GENETIC ARCHITECTURE FOR THE ADAPTIVE ORIGIN OF ANNUAL WILD RICE,ORYZA NIVARA

Genetic architecture of ecological divergence between Oryza rufipogon and Oryza nivara

Ecological divergence due to habitat difference plays a prominent role in the formation of new species, but the genetic architecture during ecological speciation and the mechanism underlying phenotypic divergence remain less understood. Two wild ancestors of rice (Oryza rufipogon and Oryza nivara) are a progenitor-derivative species pair with ecological divergence and provide a unique system for studying ecological adaptation/speciation. Here, we constructed a high-resolution linkage map and conducted a quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis of 19 phenotypic traits using an F2 population generated from a cross between the two Oryza species. We identified 113 QTLs associated with interspecific divergence of 16 quantitative traits, with effect sizes ranging from 1.61% to 34.1% in terms of the percentage of variation explained (PVE). The distribution of effect sizes of QTLs followed a negative exponential, suggesting that a few genes of large effect and many genes of small effect were responsible for the phenotypic divergence. We observed 18 clusters of QTLs (QTL hotspots) on 11 chromosomes, significantly more than that expected by chance, demonstrating the importance of coinheritance of loci/genes in ecological adaptation/speciation. Analysis of effect direction and v-test statistics revealed that interspecific differentiation of most traits was driven by divergent natural selection, supporting the argument that ecological adaptation/speciation would proceed rapidly under coordinated selection on multiple traits. Our findings provide new insights into the understanding of genetic architecture of ecological adaptation and speciation in plants and help effective manipulation of specific genes or gene cluster in rice breeding.

Epigenetic regulation and epigenetic memory resetting during plant rejuvenation

Reversal of plant developmental status from the mature to the juvenile phase, thus leading to the restoration of the developmental potential, is referred to as plant rejuvenation. It involves multilayer regulation, including resetting gene expression patterns, chromatin remodeling, and histone modifications, eventually resulting in the restoration of juvenile characteristics. Although plants can be successfully rejuvenated using some forestry practices to restore juvenile morphology, physiology, and reproductive capabilities, studies on the epigenetic mechanisms underlying this process are in the nascent stage. This review provides an overview of the plant rejuvenation process and discusses the key epigenetic mechanisms involved in DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling in the process of rejuvenation, as well as the roles of small RNAs in this process. Additionally, we present new inquiries regarding the epigenetic regulation of plant rejuvenation, aiming to advance our understanding of rejuvenation in sexually and asexually propagated plants. Overall, we highlight the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in the regulation of plant rejuvenation, providing valuable insights into the complexity of this process.

SPR9 encodes a 60 S ribosomal protein that modulates panicle spreading and affects resistance to false smut in rice (Oryza sativa. L)

BACKGROUND

The architecture of inflorescence in crops is a key agronomic feature determining grain yield and thus has been a major target trait of cereal domestication.

RESULTS

In this study, we show that a simple spreading panicle change in rice panicle shape, controlled by the Spreading Panicle 9 (SPR9) locus, also has a significant impact on the resistance to rice false smut (RFS). Meanwhile, we mapped a novel spr9 mutant gene between markers Indel5-18 and Indel5-22 encompassing a genomic region of 43-kb with six candidate genes. Through gene prediction and cDNA sequencing, we confirmed that LOC_Os05g38520 is the target gene in the spr9 mutant, which encodes 60 S ribosomal protein L36-2. Further analysis showed that the spr9 mutant is caused by a 1 bp deletion in the first exon that resulted in premature termination. Knockout experiments showed that the SPR9 gene is responsible for the spreading panicle phenotype of the spr9 mutant. Interestingly, the spr9 mutant was found to improve resistance to RFS without affecting major agronomic traits. Taken together, our results revealed that the spr9 allele has good application prospects in rice breeding for disease resistance and panicle improvement.

CONCLUSIONS

We report the map-based cloning and functional characterization of SPR9, which encodes a 60 S ribosomal protein that regulates spreading panicles and affects the resistance to false smut in rice.

Phenotypic Variation and the Impact of Admixture in the Oryza rufipogon Species Complex (ORSC)

Crop wild relatives represent valuable reservoirs of variation for breeding, but their populations are threatened in natural habitats, are sparsely represented in genebanks, and most are poorly characterized. The focus of this study is the Oryza rufipogon species complex (ORSC), wild progenitor of Asian rice (Oryza sativa L.). The ORSC comprises perennial, annual and intermediate forms which were historically designated as O. rufipogon, O. nivara, and O. sativa f. spontanea (or Oryza spp., an annual form of mixed O. rufipogon/O. nivara and O. sativa ancestry), respectively, based on non-standardized morphological, geographical, and/or ecologically-based species definitions and boundaries. Here, a collection of 240 diverse ORSC accessions, characterized by genotyping-by-sequencing (113,739 SNPs), was phenotyped for 44 traits associated with plant, panicle, and seed morphology in the screenhouse at the International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. These traits included heritable phenotypes often recorded as characterization data by genebanks. Over 100 of these ORSC accessions were also phenotyped in the greenhouse for 18 traits in Stuttgart, Arkansas, and 16 traits in Ithaca, New York, United States. We implemented a Bayesian Gaussian mixture model to infer accession groups from a subset of these phenotypic data and ascertained three phenotype-based group assignments. We used concordance between the genotypic subpopulations and these phenotype-based groups to identify a suite of phenotypic traits that could reliably differentiate the ORSC populations, whether measured in tropical or temperate regions. The traits provide insight into plant morphology, life history (perenniality versus annuality) and mating habit (self- versus cross-pollinated), and are largely consistent with genebank species designations. One phenotypic group contains predominantly O. rufipogon accessions characterized as perennial and largely out-crossing and one contains predominantly O. nivara accessions characterized as annual and largely inbreeding. From these groups, 42 "core" O. rufipogon and 25 "core" O. nivara accessions were identified for domestication studies. The third group, comprising 20% of our collection, has the most accessions identified as Oryza spp. (51.2%) and levels of O. sativa admixture accounting for more than 50% of the genome. This third group is potentially useful as a "pre-breeding" pool for breeders attempting to incorporate novel variation into elite breeding lines.

Early Domestication History of Asian Rice Revealed by Mutations and Genome-Wide Analysis of Gene Genealogies

BACKGROUND

Asian rice (Oryza sativa L.) has been a model plant but its cultivation history is inadequately understood, and its origin still under debate. Several enigmas remain, including how this annual crop shifted its growth habit from its perennial ancestor, O. rufipogon, why genetic divergence between indica and japonica appears older than the history of human domestication, and why some domestication genes do not show signals of introgression between subgroups. Addressing these issues may benefit both basic research and rice breeding.

RESULTS

Gene genealogy-based mutation (GGM) analysis shows that history of Asian rice is divided into two phases (Phase I and II) of about equal lengths. Mutations occurred earlier than the partition of indica and japonica to Os genome mark Phase-I period. We diagnosed 91 such mutations among 101 genes sampled across 12 chromosomes of Asian rice and its wild relatives. Positive selection, detected more at 5' regions than at coding regions of some of the genes, involved 22 loci (e.g., An-1, SH4, Rc, Hd3a, GL3.2, OsMYB3, OsDFR, and OsMYB15), which affected traits from easy harvesting, grain color, flowering time, productivity, to likely taste and tolerance. Phase-I mutations of OsMYB3, OsHd3a and OsDFR were experimentally tested and all caused enhanced functions of the genes in vivo. Phase-II period features separate cultivations, lineage-specific selection, and expanded domestication to more genes. Further genomic analysis, along with phenotypic comparisons, indicates that O. sativa is hybrid progeny of O. rufipogon and O. nivara, inherited slightly more genes of O. rufipogon. Congruently, modern alleles of the sampled genes are approximately 6% ancient, 38% uni-specific, 40% bi-specific (mixed), and 15% new after accumulating significant mutations. Results of sequencing surveys across modern cultivars/landraces indicate locus-specific usages of various alleles while confirming the associated mutations.

CONCLUSIONS

Asian rice was initially domesticated as one crop and later separate selection mediated by human resulted in its major subgroups. This history and the hybrid origin well explain previous puzzles. Positive selection, particularly in 5' regions, was the major force underlying trait domestication. Locus-specific domestication can be characterized and the result may facilitate breeders in developing better rice varieties in future.

Transposition and duplication of MADS-domain transcription factor genes in annual and perennial Arabis species modulates flowering

Annual and perennial species differ in their timing and intensity of flowering, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. We hybridized closely related annual and perennial plants and used genetics, transgenesis, and genomics to characterize differences in the activity and function of their flowering-time genes. We identify a gene encoding a transcription factor that moved between chromosomes and is retained in the annual but absent from the perennial. This gene strongly delays flowering, and we propose that it has been retained in the annual to compensate for reduced activity of closely related genes. This study highlights the value of using direct hybridization between closely related plant species to characterize functional differences in fast-evolving reproductive traits.

The timing of reproduction is an adaptive trait in many organisms. In plants, the timing, duration, and intensity of flowering differ between annual and perennial species. To identify interspecies variation in these traits, we studied introgression lines derived from hybridization of annual and perennial species, Arabis montbretiana and Arabis alpina, respectively. Recombination mapping identified two tandem A. montbretiana genes encoding MADS-domain transcription factors that confer extreme late flowering on A. alpina. These genes are related to the MADS AFFECTING FLOWERING (MAF) cluster of floral repressors of other Brassicaceae species and were named A. montbretiana (Am) MAF-RELATED (MAR) genes. AmMAR1 but not AmMAR2 prevented floral induction at the shoot apex of A. alpina, strongly enhancing the effect of the MAF cluster, and MAR1 is absent from the genomes of all A. alpina accessions analyzed. Exposure of plants to cold (vernalization) represses AmMAR1 transcription and overcomes its inhibition of flowering. Assembly of the tandem arrays of MAR and MAF genes of six A. alpina accessions and three related species using PacBio long-sequence reads demonstrated that the MARs arose within the Arabis genus by interchromosomal transposition of a MAF1-like gene followed by tandem duplication. Time-resolved comparative RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) suggested that AmMAR1 may be retained in A. montbretiana to enhance the effect of the AmMAF cluster and extend the duration of vernalization required for flowering. Our results demonstrate that MAF genes transposed independently in different Brassicaceae lineages and suggest that they were retained to modulate adaptive flowering responses that differ even among closely related species.

Cytokinin-promoted secondary growth and nutrient storage in the perennial stem zone of Arabis alpina

Perennial plants maintain their lifespan through several growth seasons. Arabis alpina serves as a model Brassicaceae species to study perennial traits. Lateral stems of A. alpina have a proximal vegetative zone with a dormant bud zone and a distal senescing seed-producing inflorescence zone. We addressed how this zonation is distinguished at the anatomical level, whether it is related to nutrient storage and which signals affect the zonation. We found that the vegetative zone exhibits secondary growth, which we termed the perennial growth zone (PZ). High-molecular-weight carbon compounds accumulate there in cambium and cambium derivatives. Neither vernalization nor flowering were requirements for secondary growth and the sequestration of storage compounds. The inflorescence zone with only primary growth, termed the annual growth zone (AZ), or roots exhibited different storage characteristics. Following cytokinin application cambium activity was enhanced and secondary phloem parenchyma was formed in the PZ and also in the AZ. In transcriptome analysis, cytokinin-related genes represented enriched gene ontology terms and were expressed at a higher level in the PZ than in the AZ. Thus, A. alpina primarily uses the vegetative PZ for nutrient storage, coupled to cytokinin-promoted secondary growth. This finding lays a foundation for future studies addressing signals for perennial growth.

Divergence in flowering time is a major component contributing to reproductive isolation between two wild rice species (Oryza rufipogon and O. nivara)

It is of critical importance for our understanding of speciation process to determine the forms of reproductive isolation and their relative importance in species divergence. Oryza nivara and O. rufipogon are direct ancestors of Asian cultivated rice and a progenitor-daughter species pair. Investigating the reproductive isolation between them provides insights into plant speciation and helps understanding of the rice domestication. Here, we quantitatively measured the major components of reproductive isolation between the two species based on common garden and crossing experiments for three pairs of sympatric populations in Nepal, Cambodia and Laos. We revealed significant differences in the flowering times between species pairs, with O. nivara flowering much earlier than O. rufipogon. A very weak reduction in seed set but no reduction in F1 viability and fertility were detected for the crosses between species relative to those within species. Moreover, we detected asymmetrical compatibility between species and found that emasculation significantly decreased pollination success in O. nivara but not in O. rufipogon. Our study demonstrates that the divergence between O. nivara and O. rufipogon is maintained almost entirely by the difference in flowering times and suggests that differential flowering times contribute to both habitat preferences and reproductive isolation between species.

Evolution of Plant Architecture in Oryza Driven by the PROG1 Locus

The genetic control of plant architecture in crops is critical for agriculture and understanding morphological evolution. This study showed that an open reading frame (ORF) of the rice domestication gene PROG1 appeared 3.4-3.9 million years ago (Mya). Subsequently, it acquired a novel protein-coding gene function in the genome of O. rufipogon (~0.3-0.4 Mya). This extremely young gene and its paralogous C2H2 genes located nearby define the prostrate architecture of O. rufipogon and, thus, are of adaptive significance for wild rice in swamp and water areas. However, selection for dense planting and high yield during rice domestication silenced the PROG1 gene and caused the loss of the RPAD locus containing functional C2H2 paralogs; hence, domesticated lines exhibit an erect plant architecture. Analysis of the stepwise origination process of PROG1 and its evolutionary genetics revealed that this zinc-finger coding gene may have rapidly evolved under positive selection and promoted the transition from non- or semi-prostrate growth to prostrate growth. A transgenic assay showed that PROG1 from O. rufipogon exerts a stronger function compared with PROG1 sequences from other Oryza species. However, the analysis of the expression levels of PROG1 in different Oryza species suggests that the transcriptional regulation of PROG1 has played an important role in its evolution. This study provides the first strong case showing how a fundamental morphological trait evolved in Oryza species driven by a gene locus.

Parallel Speciation of Wild Rice Associated with Habitat Shifts

The occurrence of parallel speciation strongly implies the action of natural selection. However, it is unclear how general a phenomena parallel speciation is since it was only shown in a small number of animal species. In particular, the adaptive process and mechanisms underlying the process of parallel speciation remain elusive. Here, we used an integrative approach incorporating population genomics, common garden, and crossing experiments to investigate parallel speciation of the wild rice species Oryza nivara from O. rufipogon. We demonstrated that O. nivara originated multiple times from different O. rufipogon populations and revealed that different O. nivara populations have evolved similar phenotypes under divergent selection, a reflection of recurrent local adaptation of ancient O. rufipogon populations to dry habitats. Almost completed premating isolation was detected between O. nivara and O. rufipogon in the absence of any postmating barriers between and within these species. These results suggest that flowering time is a “magic” trait that contributes to both local adaptation and reproductive isolation in the origin of wild rice species. Our study thus demonstrates a convincing case of parallel ecological speciation as a consequence of adaptation to new environments.

Population genetics and evolutionary history of the wild rice species Oryza rufipogon and O. nivara in Sri Lanka

Genetic diversity and population genetic structure of the wild rice species Oryza rufipogon and O. nivara in Sri Lanka were studied using 33 microsatellite markers. A total of 315 individuals of 11 natural populations collected from the wet, intermediate, and dry zones of the country were used in the study. We found a moderate to high level of genetic diversity at the population level, with the polymorphic loci (P) ranging from 60.6% to 100% (average 81.8%) and the expected heterozygosity (H E) varying from 0.294 to 0.481 (average 0.369). A significant genetic differentiation between species and strong genetic structure within species were also observed. Based on species distribution modeling, we detected the dynamics of the preferred habitats for the two species in Sri Lanka and demonstrated that both O. rufipogon and O. nivara populations have expanded substantially since the last internal glacial. In addition, we showed that the geographical distribution of the two species corresponded to the climate zones and identified a few of key environmental variables that contribute to the distribution of the two species, implying the potential mechanism for ecological adaptation of these two species in Sri Lanka. These studies provided important insights into the population genetics and evolution of these wild species in Sri Lanka and are of great significance to the in situ conservation and utilization of these wild resources in genetic improvement of rice.

Overexpression of the leucine-rich receptor-like kinase gene LRK2 increases drought tolerance and tiller number in rice

Drought represents a key limiting factor of global crop distribution. Receptor-like kinases play major roles in plant development and defence responses against stresses such as drought. In this study, LRK2, which encodes a leucine-rich receptor-like kinase, was cloned and characterized and found to be localized on the plasma membrane in rice. Promoter-GUS analysis revealed strong expression in tiller buds, roots, nodes and anthers. Transgenic plants overexpressing LRK2 exhibited enhanced tolerance to drought stress due to an increased number of lateral roots compared with the wild type at the vegetative stage. Moreover, ectopic expression of LRK2 seedlings resulted in increased tiller development. Yeast two-hybrid screening and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) indicated a possible interaction between LRK2 and elongation factor 1 alpha (OsEF1A) in vitro. These results suggest that LRK2 functions as a positive regulator of the drought stress response and tiller development via increased branch development in rice. These findings will aid our understanding of branch regulation in other grasses and support improvements in rice genetics.

Divergence of annual and perennial species in the Brassicaceae and the contribution of cis-acting variation at FLC orthologues

Variation in life history contributes to reproductive success in different environments. Divergence of annual and perennial angiosperm species is an extreme example that has occurred frequently. Perennials survive for several years and restrict the duration of reproduction by cycling between vegetative growth and flowering, whereas annuals live for 1 year and flower once. We used the tribe Arabideae (Brassicaceae) to study the divergence of seasonal flowering behaviour among annual and perennial species. In perennial Brassicaceae, orthologues of FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), a floral inhibitor in Arabidopsis thaliana, are repressed by winter cold and reactivated in spring conferring seasonal flowering patterns, whereas in annuals, they are stably repressed by cold. We isolated FLC orthologues from three annual and two perennial Arabis species and found that the duplicated structure of the A. alpina locus is not required for perenniality. The expression patterns of the genes differed between annuals and perennials, as observed among Arabidopsis species, suggesting a broad relevance of these patterns within the Brassicaceae. Also analysis of plants derived from an interspecies cross of A. alpina and annual A. montbretiana demonstrated that cis-regulatory changes in FLC orthologues contribute to their different transcriptional patterns. Sequence comparisons of FLC orthologues from annuals and perennials in the tribes Arabideae and Camelineae identified two regulatory regions in the first intron whose sequence variation correlates with divergence of the annual and perennial expression patterns. Thus, we propose that related cis-acting changes in FLC orthologues occur independently in different tribes of the Brassicaceae during life history evolution.

Pinpointing genes underlying annual/perennial transitions with comparative genomics

BACKGROUND

Transitions between perennial and an annual life history occur often in plant lineages, but the genes that control whether a plant is an annual or perennial are largely unknown. To identify genes that confer differences between annuals and perennials we compared the gene content of four pairs of sister lineages (Arabidopsis thaliana/Arabidopsis lyrata, Arabis montbretiana/Arabis alpina, Arabis verna/Aubrieta parviflora and Draba nemorosa/Draba hispanica) in the Brassicaceae in which each pair contains one annual and one perennial, plus one extra annual species (Capsella rubella).

RESULTS

After sorting all genes in all nine species into gene families, we identified five families in which well-annotated genes are present in the perennials A. lyrata and A. alpina, but are not present in any of the annual species. For the eleven genes in perennials in these families, an orthologous pseudogene or otherwise highly diverged gene was found in the syntenic region of the annual species in six cases. The five candidate families identified encode: a kinase, an oxidoreductase, a lactoylglutathione lyase, a F-box protein and a zinc finger protein. By comparing the active gene in the perennial to the pseudogene or heavily altered gene in the annual, dN and dS were calculated. The low dN/dS values in one kinase suggest that it became pseudogenized more recently, while the other kinase, F-box, oxidoreductase and zinc-finger became pseudogenized closer to the divergence between the annual-perennial pair.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified five gene families that may be involved in the life history switch from perennial to annual. Considering the dN and dS data and whether syntenic pseudogenes were found and the potential functions of the genes, the F-box family is considered the most promising candidate for future functional studies to determine if it affects life history.

Population genetic structure of Oryza rufipogon and Oryza nivara: implications for the origin of O. nivara

Ecological speciation plays a primary role in driving species divergence and adaptation. Oryza rufipogon and Oryza nivara are two incipient species at the early stage of speciation with distinct differences in morphology, life history traits and habitat preference, and therefore provide a unique model for the study of ecological speciation. However, the population genetic structure of the ancestral O. rufipogon has been controversial despite substantial study, and the origin of the derivative O. nivara remains unclear. Here, based on sequences of 10 nuclear and two chloroplast loci from 26 wild populations across the entire geographic ranges of the two species, we conducted comprehensive analyses using population genetics, phylogeography and species distribution modelling (SDM) approaches. In addition to supporting the two previously reported major subdivisions, we detected four genetically distinct groups within O. rufipogon and found no correlation between the genetic groups and either species identity or geographical regions. The SDM clearly showed substantial change in the distribution range of O. rufipogon in history, demonstrating that the repeated extinction and colonization of local populations due to multiple glacial-interglacial cycles during the Quaternary was most likely the main factor shaping the confounding population genetic structure of O. rufipogon. Moreover, we found significant differences between the two species in climate preferences, suggestive of an important role for climatic factors in the adaptation, persistence and expansion of O. nivara. Finally, based on the genetic pattern and dynamics of the O. nivara populations, we hypothesize that O. nivara might have independently originated multiple times from different O. rufipogon populations.

Widespread and Adaptive Alterations in Genome-Wide Gene Expression Associated with Ecological Divergence of Two Oryza Species

Ecological speciation is a common mechanism by which new species arise. Despite great efforts, the role of gene expression in ecological divergence and speciation is poorly understood. Here, we conducted a genome-wide gene expression investigation of two Oryza species that are evolutionarily young and distinct in ecology and morphology. Using digital gene expression technology and the paired-end RNA sequencing method, we obtained 21,415 expressed genes across three reproduction-related tissues. Of them, approximately 8% (1,717) differed significantly in expression levels between the two species and these differentially expressed genes are randomly distributed across the genome. Moreover, 62% (1,064) of the differentially expressed genes exhibited a signature of directional selection in at least one species. Importantly, the genes with differential expression between species evolved more rapidly at the 5' flanking sequences than the genes without differential expression relative to coding sequences, suggesting that cis-regulatory changes are likely adaptive and play an important role in the ecological divergence of the two species. Finally, we showed evidence of significant differentiation between species in phenotype traits and observed that genes with differential expression were overrepresented with functional terms involving phenotypic and ecological differentiation between the two species, including reproduction- and stress-related characteristics. Our findings demonstrate that ecological speciation is associated with widespread and adaptive alterations in genome-wide gene expression and provide new insights into the importance of regulatory evolution in ecological speciation in plants.

Range expansion and habitat shift triggered elevated diversification of the rice genus (Oryza, Poaceae) during the Pleistocene

Background

The rice genus (Oryza) contains many wild genetic resources that are vital to the well-being of humans. However, little is known about the process by which the genus diversified or the factors that drove its speciation. Here, we integrated the phylogenetic, molecular dating and biogeographic methods to investigate the spatial-temporal patterns of Oryza diversification, and used a series of model tests to examine whether intercontinental migrations and/or key innovations were associated with significant changes in diversification rates in the genus.

Results

Oryza became differentiated in tropical Asia in the Miocene. There were two migrations from the ancestral area into Africa and Australia during the Miocene. We inferred at least 10 migration events out of tropical Asia since the Pleistocene, mainly involving the species adapting open habitat. A rapid increase in diversification rates of the whole Oryza occurred during the Pleistocene. Intercontinental migrations from tropical Asia to other tropical regions were positively correlated with shift in habitat, but not with changes in life history. A habitat preference shift from shade tolerant to open habitat predated the burst in diversification rates.

Conclusions

Rice species may have been pre-adapted to invade open habitat. Significant increase in diversification rates occurred during the Pleistocene and is associated with range expansion and habitat shift, but not with life history. The rice genus provides an excellent case supporting the idea that range expansion and invasion of novel habitats can drive the diversification of a group.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0459-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cis-Regulatory Changes Associated with a Recent Mating System Shift and Floral Adaptation in Capsella

The selfing syndrome constitutes a suite of floral and reproductive trait changes that have evolved repeatedly across many evolutionary lineages in response to the shift to selfing. Convergent evolution of the selfing syndrome suggests that these changes are adaptive, yet our understanding of the detailed molecular genetic basis of the selfing syndrome remains limited. Here, we investigate the role of cis-regulatory changes during the recent evolution of the selfing syndrome in Capsella rubella, which split from the outcrosser Capsella grandiflora less than 200 ka. We assess allele-specific expression (ASE) in leaves and flower buds at a total of 18,452 genes in three interspecific F1 C. grandiflora x C. rubella hybrids. Using a hierarchical Bayesian approach that accounts for technical variation using genomic reads, we find evidence for extensive cis-regulatory changes. On average, 44% of the assayed genes show evidence of ASE; however, only 6% show strong allelic expression biases. Flower buds, but not leaves, show an enrichment of cis-regulatory changes in genomic regions responsible for floral and reproductive trait divergence between C. rubella and C. grandiflora. We further detected an excess of heterozygous transposable element (TE) insertions near genes with ASE, and TE insertions targeted by uniquely mapping 24-nt small RNAs were associated with reduced expression of nearby genes. Our results suggest that cis-regulatory changes have been important during the recent adaptive floral evolution in Capsella and that differences in TE dynamics between selfing and outcrossing species could be important for rapid regulatory divergence in association with mating system shifts.

Evolutionary genetics of plant adaptation: insights from new model systems

Flowering time and mating system divergence are two of the most common adaptive transitions in plants. We review recent progress toward understanding the genetic basis of these adaptations in new model plant species. For flowering time, we find that individual crosses often reveal a simple genetic basis, but that the loci involved almost always vary within species and across environments, indicating a more complex genetic basis species-wide. Similarly, the transition to self-fertilization is often genetically complex, but this seems to depend on the amount of standing variation and time since species divergence. Recent population genomic studies also raise doubts about the long-term adaptive potential of self-fertilization, providing evidence that purifying selection is less effective in highly selfing species.

Dwarf Tiller1, a Wuschel-related homeobox transcription factor, is required for tiller growth in rice

Unlike many wild grasses, domesticated rice cultivars have uniform culm height and panicle size among tillers and the main shoot, which is an important trait for grain yield. However, the genetic basis of this trait remains unknown. Here, we report that DWARF TILLER1 (DWT1) controls the developmental uniformity of the main shoot and tillers in rice (Oryza sativa). Most dwt1 mutant plants develop main shoots with normal height and larger panicles, but dwarf tillers bearing smaller panicles compared with those of the wild type. In addition, dwt1 tillers have shorter internodes with fewer and un-elongated cells compared with the wild type, indicating that DWT1 affects cell division and cell elongation. Map-based cloning revealed that DWT1 encodes a WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) transcription factor homologous to the Arabidopsis WOX8 and WOX9. The DWT1 gene is highly expressed in young panicles, but undetectable in the internodes, suggesting that DWT1 expression is spatially or temporally separated from its effect on the internode growth. Transcriptomic analysis revealed altered expression of genes involved in cell division and cell elongation, cytokinin/gibberellin homeostasis and signaling in dwt1 shorter internodes. Moreover, the non-elongating internodes of dwt1 are insensitive to exogenous gibberellin (GA) treatment, and some of the slender rice1 (slr1) dwt1 double mutant exhibits defective internodes similar to the dwt1 single mutant, suggesting that the DWT1 activity in the internode elongation is directly or indirectly associated with GA signaling. This study reveals a genetic pathway synchronizing the development of tillers and the main shoot, and a new function of WOX genes in balancing branch growth in rice.

Plant architecture is important for crop yield. In most plants, branches grow smaller than the main shoot, largely due to the ‘apical dominance’. However, in several cereal crops, including rice, wheat, and barley, the branches (tillers) have a height and size indistinguishable from the main shoot. The genetic basis of uniform tiller growth has remained elusive. We identified DWARF TILLER1, a WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) transcription factor, as a positive regulator of tiller growth. Most dwt1 mutant plants show normal main shoot but dwarf tillers and reduced panicle size. Tiller growth in dwt1 appears to be inhibited by the main shoot, as removal of the main shoot releases the first tiller. The non-elongating internodes in dwt1 show reduced cell number and cell size, while DWT1 was mainly expressed in the panicles but not internodes, suggesting that DWT1 plays a long distance regulatory role in promoting internode elongation. Genome-wide expression analysis revealed that the expression of genes related to cell division and elongation, as well as to homeostasis and signaling of cytokinin and gibberellin were affected in dwt1 un-elongated internodes. This study reveals that a WOX transcription factor controls the growth uniformity of tillers and the main shoot in rice.

Genetic control of inflorescence architecture during rice domestication

Inflorescence architecture is a key agronomical factor determining grain yield, and thus has been a major target of cereal crop domestication. Transition from a spread panicle typical of ancestral wild rice (Oryza rufipogon Griff.) to the compact panicle of present cultivars (O. sativa L.) was a crucial event in rice domestication. Here we show that the spread panicle architecture of wild rice is controlled by a dominant gene, OsLG1, a previously reported SBP-domain transcription factor that controls rice ligule development. Association analysis indicates that a single-nucleotide polymorphism-6 in the OsLG1 regulatory region led to a compact panicle architecture in cultivars during rice domestication. We speculate that the cis-regulatory mutation can fine-tune the spatial expression of the target gene, and that selection of cis-regulatory mutations might be an efficient strategy for crop domestication.

Transition from a spread panicle typical of ancestral wild rice to the compact panicle of present cultivars was a crucial event in rice domestication. Here the authors show that this panicle architecture is controlled by the transcription factor OsLG1 and that a mutation in its regulatory region led to the compact panicle phenotype.

Sequence evolution and expression regulation of stress-responsive genes in natural populations of wild tomato

The wild tomato species Solanum chilense and S. peruvianum are a valuable non-model system for studying plant adaptation since they grow in diverse environments facing many abiotic constraints. Here we investigate the sequence evolution of regulatory regions of drought and cold responsive genes and their expression regulation. The coding regions of these genes were previously shown to exhibit signatures of positive selection. Expression profiles and sequence evolution of regulatory regions of members of the Asr (ABA/water stress/ripening induced) gene family and the dehydrin gene pLC30-15 were analyzed in wild tomato populations from contrasting environments. For S. chilense, we found that Asr4 and pLC30-15 appear to respond much faster to drought conditions in accessions from very dry environments than accessions from more mesic locations. Sequence analysis suggests that the promoter of Asr2 and the downstream region of pLC30-15 are under positive selection in some local populations of S. chilense. By investigating gene expression differences at the population level we provide further support of our previous conclusions that Asr2, Asr4, and pLC30-15 are promising candidates for functional studies of adaptation. Our analysis also demonstrates the power of the candidate gene approach in evolutionary biology research and highlights the importance of wild Solanum species as a genetic resource for their cultivated relatives.

Local differentiation amidst extensive allele sharing in Oryza nivara and O. rufipogon

Genetic variation patterns within and between species may change along geographic gradients and at different spatial scales. This was revealed by microsatellite data at 29 loci obtained from 119 accessions of three Oryza series Sativae species in Asia Pacific: Oryza nivara Sharma and Shastry, O. rufipogon Griff., and O. meridionalis Ng. Genetic similarities between O. nivara and O. rufipogon across their distribution are evident in the clustering and ordination results and in the large proportion of shared alleles between these taxa. However, local-level species separation is recognized by Bayesian clustering and neighbor-joining analyses. At the regional scale, the two species seem more differentiated in South Asia than in Southeast Asia as revealed by F ST analysis. The presence of strong gene flow barriers in smaller spatial units is also suggested in the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) results where 64% of the genetic variation is contained among populations (as compared to 26% within populations and 10% among species). Oryza nivara (H E = 0.67) exhibits slightly lower diversity and greater population differentiation than O. rufipogon (H E = 0.70). Bayesian inference identified four, and at a finer structural level eight, genetically distinct population groups that correspond to geographic populations within the three taxa. Oryza meridionalis and the Nepalese O. nivara seemed diverged from all the population groups of the series, whereas the Australasian O. rufipogon appeared distinct from the rest of the species.

Estimating inbreeding coefficients from NGS data: Impact on genotype calling and allele frequency estimation

Most methods for next-generation sequencing (NGS) data analyses incorporate information regarding allele frequencies using the assumption of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) as a prior. However, many organisms including those that are domesticated, partially selfing, or with asexual life cycles show strong deviations from HWE. For such species, and specially for low-coverage data, it is necessary to obtain estimates of inbreeding coefficients (F) for each individual before calling genotypes. Here, we present two methods for estimating inbreeding coefficients from NGS data based on an expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm. We assess the impact of taking inbreeding into account when calling genotypes or estimating the site frequency spectrum (SFS), and demonstrate a marked increase in accuracy on low-coverage highly inbred samples. We demonstrate the applicability and efficacy of these methods in both simulated and real data sets.

Understanding rice domestication and implications for cultivar improvement

Considerable insights were recently gained into the history and process of rice domestication. It becomes increasingly clear that artificial and natural selections coupled with extensive introgression have shaped the genomes of cultivated rice. The interplay of these evolutionary forces gave rise to the cultivated species, Oryza sativa, with divergent genomic backgrounds from two wild species, O. rufipogon and O. nivara, governed by a set of domestication alleles which had originated primarily at one location of initial cultivation. The mechanistic understanding of domestication suggests that the combination of quantitative trait locus mapping, genome-wide association study, and genome scan will be effective means for discovering potentially valuable alleles from the cultivated and wild species. The accumulation and appropriate sampling of germplasm collections for these analyses should effectively grow the useful allele pool, which combined with molecular breeding may get to a point literally triggering the re-domestication of rice varieties for sustainable food production.

Footprints of natural and artificial selection for photoperiod pathway genes in Oryza

Asian rice, Oryza sativa, consists of two major subspecies, indica and japonica, which are physiologically differentiated and adapted to different latitudes. Genes for photoperiod sensitivity are likely targets of selection along latitude. We examined the footprints of natural and artificial selections for four major genes of the photoperiod pathway, namely PHYTOCHROME B (PhyB), HEADING DATE 1 (Hd1), HEADING DATE 3a (Hd3a), and EARLY HEADING DATE 1 (Ehd1), by investigation of the patterns of nucleotide polymorphisms in cultivated and wild rice. Geographical subdivision between tropical and subtropical O. rufipogon was found for all of the photoperiod genes in plants divided by the Tropic of Cancer (TOC). All of these genes, except for PhyB, were characterized by the existence of clades that split a long time ago and that corresponded to latitudinal subdivisions, and revealed a likely diversifying selection. Ssp. indica showed close affinity to tropical O. rufipogon for all genes, while ssp. japonica, which has a much wider range of distribution, displayed complex patterns of differentiation from O. rufipogon, which reflected various agricultural needs in relation to crop yield. In japonica, all genes, except Hd3a, were genetically differentiated at the TOC, while geographical subdivision occurred at 31°N in Hd3a, probably the result of varying photoperiods. Many other features of the photoperiod genes revealed domestication signatures, which included high linkage disequilibrium (LD) within genes, the occurrence of frequent and recurrent non-functional Hd1 mutants in cultivated rice, crossovers between subtropical and tropical alleles of Hd1, and significant LD between Hd1 and Hd3a in japonica and indica.

Phylogeography of Asian wild rice, Oryza rufipogon: a genome-wide view

Asian wild rice (Oryza rufipogon) that ranges widely across the eastern and southern part of Asia is recognized as the direct ancestor of cultivated Asian rice (O. sativa). Studies of the geographic structure of O. rufipogon, based on chloroplast and low-copy nuclear markers, reveal a possible phylogeographic signal of subdivision in O. rufipogon. However, this signal of geographic differentiation is not consistently observed among different markers and studies, with often conflicting results. To more precisely characterize the phylogeography of O. rufipogon populations, a genome-wide survey of unlinked markers, intensively sampled from across the entire range of O. rufipogon is critical. In this study, we surveyed sequence variation at 42 genome-wide sequence tagged sites (STS) in 108 O. rufipogon accessions from throughout the native range of the species. Using Bayesian clustering, principal component analysis and amova, we conclude that there are two genetically distinct O. rufipogon groups, Ruf-I and Ruf-II. The two groups exhibit a clinal variation pattern generally from north-east to south-west. Different from many earlier studies, Ruf-I, which is found mainly in China and the Indochinese Peninsula, shows genetic similarity with one major cultivated rice variety, O. satvia indica, whereas Ruf-II, mainly from South Asia and the Indochinese Peninsula, is not found to be closely related to cultivated rice varieties. The other major cultivated rice variety, O. sativa japonica, is not found to be similar to either O. rufipogon groups. Our results support the hypothesis of a single origin of the domesticated O. sativa in China. The possible role of palaeoclimate, introgression and migration-drift balance in creating this clinal variation pattern is also discussed.

Genetic architecture and adaptive significance of the selfing syndrome in Capsella

The transition from outcrossing to predominant self-fertilization is one of the most common evolutionary transitions in flowering plants. This shift is often accompanied by a suite of changes in floral and reproductive characters termed the selfing syndrome. Here, we characterize the genetic architecture and evolutionary forces underlying evolution of the selfing syndrome in Capsella rubella following its recent divergence from the outcrossing ancestor C. grandiflora. We conduct genotyping by multiplexed shotgun sequencing and map floral and reproductive traits in a large (N= 550) F2 population. Our results suggest that in contrast to previous studies of the selfing syndrome, changes at a few loci, some with major effects, have shaped the evolution of the selfing syndrome in Capsella. The directionality of QTL effects, as well as population genetic patterns of polymorphism and divergence at 318 loci, is consistent with a history of directional selection on the selfing syndrome. Our study is an important step toward characterizing the genetic basis and evolutionary forces underlying the evolution of the selfing syndrome in a genetically accessible model system.

Complex evolution of S5, a major reproductive barrier regulator, in the cultivated rice Oryza sativa and its wild relatives

• The hybrid sterility gene S5 comprises three types of alleles in cultivated rice. Such tri-allelic system provided a unique opportunity to study the molecular bases of evolutionary changes underlying reproductive isolation in plants. • We analysed the sequence diversity and evolutionary history of S5 in 138 Oryza accessions. We also examined the effect of the two functional variations (C819A and C1412T) in determining hybrid sterility by transformation. • Nineteen haplotypes were identified, which were classified into the indica-like, the japonica-like and the wide-compatibility gene (WCG)-like group, according to the sequence features of the tri-allelic system. The origin and evolutionary course of the three allelic groups were investigated, thus confirming the independent origins of indica and japonica subspecies. There were perfect associations between C819A and C1412T in the rice germplasm assayed, and the combination of C819 and C1412 was required for hybrid sterility. Evidence of positive selection in the WCG-like alleles suggested that they might have been favored by selection for higher compatibility in hybrids. • The complex evolution of S5 revealed the counteractive function of the three allelic groups at the species level. S5 might perform an important primary function in an evolutionary scale, and hybrid sterility acts as a 'byproduct' of this speciation gene.

Evolutionary and Ecological Genomics of Non-Model Plants

Dissecting evolutionary dynamics of ecologically important traits is a long-term challenge for biologists. Attempts to understand natural variation and molecular mechanisms have motivated a move from laboratory model systems to non-model systems in diverse natural environments. Next generation sequencing methods, along with an expansion of genomic resources and tools, have fostered new links between diverse disciplines, including molecular biology, evolution, and ecology, and genomics. Great progress has been made in a few non-model wild plants, such as Arabidopsis relatives, monkey flowers, and wild sunflowers. Until recently, the lack of comprehensive genomic information has limited evolutionary and ecological studies to larger QTL regions rather than single gene resolution, and has hindered recognition of general patterns of natural variation and local adaptation. Further efforts in accumulating genomic data and developing bioinformatic and biostatistical tools are now poised to move this field forward. Integrative national and international collaborations and research communities are needed to facilitate development in the field of evolutionary and ecological genomics.

Ecological divergence in the presence of gene flow in two closely related Oryza species (Oryza rufipogon and O. nivara)

Ecological divergence plays a prominent role in the process of speciation, but how divergence occurs in the face of gene flow is still less clear, and remains controversial among evolutionists. Here we investigated the nucleotide diversity, divergence and gene flow between Oryza nivara and O. rufipogon using sequences of seven chloroplast and nuclear loci. By analysing samples from 26 wild populations across the geographic ranges of the two species, we showed that both species were highly structured and O. rufipogon maintained a higher level of species-wide diversity than O. nivara. Notably, phylogenetic, amova and FST analyses were unable to detect significant nucleotide differentiation between the two species. We estimated that the two species began to diverge at c. 0.16 million years ago. Our coalescent-based simulations strongly rejected the simple isolation model of zero migration between species, but rather provided unambiguous evidence of bidirectional gene flow between species, particularly from O. rufipogon to O. nivara. Our simulations also indicated that gene flow was recurrent during the divergence process rather than arising from secondary contact after allopatric divergence. In conjunction with different morphological and life-history traits and habitat preference in the two species, this study supports the hypothesis that these Oryza species are better treated as ecotypes that diverged quite recently and are still under the process of divergence. Importantly, we demonstrate the ecological divergence between O. rufipogon and O. nivara in the presence of significant gene flow, implying that natural selection plays a primary role in driving the divergence of the two Oryza species.

Sexual and apomictic plant reproduction in the genomics era: exploring the mechanisms potentially useful in crop plants

Arabidopsis, Mimulus and tomato have emerged as model plants in researching genetic and molecular basis of differences in mating systems. Variations in floral traits and loss of self-incompatibility have been associated with mating system differences in crops. Genomics research has advanced considerably, both in model and crop plants, which may provide opportunities to modify breeding systems as evidenced in Arabidopsis and tomato. Mating system, however, not recombination per se, has greater effect on the level of polymorphism. Generating targeted recombination remains one of the most important factors for crop genetic enhancement. Asexual reproduction through seeds or apomixis, by producing maternal clones, presents a tremendous potential for agriculture. Although believed to be under simple genetic control, recent research has revealed that apomixis results as a consequence of the deregulation of the timing of sexual events rather than being the product of specific apomixis genes. Further, forward genetic studies in Arabidopsis have permitted the isolation of novel genes reported to control meiosis I and II entry. Mutations in these genes trigger the production of unreduced or apomeiotic megagametes and are an important step toward understanding and engineering apomixis.

Comparative analysis of flowering in annual and perennial plants

In plants the switch from vegetative growth to flowering involves a major transition in the development of the shoot apex. This transition can occur once, in annual species, or repeatedly, in perennial plants. In annuals, flowering is associated with senescence and death of the whole plant, whereas perennials flower in consecutive years and maintain vegetative development after flowering. The perennial life strategy depends on differential behavior of meristems on a single plant so that some remain in the vegetative state while others undergo the floral transition. A. thaliana provides a powerful model system for understanding the mechanisms of flowering in annuals. Here we review the events that occur in the meristem of A. thaliana during the floral transition and compare these with our understanding of flowering in perennial systems.

Existence of vigorous lineages of crop-wild hybrids in Lettuce under field conditions

Plant to plant gene flow is a route of environmental exposure for GM plants specifically since crosses with wild relatives could lead to the formation of more vigorous hybrids, which could increase the rate of introgression and the environmental impact. Here, we test the first step in the process of potential transgene introgression: whether hybrid vigor can be inherited to the next generation, which could lead to fixation of altered, i.e., elevated, quantitative traits. The potential for a permanent elevated fitness was tested using individual autogamous progeny lineages of hybrids between the crop Lactuca sativa (Lettuce) and the wild species Lactuca serriola (Prickly Lettuce). We compared progeny from motherplants grown under either greenhouse or field conditions. The survival of young plants depended strongly on maternal environment. Furthermore, we observed that offspring reproductive fitness components were correlated with maternal fitness. Our study demonstrates that post-zygotic genotypic sorting at the young plants stage reduces the number of genotypes non-randomly, leading to inheritance of high levels of reproductive traits in the surviving hybrid lineages, compared to the pure wild relatives. Consequently, directional selection could lead to displacement of the pure wild relative and fixation of more vigorous genome segments originating from crops, stabilizing plant traits at elevated levels. Such information can be used to indentify segments which are less likely to introgress into wild relative populations as a target for transgene insertion.