1
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Tan M, Zhang S, Stevens M, Li D, Tan EJ. Antipredator defences in motion: animals reduce predation risks by concealing or misleading motion signals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:778-796. [PMID: 38174819 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Motion is a crucial part of the natural world, yet our understanding of how animals avoid predation whilst moving remains rather limited. Although several theories have been proposed for how antipredator defence may be facilitated during motion, there is often a lack of supporting empirical evidence, or conflicting findings. Furthermore, many studies have shown that motion often 'breaks' camouflage, as sudden movement can be detected even before an individual is recognised. Whilst some static camouflage strategies may conceal moving animals to a certain extent, more emphasis should be given to other modes of camouflage and related defences in the context of motion (e.g. flicker fusion camouflage, active motion camouflage, motion dazzle, and protean motion). Furthermore, when motion is involved, defence strategies are not necessarily limited to concealment. An animal can also rely on motion to mislead predators with regards to its trajectory, location, size, colour pattern, or even identity. In this review, we discuss the various underlying antipredator strategies and the mechanisms through which they may be linked to motion, conceptualising existing empirical and theoretical studies from two perspectives - concealing and misleading effects. We also highlight gaps in our understanding of these antipredator strategies, and suggest possible methodologies for experimental designs/test subjects (i.e. prey and/or predators) and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Daiqin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Eunice J Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, Singapore, 138527, Singapore
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2
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Whitcher C, Beaver L, Lemmon EM. The effect of biofluorescence on predation upon Cope's gray treefrog: A clay model experiment. Behav Processes 2024; 215:104996. [PMID: 38278426 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2024.104996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Biofluorescence, the ability to absorb light and reemit it at a longer wavelength, is present in many taxa but has been examined only recently in amphibians. Over half of the studies documenting biofluorescence in the last century suggest this fluorescent signal may affect predation; however, to date, only one other experimental study has tested this hypothesis. To address this question, we experimentally tested the effect of biofluorescence on predation through the study of the Cope's Gray Treefrog, Hyla chrysoscelis. First, we quantified the spectral characteristics of a novel biofluorescence pattern in H. chrysoscelis. In both sexes of this species, the fluorescent signal is concentrated in an area that contains a proposed aposematic pattern to warn predators of the frog's toxic secretions. We hypothesized that the biofluorescent trait may increase the conspicuousness of this pattern and enable the frogs to deter predators more effectively. Second, we tested this prediction by conducting a clay model field experiment to assess differences in predation attempts on fluorescent versus non-fluorescent H. chrysoscelis models by various predator types. We found no effect of biofluorescence on the overall presence, type, or location of predation, suggesting that biofluorescence alone does not act as an antipredator signal of H. chrysoscelis. This study represents one of the first attempts to experimentally test the effect of biofluorescence on predation in any organism and the first to do so in amphibians. Further work is needed to explore the role of this trait in predation in other systems and to investigate alternative functions for the biofluorescent signal in H. chrysoscelis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Whitcher
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA.
| | - Lilyanne Beaver
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, 3209 Duke Univserity School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Emily Moriarty Lemmon
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
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3
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Hague MTJ, Miller LE, Stokes AN, Feldman CR, Brodie ED, Brodie ED. Conspicuous coloration of toxin-resistant predators implicates additional trophic interactions in a predator-prey arms race. Mol Ecol 2023; 32:4482-4496. [PMID: 36336815 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Antagonistic coevolution between natural enemies can produce highly exaggerated traits, such as prey toxins and predator resistance. This reciprocal process of adaptation and counter-adaptation may also open doors to other evolutionary novelties not directly involved in the phenotypic interface of coevolution. We tested the hypothesis that predator-prey coevolution coincided with the evolution of conspicuous coloration on resistant predators that retain prey toxins. In western North America, common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) have evolved extreme resistance to tetrodotoxin (TTX) in the coevolutionary arms race with their deadly prey, Pacific newts (Taricha spp.). TTX-resistant snakes can retain large amounts of ingested TTX, which could serve as a deterrent against the snakes' own predators if TTX toxicity and resistance are coupled with a conspicuous warning signal. We evaluated whether arms race escalation covaries with bright red coloration in snake populations across the geographic mosaic of coevolution. Snake colour variation departs from the neutral expectations of population genetic structure and covaries with escalating clines of newt TTX and snake resistance at two coevolutionary hotspots. In the Pacific Northwest, bright red coloration fits an expected pattern of an aposematic warning to avian predators: TTX-resistant snakes that consume highly toxic newts also have relatively large, reddish-orange dorsal blotches. Snake coloration also seems to have evolved with the arms race in California, but overall patterns are less intuitively consistent with aposematism. These results suggest that interactions with additional trophic levels can generate novel traits as a cascading consequence of arms race coevolution across the geographic mosaic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T J Hague
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA
| | - Lauren E Miller
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Amber N Stokes
- Department of Biology, California State University, Bakersfield, California, USA
| | - Chris R Feldman
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Edmund D Brodie
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA
| | - Edmund D Brodie
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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4
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Chatelain P, Elias M, Fontaine C, Villemant C, Dajoz I, Perrard A. Müllerian mimicry among bees and wasps: a review of current knowledge and future avenues of research. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1310-1328. [PMID: 36994698 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
Many bees and stinging wasps, or aculeates, exhibit striking colour patterns or conspicuous coloration, such as black and yellow stripes. Such coloration is often interpreted as an aposematic signal advertising aculeate defences: the venomous sting. Aposematism can lead to Müllerian mimicry, the convergence of signals among different species unpalatable to predators. Müllerian mimicry has been extensively studied, notably on Neotropical butterflies and poison frogs. However, although a very high number of aculeate species harbour putative aposematic signals, aculeates are under-represented in mimicry studies. Here, we review the literature on mimicry rings that include bee and stinging wasp species. We report over a hundred described mimicry rings, involving a thousand species that belong to 19 aculeate families. These mimicry rings are found all throughout the world. Most importantly, we identify remaining knowledge gaps and unanswered questions related to the study of Müllerian mimicry in aculeates. Some of these questions are specific to aculeate models, such as the impact of sociality and of sexual dimorphism in defence levels on mimicry dynamics. Our review shows that aculeates may be one of the most diverse groups of organisms engaging in Müllerian mimicry and that the diversity of aculeate Müllerian mimetic interactions is currently under-explored. Thus, aculeates represent a new and major model system to study the evolution of Müllerian mimicry. Finally, aculeates are important pollinators and the global decline of pollinating insects raises considerable concern. In this context, a better understanding of the impact of Müllerian mimicry on aculeate communities may help design strategies for pollinator conservation, thereby providing future directions for evolutionary research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Chatelain
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences-Paris (iEES-Paris), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Université Paris Cité, UPEC, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, 75005, France
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama
| | - Colin Fontaine
- Centre d'Ecologie et des Sciences de la conservation, CESCO UMR 7204, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, 43 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Claire Villemant
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Isabelle Dajoz
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences-Paris (iEES-Paris), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Université Paris Cité, UPEC, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, 75005, France
- Université Paris Cité, 45 Rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, F-75006, France
| | - Adrien Perrard
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences-Paris (iEES-Paris), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Université Paris Cité, UPEC, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, 75005, France
- Université Paris Cité, 45 Rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, F-75006, France
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5
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Barrone J, Vidal MC, Stevenson R. Sphingid caterpillars conspicuous patches do not function as distractive marks or warning against predators. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10334. [PMID: 37492454 PMCID: PMC10363802 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
To avoid predation by visual predators, caterpillars can be cryptic to decrease detectability or aposematic to warn predators of potential unpalatability. However, for some species, it is not clear if conspicuous patches are selected to avoid predation. For example, Pandora sphinx (Eumorpha pandorus, Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) caterpillars are assumed to be palatable and have both cryptic (green, brown) and conspicuous (orange, red) color morphs. Five lateral, off-white to yellow patches on either side may serve as a warning for predators or to draw attention away from the caterpillar's form to function as distractive marks. We conducted a field study in three temperate fragmented forests in Massachusetts to investigate the potential utility of E. pandorus coloration and conspicuous patches. Using four plasticine caterpillar prey model treatments, green and red with and without lateral conspicuous patches, we tested the effects of color, patch patterning, and seasonality on attack rates by a variety of taxa. We found that 43% of the prey models (n = 964) had bite marks by an array of predators including arthropods (67.5%), birds (18.2%), rodents (11.5%), and large mammals (2.8%). Arthropods as dominant predators align with conclusions from previous studies of prey models placed near ground level. Attack rates peaked for arthropods in late August and early September but were more constant across trials for vertebrates. Arthropods, a heterogeneous group, as indicated by the variety of bite marks, showed significantly higher attack rates on green colored prey models and a tendency of higher attack on solid (non-patch patterned) prey models. Vertebrates, more visually oriented predators, had significantly higher attack rates on red colored prey models and patch patterned prey models. Thus, our results did not suggest that conspicuous patch patterning reduced predation and therefore, we did not find support for the distractive mark hypothesis or warning hypothesis. Further, our study shows clear contrasting interpretations by different predators regarding visual defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Barrone
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Mayra C. Vidal
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Robert Stevenson
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
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6
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Heerwig OT, Jain-Schlaepfer SMR, Sherratt TN, Kikuchi DW. Effects of predator associative learning and innate aversion on mimicry complexes. Evol Ecol 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-023-10238-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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7
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Robinson ML, Weber MG, Freedman MG, Jordan E, Ashlock SR, Yonenaga J, Strauss SY. Macroevolution of protective coloration across caterpillars reflects relationships with host plants. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20222293. [PMID: 36651051 PMCID: PMC9845978 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
A critical function of animal coloration is avoiding attack, either by warning predators or reducing detectability. Evolution of these divergent strategies may depend on prey palatability and apparency to predators: conspicuous coloration may be favoured if species are distasteful, or habitats make hiding difficult; by contrast, camouflage may be effective if prey lack defences or environments are visually complex. For insect herbivores, host plants provide both chemical defence and the background against which they are detected or obscured; thus, plant traits may be key to coloration in these foundational terrestrial organisms. We use 1808 species of larval Lepidoptera to explore macroevolution of protective coloration strategy. We find that colour and pattern evolve jointly in caterpillars, similar to an array of species across the animal kingdom, while individual elements of coloration evolve closely with diet ecology. Consistent with key tenets of plant defence and plant-herbivore coevolutionary theory, conspicuous colours are associated with herbaceous host plants-thought to be defended by toxins-while camouflage colours and patterns are associated with woody plants and grasses. Contrary to theory, dietary specialization is not associated with conspicuous coloration. Our results add valuable insights into the evolutionary forces shaping colour and pattern in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moria L. Robinson
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA,Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA
| | - Marjorie G. Weber
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Micah G. Freedman
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Evan Jordan
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sarah R. Ashlock
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jenna Yonenaga
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sharon Y. Strauss
- Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA,Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Berlin, 14193, Germany,Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, CA 95616, USA
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8
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Cabral H, Cacciali P, Santana DJ. Evolution of the rostral scale and mimicry in the genus Xenodon Boie, 1826 (Serpentes: Dipsadidae: Xenodontinae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Snakes are a stimulating life form from an evolutionary perspective. Despite the basic morphological body shape (limbless, with a tubular body), these vertebrates are extremely diverse. The Neotropical region is one of the most diverse regions for snakes in the world, with >650 known species. Within this great diversity, the genus Xenodon includes 12 species with interesting adaptations to terrestrial and semi-fossorial habitats. Members of this genus are mostly diurnal and terrestrial, feed mainly on anurans and exhibit Batesian mimicry of venomous snakes of the genera Bothrops or Micrurus. Here, through phylogenetic analysis and ancestral state estimation, we explore the evolution of the rostral scale and mimicry within the genus Xenodon. Our results suggest that the ancestral lineage of Xenodon had a rounded rostral scale and exhibited Bothrops mimicry. The evolution of the rostral scale in Xenodon might be related to abiotic factors, as an adaptation for open and forested habitats, and mimicry is likely to be related to biotic factors, as a defensive strategy resembling those of venomous snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Cabral
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Estadual Paulista , São José do Rio Preto, SP , Brazil
- Instituto de Investigación Biológica del Paraguay , Del Escudo 1607, Asunción , Paraguay
- Asociación Guyra Paraguay , Avenida Coronel Carlos Bóveda, Parque Asunción Verde, Viñas Cué , Paraguay
| | - Pier Cacciali
- Instituto de Investigación Biológica del Paraguay , Del Escudo 1607, Asunción , Paraguay
- Asociación Guyra Paraguay , Avenida Coronel Carlos Bóveda, Parque Asunción Verde, Viñas Cué , Paraguay
| | - Diego José Santana
- Mapinguari Lab, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul , 79002-970, Campo Grande, MS , Brazil
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9
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Riley JL, Haff TM, Ryeland J, Drinkwater E, Umbers KDL. The protective value of the colour and shape of the mountain katydid's antipredator defence. J Evol Biol 2022. [PMID: 35960499 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Deimatic behaviour is performed by prey when attacked by predators as part of an antipredator strategy. The behaviour is part of a sequence that consists of several defences, for example they can be preceded by camouflage and followed by a hidden putatively aposematic signal that is only revealed when the deimatic behaviour is performed. When displaying their hidden signal, mountain katydids (Acripeza reticulata) hold their wings vertically, exposing striking red and black stripes with blue spots and oozing an alkaloid-rich chemical defence derived from its Senecio diet. Understanding differences and interactions between deimatism and aposematism has proven problematic, so in this study we isolated the putative aposematic signal of the mountain katydid's antipredator strategy to measure its survival value in the absence of their deimatic behaviour. We manipulated two aspects of the mountain katydid's signal, colour pattern and whole body shape during display. We deployed five kinds of clay models, one negative control and four katydid-like treatments, in 15 grids across part of the mountain katydid's distribution to test the hypothesis that their hidden signal is aposematic. If this hypothesis holds true, we expected that the models, which most closely resembled real katydids would be attacked the least. Instead, we found that models that most closely resembled real katydids were the most likely to be attacked. We suggest several ideas to explain these results, including that the deimatic phase of the katydid's display, the change from a camouflaged state to exposing its hidden signal, may have important protective value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia L Riley
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tonya M Haff
- Australian National Wildlife Collection, CSIRO, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Julia Ryeland
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Eleanor Drinkwater
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Kate D L Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
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10
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van Thiel J, Khan MA, Wouters RM, Harris RJ, Casewell NR, Fry BG, Kini RM, Mackessy SP, Vonk FJ, Wüster W, Richardson MK. Convergent evolution of toxin resistance in animals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2022; 97:1823-1843. [PMID: 35580905 PMCID: PMC9543476 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Convergence is the phenomenon whereby similar phenotypes evolve independently in different lineages. One example is resistance to toxins in animals. Toxins have evolved many times throughout the tree of life. They disrupt molecular and physiological pathways in target species, thereby incapacitating prey or deterring a predator. In response, molecular resistance has evolved in many species exposed to toxins to counteract their harmful effects. Here, we review current knowledge on the convergence of toxin resistance using examples from a wide range of toxin families. We explore the evolutionary processes and molecular adaptations driving toxin resistance. However, resistance adaptations may carry a fitness cost if they disrupt the normal physiology of the resistant animal. Therefore, there is a trade‐off between maintaining a functional molecular target and reducing toxin susceptibility. There are relatively few solutions that satisfy this trade‐off. As a result, we see a small set of molecular adaptations appearing repeatedly in diverse animal lineages, a phenomenon that is consistent with models of deterministic evolution. Convergence may also explain what has been called ‘autoresistance’. This is often thought to have evolved for self‐protection, but we argue instead that it may be a consequence of poisonous animals feeding on toxic prey. Toxin resistance provides a unique and compelling model system for studying the interplay between trophic interactions, selection pressures and the molecular mechanisms underlying evolutionary novelties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jory van Thiel
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Muzaffar A Khan
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roel M Wouters
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, U.K
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072, Australia
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117558, Singapore.,Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, 23298, U.S.A
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639-0017, U.S.A
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, U.K
| | - Michael K Richardson
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
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11
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Curlis JD, Renney T, Rabosky ARD, Moore TY. Batch-Mask: Automated image segmentation for organisms with limbless or non-standard body forms. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:1111-1120. [PMID: 35575628 PMCID: PMC9617216 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient comparisons of biological color patterns are critical for understanding the mechanisms by which organisms evolve in nature, including sexual selection, predator–prey interactions, and thermoregulation. However, limbless, elongate, or spiral-shaped organisms do not conform to the standard orientation and photographic techniques required for many automated analyses. Currently, large-scale color analysis of elongate animals requires time-consuming manual landmarking, which reduces their representation in coloration research despite their ecological importance. We present Batch-Mask: an automated, customizable workflow to automatically analyze large photographic datasets to isolate non-standard biological organisms from the background. Batch-Mask is completely open-source and does not depend on any proprietary software. We also present a user guide for fine-tuning weights to a custom dataset and incorporating existing manual visual analysis tools (e.g., micaToolbox) into a single automated workflow for comparing color patterns across images. Batch-Mask was 60x faster than manual landmarking and produced masks that correctly identified 96% of all snake pixels. To validate our approach, we used micaToolbox to compare pattern energy in a sample set of snake photographs segmented by Batch-Mask and humans and found no significant difference in the output results. The fine-tuned weights, user guide, and automated workflow substantially decrease the amount of time and attention required to quantitatively analyze non-standard biological subjects. With these tools, biologists can compare color, pattern, and shape differences in large datasets that include significant morphological variation in elongate body forms. This advance is especially valuable for comparative analyses of natural history collections across a broad range of morphologies. Through landmark-free automation, Batch-Mask can greatly expand the scale of space, time, or taxonomic breadth across which color variation can be quantitatively examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- John David Curlis
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 1105 N University Ave, 48109, Michigan, USA
| | - Timothy Renney
- Computer Science, University of Michigan, Street, Postcode, Michigan, USA
| | - Alison R Davis Rabosky
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 1105 N University Ave, 48109, Michigan, USA
| | - Talia Y Moore
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 1105 N University Ave, 48109, Michigan, USA.,Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, 2505 Hayward St, Ann Arbor, 48109, Michigan, USA
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12
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Antipredator responses of the morphs of an amphibian species match their differential predation pressures. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03140-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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13
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Sena AT, Ruane S. Concepts and contentions of coral snake resemblance: Batesian mimicry and its alternatives. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Venomous coral snakes and non-venomous coral snake lookalikes are often regarded as a classic example of Batesian mimicry, whereby a harmless or palatable organism imitates a harmful or less palatable organism. However, the validity of this claim is questionable. The existing literature regarding coral snake mimicry presents a divisive stance on whether Batesian mimicry is occurring or whether the similarity between snakes is attributable to alternative factors. Here, we compile available literature on coral snake mimicry and assess the support for Batesian mimicry. We find that most of the recent relevant literature (after approximately 2000) supports the Batesian mimicry hypothesis. However, this is not strongly supported by empirical evidence. Potential considerations addressed here for both the Batesian and alternative hypotheses include the function of the colour pattern, predatory learning and the biogeographical distribution of similar snakes. The analyses performed previously by mimicry researchers show that the interpretation of the conditions for mimicry is not consistent throughout the scientific community when applied to coral snake systems. This review focuses on this division and stresses the need to reach an agreement about the adaptive significance of New World coral snakes and their lookalikes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Thomas Sena
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Sara Ruane
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 South Lake Shore Drive, IL, USA
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University Newark, 195 University Ave, Newark, NJ, USA
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14
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Bosque RJ, Hyseni C, Santos MLG, Rangel E, Da Silva Dias CJ, Hearin JB, Da Silva NJ, Domingos FMCB, Colli GR, Noonan BP. Müllerian mimicry and the coloration patterns of sympatric coral snakes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Coral snakes in the genus Micrurus are venomous, aposematic organisms that signal danger to predators through vivid coloration. Previous studies found that they serve as models to several harmless species of Batesian mimics. However, the extent to which Micrurus species engage in Müllerian mimicry remains poorly understood. We integrate detailed morphological and geographical distribution data to investigate if coral snakes are Müllerian mimics. We found that coloration is spatially structured and that Micrurus species tend to be more similar where they co-occur. Though long supposed, we demonstrate for the first time that coral snakes might indeed be Müllerian mimics as they show some convergence in coloration patterns. Additionally, we found that the length of red-coloured rings in Micrurus is conserved, even at large geographic scales. This finding suggests that bright red rings may be under more substantial stabilizing selection than other aspects of coloration and probably function as a generalized signal for deterring predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renan Janke Bosque
- Universidade de Brasília, Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | - Chaz Hyseni
- Uppsala University, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala, Uppsala County, Sweden
- USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Center for Bottomland Hardwoods Research, Oxford, Mississippi, USA
| | | | - Eduardo Rangel
- The University of Mississippi, Department of Biology, University, Mississippi, USA
| | - Camila Juliana Da Silva Dias
- Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Pontal do Araguaia, Mato Grosso, Brazil
| | - Jacob Beathea Hearin
- The University of Mississippi, Department of Biology, University, Mississippi, USA
| | - Nelson Jorge Da Silva
- Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Escola de Ciências Médicas e da Vida, Goiânia, Goías, Brazil
| | | | - Guarino Rinaldi Colli
- Universidade de Brasília, Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
| | - Brice Patrick Noonan
- The University of Mississippi, Department of Biology, University, Mississippi, USA
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15
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Wilson L, Lonsdale G, Curlis JD, Hunter EA, Cox CL. Predator-based selection and the impact of edge sympatry on components of coral snake mimicry. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-021-10143-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Kikuchi DW, Barfield M, Herberstein ME, Mappes J, Holt RD. The Effect of Predator Population Dynamics on Batesian Mimicry Complexes. Am Nat 2022; 199:406-419. [DOI: 10.1086/718162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David W. Kikuchi
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Konsequez 45, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Michael Barfield
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Marie E. Herberstein
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland; and Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland
| | - Robert D. Holt
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
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17
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Stephenson BP, Velani Z, Ihász N. The effect of albinism on avian predator attack rates in eastern garter snakes. ZOOLOGY 2021; 150:125987. [PMID: 34971911 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2021.125987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Albinism is a conspicuous and distinctive phenotype arising from the absence of melanin in the integument that has been documented in all major vertebrate groups. With few exceptions, albinism is rare in natural populations, suggesting that it incurs significant fitness costs as compared to wild-type phenotypes. One possible explanation for this rarity is that albinos experience higher predation risk as compared to wild-type individuals. We tested this hypothesis by comparing rates of attack by avian predators on immobile clay model proxies that mimicked wild-type and albino eastern garter snakes (Thamnophis s. sirtalis) at Bond Swamp in central Georgia, USA; two mixed pattern treatments provided intermediate phenotypes for comparison. Surprisingly, we found no difference in attack rate across all four model treatments, nor among pairs of treatments (i.e., wild-type-like vs. albino-like models). This indicates that albino garter snakes are not subject to higher predation risk from birds due to coloration alone, and that other factors (correlated pathologies of albinism, thermoregulatory challenges, mate selection) are likely to be more important in explaining the rarity of albinism in snakes and perhaps other vertebrate groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry P Stephenson
- 1501 Mercer University Dr., Department of Biology, Mercer University, Macon, GA, 31207, USA.
| | - Zeshan Velani
- 1501 Mercer University Dr., Department of Biology, Mercer University, Macon, GA, 31207, USA; 3001 Mercer University Dr., Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA.
| | - Nikolett Ihász
- 1501 Mercer University Dr., Department of Psychology, Mercer University, Macon, GA, 31207, USA.
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18
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Zamora-Camacho FJ. Sex and habitat differences in size and coloration of an amphibian's poison glands match differential predator pressures. Integr Zool 2021; 17:764-776. [PMID: 34599787 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chemical defenses are frequently accompanied by salient color patterns actively avoided by predators, a phenomenon referred to as aposematism. However, the production of both chemical defenses and pigments is costly, and is thus expected to be reduced under mild predator pressure. In this work, I compared the size and coloration of parotoid glands (2 dorsal, external swollen structures that secrete toxins in toads) of male and female Epidalea calamita toads from agrosystems and from pine groves. I also quantified the predator attacks received by plasticine toad models, whose "parotoid glands" differed in size and color conspicuousness, exposed in each habitat. Predators avoided models with large and conspicuous parotoid glands, but models in agrosystems were more often attacked. Concerning actual toads, agrosystem and male individuals had larger parotoid glands, presumably implying greater production of chemical defenses than in pine grove and female conspecifics. These findings are aligned with previous research suggesting that both agrosystem toads and males in this system are subjected to a more intense predator pressure. Difference between parotoid gland and dorsum coloration was greater in agrosystem toads. A marked internal pattern could function as an aposematic signal, which could counteract increased predator pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Javier Zamora-Camacho
- Department of Phisical, Chemical and Natural Systems, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain.,Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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19
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Predation risk is a function of seasonality rather than habitat complexity in a tropical semiarid forest. Sci Rep 2021; 11:16670. [PMID: 34404872 PMCID: PMC8371019 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96216-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey dynamics are some of the most important species' interactions in the natural structuring of communities, and are among the more complex ecological processes studied by ecologists. We measured predation risk using artificial lizard replicas to test two competing hypotheses regarding predation pressure in semi-arid environments: (1) predation risk is dependent on the habitat structural complexity; and (2) predation risk is dependent on seasonality. We placed 960 lizard replicas along three sites with different physical structures and in both dry and rainy seasons for seven consecutive days in a caatinga area in northeastern Brazil at Grota do Angico Natural Monument (GANM). Birds were responsible for the majority of attacks and more frequently on artificial lizards placed in trees. Attacks focused on the most vulnerable areas of the body (head and torso), proving that were perceived by predators as true prey items. We found that predation risk is not dependent on the habitat structural complexity, but rather dependent on the caatinga seasonality, with the overall attack rate being 19% higher in the dry season. Our study suggests that potential predation risk is highly context-dependent and that seasonality consistently drives of trophic interactions strength in the caatinga, an important ecological finding that could contribute to better understanding the complex evolution of predator-prey interactions within communities of animals living in different habitats.
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20
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Qi S, Shi JS, Ma YB, Gao YF, Bu SH, Grismer LL, Li PP, Wang YY. A sheep in wolf's clothing: Elaphe xiphodonta sp. nov. (Squamata, Colubridae) and its possible mimicry to Protobothrops jerdonii. Zookeys 2021; 1048:23-47. [PMID: 34295215 PMCID: PMC8277656 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1048.65650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on combined morphological and osteological characters and molecular phylogenetics, we describe a new species of the genus Elaphe that was discovered from the south slope of the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, China, namely Elaphe xiphodonta sp. nov. It is distinguished from the other congeners by a combination of the following characters: dorsal scales in 21-21-17 rows, the medial 11 rows keeled; 202-204 ventral scales, 67-68 subcaudals; two preoculars (including one subpreocular); two postoculars; two anterior temporals, three posterior temporals; reduced numbers of maxillary teeth (9+2) and dentary teeth (12); sharp cutting edges on the posterior or posterolateral surface of the rear maxillary teeth and dentary teeth; dorsal head yellow, three distinct markings on the head and neck; a distinct black labial spot present in supralabials; dorsum yellow, 46-49 complete (or incomplete) large black-edged reddish brown blotches on the body and 12-19 on the tail, two rows of smaller blotches on each ventrolateral side; ventral scales yellow with mottled irregular black blotches, a few irregular small red spots dispersed on the middle of the ventral. Based on molecular phylogenetic analyses, the new species forms the sister taxon to E. zoigeensis. The discovery of this new species increases the number of the recognized species in the genus Elaphe to 17.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol/ The Museum of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou China.,Institute of Herpetology, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China
| | - Jing-Song Shi
- Institute of Herpetology, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China
| | - Yan-Bo Ma
- Institute of Herpetology, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China.,College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, 712100, China Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University Yangling China
| | - Yi-Fei Gao
- Institute of Herpetology, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China.,College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, 712100, China Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University Yangling China
| | - Shu-Hai Bu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, 712100, China Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University Yangling China
| | - L Lee Grismer
- Herpetology Laboratory, Department of Biology, La Sierra University, Riverside, California 92515, USA La Sierra Univer-sity Riverside United States of America
| | - Pi-Peng Li
- Institute of Herpetology, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China
| | - Ying-Yong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol/ The Museum of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou China
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21
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Mirkin S, Tucker MR, Williams DA. Predation release of Texas horned lizards ( Phrynosoma cornutum) living in small towns. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:5355-5363. [PMID: 34026012 PMCID: PMC8131779 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Texas horned lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum) have a number of ways to avoid predation, including camouflage, sharp cranial horns, flattening of the body, and the ability to squirt blood from the eyes. These characteristics and their relatively low survival rates in the wild suggest these lizards are under high predation pressure. These lizards have been declining in much of their eastern range due to increased urbanization, agriculture, and loss of prey species. However, they can be still be found in some small south Texas towns where they can reach densities that are much higher (~50 lizards/ha) than in natural areas (~4-10 lizards/ha). We hypothesized that one reason for the high densities observed in these towns may be due to reduced predation pressure. We used model Texas horned lizards to test whether predation levels were lower in two south Texas towns than on a nearby ranch. We constructed models from urethane foam, a material that is ideal for preserving marks left behind by predators. Models (n = 126) and control pieces of foam (n = 21) were left in the field for 9 days in each location in early and late summer and subsequent predation marks were categorized by predator taxa. We observed significantly more predation attempts on the models than on controls and significantly fewer attempts in town (n = 1) compared with the ranch (n = 60). On the ranch, avian predation attempts appear to be common especially when the models did not match the color of the soil. Our results suggest that human-modified environments that have suitable habitat and food resources may provide a refuge for some prey species like horned lizards from predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Mirkin
- Department of BiologyTexas Christian UniversityFort WorthTXUSA
| | - Mary R. Tucker
- Department of BiologyTexas Christian UniversityFort WorthTXUSA
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22
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Moore TY, Danforth SM, Larson JG, Davis Rabosky AR. A Quantitative Analysis of Micrurus Coral Snakes Reveals Unexpected Variation in Stereotyped Anti-Predator Displays Within a Mimicry System. Integr Org Biol 2021; 2:obaa006. [PMID: 33791550 PMCID: PMC7671125 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obaa006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Warning signals in chemically defended organisms are critical components of predator–prey interactions, often requiring multiple coordinated display components for effective communication. When threatened by a predator, venomous coral snakes (genus Micrurus) display a vigorous, non-locomotory thrashing behavior that has previously been qualitatively described. Given the high contrast and colorful banding patterns of these snakes, this thrashing display is hypothesized to be a key component of a complex aposematic signal under strong stabilizing selection across species in a mimicry system. By experimentally testing snake response across simulated predator cues, we analyzed variation in the presence and expression of a thrashing display across five species of South American coral snakes. Although the major features of the thrash display were conserved across species, we found that predator cue type, snake body size, and species identity predict significant inter- and intraspecific variation in the propensity to perform a display, the duration of thrashing, and the curvature of snake bodies. We also found an interaction between curve magnitude and body location that clearly shows which parts of the display vary most across individuals and species. Our results suggest that contrary to the assumption that all Micrurus species and individuals perform the same display, a high degree of variation exists despite presumably strong selection to conserve a common signal. This quantitative behavioral characterization presents a new framework for analyzing the non-locomotory motions displayed by snakes in a broader ecological context, especially for signaling systems with complex interaction across multiple modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Y Moore
- Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward St, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, 1105 N. University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 3600 Varsity Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
| | - S M Danforth
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward St, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - J G Larson
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, 1105 N. University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 3600 Varsity Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
| | - A R Davis Rabosky
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, 1105 N. University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, 3600 Varsity Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
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23
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Davis Rabosky AR, Moore TY, Sánchez-Paredes CM, Westeen EP, Larson JG, Sealey BA, Balinski BA. Convergence and divergence in anti-predator displays: a novel approach to quantitative behavioural comparison in snakes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Animals in nature use many strategies to evade or deter their predators. Within venomous snake mimicry, stereotyped anti-predator behaviours are hypothesized to be effective warning signals under strong selection for independent convergence across species. However, no studies have systematically quantified snake anti-predator displays across taxonomically broad clades to examine how these behaviours evolve within a comparative methods framework. Here we describe a new high-throughput approach for collecting and quantifying anti-predator displays in snakes that demonstrates both low observer bias and infinite extension. Then, we show this method’s utility by comparing 20 species spanning six taxonomic families from Peru. We found that a simple experimental set-up varying simulated predator cues was successful in eliciting displays across species and that high-speed videography captured a great diversity of anti-predator responses. Although display components show complicated patterns of covariance, we found support for behavioural convergence in anti-predator displays among elapid coral snakes and their distantly related mimics. Our approach provides new analytical opportunities for both behaviour and kinematics, especially macroevolutionary analyses across clades with similar difficulty in observing or comparing trait diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison R Davis Rabosky
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Talia Y Moore
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Ciara M Sánchez-Paredes
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Facultad de Ciencias y Filosofía, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, Heslington, York, UK
| | - Erin P Westeen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management and Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Joanna G Larson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Briana A Sealey
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | - Bailey A Balinski
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Zoology (UMMZ), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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24
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Rich C, Reilly SB, Sinervo B. Relaxed predation selection on rare morphs of Ensatina salamanders (Caudata: Plethodontidae) promotes a polymorphic population in a novel dune sand habitat. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The ring species Ensatina represents a classic example of locally adapted lineages. The Monterey ensatina (Ensatina eschscholtzii eschscholtzii) is a cryptic subspecies with brown coloration, although a recently discovered polymorphic population within a wind-blown sand region also contains leucistic (pink) and xanthistic (orange) morphs. In the present study, the frequency of leucism/xanthism was mapped across the subspecies’ range, revealing that these morphs are generally rare or absent except within regions containing light-coloured substrate. Attack rates were estimated using clay models of the three morphs, deployed only at the crepuscular period and during the night, on both light and dark substrates at a site within the dune sand region. Model selection found that the interaction between morph and substrate colour best predicted attack rates. Typical morphs had equal attack rates on both substrates while xanthistic and leucistic morphs incurred significantly fewer attacks on light vs. dark substrate, and there was no significant difference in attack rates among morphs on light substrates. These results support the idea that xanthistic and leucistic morphs are poorly adapted for dark substrates compared to typical morphs, but they are more or less equally adapted for light substrates. We suggest that this microgeographic island of relaxed selection on light-coloured morphs helps to explain the existence of this polymorphic population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Rich
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Sean B Reilly
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Barry Sinervo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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25
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Mergler CJ, Gall BG. Has the indestructible insect met its match? Velvet ants as prey to bufonid toads. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2020.1789747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ciara J. Mergler
- Department of Biology, Hanover College, 517 Ball Drive, Hanover, IN 47243, USA
| | - Brian G. Gall
- Department of Biology, Hanover College, 517 Ball Drive, Hanover, IN 47243, USA
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26
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Swierk L, Boyer JFF, Chang J, Petelo M, Drobniak SM. Intrasexual variability of a conspicuous social signal influences attack rate of lizard models in an experimental test. Evol Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-020-10085-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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27
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Quantifying the differences in avian attack rates on reptiles
between an infrastructure and a control site. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-020-01393-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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28
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Banci KRS, Eterovic A, Marinho PS, Marques OAV. Being a bright snake: Testing aposematism and mimicry in a neotropical forest. Biotropica 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - André Eterovic
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas Universidade Federal do ABC Santo André Brazil
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29
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Wei W, Zhen Q, Tang Z, Oosthuizen MK. Risk assessment in the plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae): intensity of behavioral response differs with predator species. BMC Ecol 2020; 20:41. [PMID: 32680498 PMCID: PMC7368780 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-020-00309-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The ability of a prey species to assess the risk that a predator poses can have important fitness advantages for the prey species. To better understand predator–prey interactions, more species need to be observed to determine how prey behavioral responses differ in intensity when approached by different types of predators. The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is preyed upon by all predators occurring in its distribution area. Therefore, it is an ideal species to study anti-predator behavior. In this study, we investigated the intensity of anti-predator behavior of pikas in response to visual cues by using four predator species models in Maqu County on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Results The behavioral response metrics, such as Flight Initiation Distance (FID), the hiding time and the percentage of vigilance were significantly different when exposed to a Tibetan fox, a wolf, a Saker falcon and a large-billed crow, respectively. Pikas showed a stronger response to Saker falcons compared to any of the other predators. Conclusions Our results showed that pikas alter their behavioral (such as FID, the hiding time and the vigilance) response intensity to optimally balance the benefits when exposed to different taxidermy predator species models. We conclude that pikas are able to assess their actual risk of predation and show a threat-sensitive behavioral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanrong Wei
- Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation, College of life Sciences, China West Normal University, Nanchong, 637009, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-Ecosystems, College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730200, China.
| | - Qiaoyan Zhen
- China West Normal University, Nanchong, 637009, China
| | - Zhongmin Tang
- Gannan Grassland Workstation in Gansu Province, Hezuo, 747000, China
| | - Maria K Oosthuizen
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa.,Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa
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30
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Heninger R, Watson CM, Cox CL. Relative fitness of decoy coloration is mediated by habitat type. ZOOLOGY 2020; 142:125820. [PMID: 32769003 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2020.125820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions can be important drivers of morphological evolution, and antipredator traits in particular. Further, ecological context can be an important factor shaping the evolution of these traits. However, the role of ecological factors such as habitat structure in altering predator-based selection is not well known for antipredator traits such as decoy coloration. We used a combination of a natural history collection survey and a clay model experiment in open- and closed-canopy habitats to study how ecological context alters the fitness benefit of either red or blue decoy coloration in skinks. We found that the development and ecology of red decoy coloration of mole skinks differed substantially from blue tail coloration of other sympatric skink species. Mole skinks do not reach the body size of sympatric species of skinks and retain decoy coloration throughout development. Both patterns of scarring in museum specimens and attacks on plasticine models suggest that red coloration serves as a decoy, attracting attacks to the autotomous tail. While predation rates were similar across habitats, models with red tails were attacked far less frequently in open habitats than models with blue tails, while attack rates were similar in closed habitats. Our results suggest that red decoy coloration in mole skinks could be an adaptation to relatively open-canopy habitats. Our study has important implications for understanding how habitat structure and predator-based selection can alter the evolutionary dynamics of decoy coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryann Heninger
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA.
| | - Charles M Watson
- Deparment of Biology, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX, USA.
| | - Christian L Cox
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.
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31
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Pattern contrast influences wariness in naïve predators towards aposematic patterns. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9246. [PMID: 32514003 PMCID: PMC7280217 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65754-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
An apparent and common feature of aposematic patterns is that they contain a high level of achromatic (luminance) contrast, for example, many warning signals combine black spots and stripes with a lighter colour such as yellow. However, the potential importance of achromatic contrast, as distinct from colour contrast, in reducing predation has been largely overlooked. Here, using domestic chicks as a model predator, we manipulated the degree of achromatic contrast in warning patterns to test if high luminance contrast in aposematic signals is important for deterring naïve predators. We found that the chicks were less likely to approach and eat prey with high contrast compared to low contrast patterns. These findings suggest that aposematic prey patterns with a high luminance contrast can benefit from increased survival through eliciting unlearned biases in naïve avian predators. Our work also highlights the importance of considering luminance contrast in future work investigating why aposematic patterns take the particular forms that they do.
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32
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Fangs for the Memories? A Survey of Pain in Snakebite Patients Does Not Support a Strong Role for Defense in the Evolution of Snake Venom Composition. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030201. [PMID: 32235759 PMCID: PMC7150919 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals use venoms for multiple purposes, most prominently for prey acquisition and self-defense. In snakes, venom composition often evolves as a result of selection for optimization for local diet. However, whether selection for a defensive function has also played a role in driving the evolution of venom composition has remained largely unstudied. Here, we use an online survey of snakebite victims to test a key prediction of a defensive function, that envenoming should result in the rapid onset of severe pain. From the analysis of 584 snakebite reports, involving 192 species of venomous snake, we find that the vast majority of bites do not result in severe early pain. Phylogenetic comparative analysis shows that where early pain after a bite evolves, it is often lost rapidly. Our results, therefore, do not support the hypothesis that natural selection for antipredator defense played an important role in the origin of venom or front-fanged delivery systems in general, although there may be intriguing exceptions to this rule.
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33
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Reyes-Velasco J, Adams RH, Boissinot S, Parkinson CL, Campbell JA, Castoe TA, Smith EN. Genome-wide SNPs clarify lineage diversity confused by coloration in coralsnakes of the Micrurus diastema species complex (Serpentes: Elapidae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2020; 147:106770. [PMID: 32084510 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2020.106770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
New world coralsnakes of the genus Micrurus are a diverse radiation of highly venomous and brightly colored snakes that range from North Carolina to Argentina. Species in this group have played central roles in developing and testing hypotheses about the evolution of mimicry and aposematism. Despite their diversity and prominence as model systems, surprisingly little is known about species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships within Micrurus, which has substantially hindered meaningful analyses of their evolutionary history. Here we use mitochondrial genes together with thousands of nuclear genomic loci obtained via ddRADseq to study the phylogenetic relationships and population genomics of a subclade of the genus Micrurus: The M. diastema species complex. Our results indicate that prior species and species-group inferences based on morphology and color pattern have grossly misguided taxonomy, and that the M. diastema complex is not monophyletic. Based on our analyses of molecular data, we infer the phylogenetic relationships among species and populations, and provide a revised taxonomy for the group. Two non-sister species-complexes with similar color patterns are recognized, the M. distans and the M. diastema complexes, the first being basal to the monadal Micrurus and the second encompassing most North American monadal taxa. We examined all 13 species, and their respective subspecies, for a total of 24 recognized taxa in the M. diastema species complex. Our analyses suggest a reduction to 10 species, with no subspecific designations warranted, to be a more likely estimate of species diversity, namely, M. apiatus, M. browni, M. diastema, M. distans, M. ephippifer, M. fulvius, M. michoacanensis, M. oliveri, M. tener, and one undescribed species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacobo Reyes-Velasco
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, 337 Life Science, Arlington, TX 76010, USA; New York University Abu Dhabi, Saadiyat Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Richard H Adams
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, 337 Life Science, Arlington, TX 76010, USA
| | - Stephane Boissinot
- New York University Abu Dhabi, Saadiyat Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, 190 Collins St., Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Jonathan A Campbell
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, 337 Life Science, Arlington, TX 76010, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, 337 Life Science, Arlington, TX 76010, USA
| | - Eric N Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, 337 Life Science, Arlington, TX 76010, USA.
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34
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Gilbert AL, Brooks OL, Lattanzio MS. Multiple behavioral contexts of a melanized tail display in a desert lizard. Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L. Gilbert
- Department of Biological Sciences Ohio University Athens Ohio
- Ohio Center for Ecological and Evolutionary Studies Athens Ohio
| | - Olivia L. Brooks
- Department of Biology John Carroll University University Heights Ohio
| | - Matthew S. Lattanzio
- Department of Organismal and Environmental Biology Christopher Newport University Newport News Virginia
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35
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Dallagnol Vargas N, Guimarães M, Caorsi V, Wolff Bordignon D, Borges‐Martins M. An experimental assessment of the antipredatory function of green dorsal coloration in poisonous Neotropical red‐bellied toads. J Zool (1987) 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natália Dallagnol Vargas
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Biologia Animal Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
| | - Murilo Guimarães
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Biologia Animal Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
| | - Valentina Caorsi
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Biologia Animal Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
- The Istituto Agrario di San Michele all’Adige Research and Innovation Centre Fondazione Edmund Mach San Michele all’Adige TN Italy
| | - Debora Wolff Bordignon
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Biologia Animal Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
| | - Márcio Borges‐Martins
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Biologia Animal Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul Brazil
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36
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Worthington‐Hill JO, Gill JA. Effects of large‐scale heathland management on thermal regimes and predation on adders
Vipera berus. Anim Conserv 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. O. Worthington‐Hill
- School of Biological Sciences University of East Anglia Norwich Research Park Norwich UK
| | - J. A. Gill
- School of Biological Sciences University of East Anglia Norwich Research Park Norwich UK
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37
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Akcali CK, Pérez-Mendoza HA, Kikuchi DW, Pfennig DW. Multiple models generate a geographical mosaic of resemblance in a Batesian mimicry complex. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191519. [PMID: 31530146 PMCID: PMC6784714 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Batesian mimics-benign species that receive protection from predation by resembling a dangerous species-often occur with multiple model species. Here, we examine whether geographical variation in the number of local models generates geographical variation in mimic-model resemblance. In areas with multiple models, selection might be relaxed or even favour imprecise mimicry relative to areas with only one model. We test the prediction that model-mimic match should vary with the number of other model species in a broadly distributed snake mimicry complex where a mimic and a model co-occur both with and without other model species. We found that the mimic resembled its model more closely when they were exclusively sympatric than when they were sympatric with other model species. Moreover, in regions with multiple models, mimic-model resemblance was positively correlated with the resemblance between the model and other model species. However, contrary to predictions, free-ranging natural predators did not attack artificial replicas of imprecise mimics more often when only a single model was present. Taken together, our results suggest that multiple models might generate a geographical mosaic in the degree of phenotype matching between Batesian mimics and their models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher K. Akcali
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Hibraim Adán Pérez-Mendoza
- Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva y Conservación de Anfibios y Reptiles, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Tlalneplanta, Mexico
| | - David W. Kikuchi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - David W. Pfennig
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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38
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Abstract
With our comprehensive set of field (model survival), laboratory (controlled learning, palatability, toxin analysis), and molecular data, we provide evidence that polymorphism can persist in an aposematic population, despite expectations of positive frequency-dependent selection. We show that this can happen if prey species carrying a strong signal can exploit predator learning to elicit broad avoidance of many signals, even if predators only have experience with a single signal. This could allow novel signals to be protected within a population of aposematic prey. Thus, under the expectations of broad generalization coupled with limited gene flow, weak aposematic signals can persist, contributing to the overall diversity of signals found within aposematic species. Aposematic organisms couple conspicuous warning signals with a secondary defense to deter predators from attacking. Novel signals of aposematic prey are expected to be selected against due to positive frequency-dependent selection. How, then, can novel phenotypes persist after they arise, and why do so many aposematic species exhibit intrapopulation signal variability? Using a polytypic poison frog (Dendrobates tinctorius), we explored the forces of selection on variable aposematic signals using 2 phenotypically distinct (white, yellow) populations. Contrary to expectations, local phenotype was not always better protected compared to novel phenotypes in either population; in the white population, the novel phenotype evoked greater avoidance in natural predators. Despite having a lower quantity of alkaloids, the skin extracts from yellow frogs provoked higher aversive reactions by birds than white frogs in the laboratory, although both populations differed from controls. Similarly, predators learned to avoid the yellow signal faster than the white signal, and generalized their learned avoidance of yellow but not white. We propose that signals that are easily learned and broadly generalized can protect rare, novel signals, and weak warning signals (i.e., signals with poor efficacy and/or poor defense) can persist when gene flow among populations, as in this case, is limited. This provides a mechanism for the persistence of intrapopulation aposematic variation, a likely precursor to polytypism and driver of speciation.
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39
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Myette AL, Hossie TJ, Murray DL. Defensive posture in a terrestrial salamander deflects predatory strikes irrespective of body size. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A wide variety of prey use defensive postures as a means of protection from predators. Many salamanders engage in broadly similar defensive postures, which may function as a warning signal and reduce the probability of attack, or may deflect predator attacks away from vital body parts. The extent to which these strategies (i.e., aposematism and deflection) act exclusively or synergistically, however, remains unknown. We deployed clay salamanders in the field, manipulating size (small, large) and posture (resting, defensive), and documented attack rates across three predator types. Competing risks analysis revealed that attack rates were affected by model size, deployment period, and leaf litter depth at the site of deployment, whereas model posture had no significant effect. Model size and posture did not interact, indicating that defensive posture was ineffective in deterring attack irrespective of prey size. Model prey in the defensive posture received significantly more attacks on the tail irrespective of size, and the defensive posture was more effective at deflecting avian attacks compared to mammal predation. We conclude that defensive posture increases tail conspicuousness without increasing predation risk, and primarily functions to deflect attacks away from vital body parts. The efficacy of defection may be further increased by tail undulation, however our use of static models means that we cannot exclude aposematic or deimatic functions for such movements. Our results provide important support for the deflection hypothesis in explaining antipredator behavior, and thereby set the stage for additional research targeting the functionality of attack deflection in natural predator–prey encounters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander L Myette
- Department of Environmental and Life Sciences, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Thomas J Hossie
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dennis L Murray
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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40
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Coombs G. Does partial concealment influence predation attempts on small model snakes in South Africa? AFR J HERPETOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/21564574.2019.1645745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Coombs
- Independent Researcher, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa
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41
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Watson CM, Degon Z, Krogman W, Cox CL. Evolutionary and ecological forces underlying ontogenetic loss of decoy coloration. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Predator-based selection has resulted in the repeated evolution of a variety of antipredator traits. Despite the effectiveness of these traits, some species experience shifts or even complete loss of antipredator traits during development. The evolutionary forces that favour such a transition are poorly understood. We sought to comprehend the role of predator-based selection and organismal factors underlying developmental loss of antipredator traits by focusing on decoy coloration in skink lizards. To this end, we studied the ontogenetic loss of decoy tail coloration in three Nearctic skink species. We performed natural history collection surveys and clay-model studies on predation to determine the organismal determinants of decoy coloration (body size and energy content of the tail) and predation based upon size and decoy coloration. We found that decoy coloration was lost during development at a similar size in all three species. Although predation rates on juvenile models were similar for both uniform brown and decoy models, predation rates on adult models with decoy coloration were much higher than those on non-decoy adult models. Overall, our results suggest that predator-based selection is an important factor driving the ontogenetic loss of decoy coloration at similar sizes across these species and might be generalizable to other antipredator traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M Watson
- Department of Biology, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX, USA
| | - Zachariah Degon
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
| | - William Krogman
- Department of Biology, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX, USA
| | - Christian L Cox
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
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42
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Nordberg EJ, Schwarzkopf L. Predation risk is a function of alternative prey availability rather than predator abundance in a tropical savanna woodland ecosystem. Sci Rep 2019; 9:7718. [PMID: 31118446 PMCID: PMC6531519 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44159-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Typically, factors influencing predation risk are viewed only from the perspective of predators or prey populations but few studies have examined predation risk in the context of a food web. We tested two competing hypotheses regarding predation: (1) predation risk is dependent on predator density; and (2) predation risk is dependent on the availability of alternative prey sources. We use an empirical, multi-level, tropical food web (birds-lizards-invertebrates) and a mensurative experiment (seasonal fluctuations in abundance and artificial lizards to estimate predation risk) to test these hypotheses. Birds were responsible for the majority of attacks on artificial lizards and were more abundant in the wet season. Artificial lizards were attacked more frequently in the dry than the wet season despite a greater abundance of birds in the wet season. Lizard and invertebrate (alternative prey) abundances showed opposing trends; lizards were more abundant in the dry while invertebrates were more abundant in the wet season. Predatory birds attacked fewer lizards when invertebrate prey abundance was highest, and switched to lizard prey when invertebrate abundance reduced, and lizard abundance was greatest. Our study suggests predation risk is not predator density-dependent, but rather dependent on the abundance of invertebrate prey, supporting the alternative prey hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Nordberg
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.
| | - Lin Schwarzkopf
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
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43
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Akcali CK, Adán Pérez-Mendoza H, Salazar-Valenzuela D, Kikuchi DW, Guayasamin JM, Pfennig DW. Evaluating the utility of camera traps in field studies of predation. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6487. [PMID: 30828493 PMCID: PMC6394347 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial prey techniques—wherein synthetic replicas of real organisms are placed in natural habitats—are widely used to study predation in the field. We investigated the extent to which videography could provide additional information to such studies. As a part of studies on aposematism and mimicry of coral snakes (Micrurus) and their mimics, observational data from 109 artificial snake prey were collected from video-recording camera traps in three locations in the Americas (terra firme forest, Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Ecuador; premontane wet forest, Nahá Reserve, Mexico; longleaf pine forest, Southeastern Coastal Plain, North Carolina, USA). During 1,536 camera days, a total of 268 observations of 20 putative snake predator species were recorded in the vicinity of artificial prey. Predators were observed to detect artificial prey 52 times, but only 21 attacks were recorded. Mammals were the most commonly recorded group of predators near replicas (243) and were responsible for most detections (48) and attacks (20). There was no difference between avian or mammalian predators in their probability of detecting replicas nor in their probability of attacking replicas after detecting them. Bite and beak marks left on clay replicas registered a higher ratio of avian:mammalian attacks than videos registered. Approximately 61.5% of artificial prey monitored with cameras remained undetected by predators throughout the duration of the experiments. Observational data collected from videos could provide more robust inferences on the relative fitness of different prey phenotypes, predator behavior, and the relative contribution of different predator species to selection on prey. However, we estimate that the level of predator activity necessary for the benefit of additional information that videos provide to be worth their financial costs is achieved in fewer than 20% of published artificial prey studies. Although we suggest future predation studies employing artificial prey to consider using videography as a tool to inspire new, more focused inquiry, the investment in camera traps is unlikely to be worth the expense for most artificial prey studies until the cost:benefit ratio decreases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher K Akcali
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.,North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | | | | | - David W Kikuchi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Juan M Guayasamin
- Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador
| | - David W Pfennig
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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44
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Fulgione D, Buglione M, Rippa D, Trapanese M, Petrelli S, Monti DM, Aria M, Del Giudice R, Maselli V. Selection for background matching drives sympatric speciation in Wall Gecko. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1288. [PMID: 30718570 PMCID: PMC6361904 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37587-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The Wall Gecko shows heterogeneous colour pattern, which may vary among individuals, depending on the time of day and on the habitat segregation. Nocturnal pale geckos live exclusively on walls. Diurnal dark geckos preferentially live on olive tree trunks, demonstrating an ability to change skin colour that is superior to that of the pale gecko and allows diurnal geckos becoming camouflaged on the diverse substrates occupied during the day. In our study, the nocturnal/pale/wall and diurnal/dark/trunk geckos could be considered the extremes of an ecological cline of morphological variation on which divergent selection may be acting. Combining the effect of balancing selection on nocturnal geckos and disruptive selection between two sympatric populations could lead to speciation. All geckos analysed here belong to the same species, as confirmed by genetic characterization, however diurnal and nocturnal gecko populations seem to be in an early stage of incipient speciation. These two different morphs still combine genes, as revealed by neutral genetic markers, yet they show complete separation according to the analyses of mtDNA coding genes. Experimental results show that diurnal and nocturnal geckos do not swap their niches, likely because the predation pressure causes severe selection for background matching. Genomic analysis of complete mtDNA suggests that nocturnal geckos seem to be under balancing selection perhaps due to the narrow niche in which they live, whereas the daytime population has more opportunity in fitting into the multiple available niches, and they experience positive selection. Here we hypothesize that the ecological segregation that we are witnessing between the nocturnal and diurnal geckos, can lead to a ecological speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Fulgione
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy.
| | - Maria Buglione
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Daniela Rippa
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Martina Trapanese
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Simona Petrelli
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Daria Maria Monti
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Massimo Aria
- Department of Economics and Statistics, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Rita Del Giudice
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
| | - Valeria Maselli
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cupa Nuova Cinthia 26, 80126, Naples, Italy
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45
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Rößler DC, Lötters S, Mappes J, Valkonen JK, Menin M, Lima AP, Pröhl H. Sole coloration as an unusual aposematic signal in a Neotropical toad. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1128. [PMID: 30718568 PMCID: PMC6362010 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37705-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals have evolved remarkable strategies to avoid predation. In diurnal, toxic harlequin toads (Atelopus) from the Amazon basin, we find a unique colour signal. Some Atelopus populations have striking red soles of the hands and feet, visible only when walking. When stationary, the toads are hard to detect despite their yellow-black dorsal coloration. Consequently, they switch between high and low conspicuousness. Interestingly, some populations lack the extra colour display of the soles. We found comprehensive support that the red coloration can act as an aposematic signal directed towards potential predators: red soles are significantly more conspicuous than soles lacking red coloration to avian predators and the presence of the red signal significantly increases detection. Further, toads with red soles show bolder behaviour by using higher sites in the vegetation than those lacking this signal. Field experiments hint at a lower attack risk for clay models with red soles than for those lacking the signal, in a population where the red soles naturally occur. We suggest that the absence of the signal may be explained by a higher overall attack risk or potential differences of predator community structure between populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela C Rößler
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany.
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Marcelo Menin
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Amazonas Federal University, Av. General Rodrigo Otávio Jordão Ramos 3000, 69077-000, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Albertina P Lima
- Coordenação de Pesquisas em Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Av. André Araujo 2936, 69011-970, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Heike Pröhl
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany
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Taylor Q, Cox CL. Evidence of predation risk increases with body size in a diminutive snake. J Zool (1987) 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Q. Taylor
- Department of Biology Georgia Southern University Statesboro GA USA
| | - C. L. Cox
- Department of Biology Georgia Southern University Statesboro GA USA
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Behm JE, Waite BR, Hsieh ST, Helmus MR. Benefits and limitations of three-dimensional printing technology for ecological research. BMC Ecol 2018; 18:32. [PMID: 30200934 PMCID: PMC6131837 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-018-0190-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecological research often involves sampling and manipulating non-model organisms that reside in heterogeneous environments. As such, ecologists often adapt techniques and ideas from industry and other scientific fields to design and build equipment, tools, and experimental contraptions custom-made for the ecological systems under study. Three-dimensional (3D) printing provides a way to rapidly produce identical and novel objects that could be used in ecological studies, yet ecologists have been slow to adopt this new technology. Here, we provide ecologists with an introduction to 3D printing. RESULTS First, we give an overview of the ecological research areas in which 3D printing is predicted to be the most impactful and review current studies that have already used 3D printed objects. We then outline a methodological workflow for integrating 3D printing into an ecological research program and give a detailed example of a successful implementation of our 3D printing workflow for 3D printed models of the brown anole, Anolis sagrei, for a field predation study. After testing two print media in the field, we show that the models printed from the less expensive and more sustainable material (blend of 70% plastic and 30% recycled wood fiber) were just as durable and had equal predator attack rates as the more expensive material (100% virgin plastic). CONCLUSIONS Overall, 3D printing can provide time and cost savings to ecologists, and with recent advances in less toxic, biodegradable, and recyclable print materials, ecologists can choose to minimize social and environmental impacts associated with 3D printing. The main hurdles for implementing 3D printing-availability of resources like printers, scanners, and software, as well as reaching proficiency in using 3D image software-may be easier to overcome at institutions with digital imaging centers run by knowledgeable staff. As with any new technology, the benefits of 3D printing are specific to a particular project, and ecologists must consider the investments of developing usable 3D materials for research versus other methods of generating those materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn E Behm
- Integrative Ecology Lab, Center for Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA. .,Department of Ecological Science-Animal Ecology, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Brenna R Waite
- Integrative Ecology Lab, Center for Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - S Tonia Hsieh
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Matthew R Helmus
- Integrative Ecology Lab, Center for Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Effects of Urbanization on Bothrops jararaca Populations in São Paulo Municipality, Southeastern Brazil. J HERPETOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1670/17-021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Bosque RJ, Lawrence JP, Buchholz R, Colli GR, Heppard J, Noonan B. Diversity of warning signal and social interaction influences the evolution of imperfect mimicry. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:7490-7499. [PMID: 30151165 PMCID: PMC6106177 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry, the resemblance of one species by another, is a complex phenomenon where the mimic (Batesian mimicry) or the model and the mimic (Mullerian mimicry) gain an advantage from this phenotypic convergence. Despite the expectation that mimics should closely resemble their models, many mimetic species appear to be poor mimics. This is particularly apparent in some systems in which there are multiple available models. However, the influence of model pattern diversity on the evolution of mimetic systems remains poorly understood. We tested whether the number of model patterns a predator learns to associate with a negative consequence affects their willingness to try imperfect, novel patterns. We exposed week-old chickens to coral snake (Micrurus) color patterns representative of three South American areas that differ in model pattern richness, and then tested their response to the putative imperfect mimetic pattern of a widespread species of harmless colubrid snake (Oxyrhopus rhombifer) in different social contexts. Our results indicate that chicks have a great hesitation to attack when individually exposed to high model pattern diversity and a greater hesitation to attack when exposed as a group to low model pattern diversity. Individuals with a fast growth trajectory (measured by morphological traits) were also less reluctant to attack. We suggest that the evolution of new patterns could be favored by social learning in areas of low pattern diversity, while individual learning can reduce predation pressure on recently evolved mimics in areas of high model diversity. Our results could aid the development of ecological predictions about the evolution of imperfect mimicry and mimicry in general.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Brice Noonan
- The University of MississippiUniversityMississippi
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