated in vitro. Samples containing medium without chitosan were also assayed as controls. RESULTS The mortality rates at 0, 3 and 6 h post treatment with all concentrations were significantly different from control group (P<0.05). Treated trophozoites showed more susceptibility to the highest concentration reaching mortality rate of 100% at 3h post inoculation. However, at this time, results for 125, 250 and 500 µg ml(-1) were 93%, 95% and 96.7%, respectively. CONCLUSION The results demonstrate that the application of chitosan biomolecule is a promising option for treatment of trichomoniasis in pigeons.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tavassoli
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran,Corresponding author:Fax: ++98-441- 2771926. E-mail:
| | - A Imani
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | - H Tajik
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Ahar Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - M Moradi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Ahar Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - SH Pourseyed
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
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