Fullerene nanomaterials inhibit phorbol myristate acetate-induced inflammation

Curdlan-Decorated Fullerenes Mitigate Immune-Mediated Hepatic Injury for Autoimmune Hepatitis Therapeutics via Reducing Macrophage Infiltration

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a severe immune-mediated inflammatory liver disease whose standard of care is immunosuppressive treatment with inevitable undesired outcomes. Macrophage is acknowledged to aggravate liver damage, providing a promising AIH therapeutic target. Accordingly, in this study, a kind of curdlan-decorated fullerene nanoparticle (Cur-F) is fabricated to alleviate immune-mediated hepatic injury for treating AIH via reducing macrophage infiltration in a concanavalin A (Con A)-induced AIH mouse model. After intravenous administration, Cur-F primarily distributes in liver tissues, efficiently eliminates the excessive reactive oxygen species, significantly attenuates oxidative stress, and subsequently suppresses the nuclear factor kappa-B-gene binding (NF-κB) signal pathway, resulting in the lowered production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the balancing of the immune homeostasis with the prevention of macrophage infiltration in the liver. The regulation of hepatic inflammation contributes to inhibiting inflammatory cytokines-induced hepatocyte apoptosis, decreasing the serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) contents and thus ameliorating immune-mediated hepatic injury. Notably, there is no detectable toxicity to the body. Our findings may open up novel avenues for AIH based on curdlan and fullerene materials.

Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Liposoluble C60 at the Cellular, Molecular, and Whole-Animal Levels

Introduction

Liposoluble carbon-60 (C60) has potential applications in many fields, including cosmetics, medical devices, and medicine, but its specific mechanism of action remains unclear. This study explored whether liposoluble C60 could be delivered to human organs, tissues, and cells through blood, extracellular fluid, and cell culture fluid and whether it exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects at the molecular, cellular, and whole-animal levels.

Methods

At the cellular level, we mixed C60 dissolved in grape seed oil with cell culture medium containing 10% serum and investigated its effects on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) release, migration, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and apoptosis in freshly isolated human neutrophils. At the molecular level, we mixed a trace amount of C60 dissolved in grape seed oil with aqueous and ethanolic solutions and studied its antioxidant effect. At the animal level, we investigated the inhibitory effect of C60 on the serum inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP) in beagle dogs after oral administration of C60 dissolved in grape seed oil.

Results

The results showed that the trace amount of C60 dissolved in grape seed oil significantly inhibited TNF-α release, cell migration, phagocytosis, and respiratory burst in freshly isolated human neutrophils. In addition, the trace amount of C60 dissolved in grape seed oil had a significant scavenging effect on superoxide free radicals and 1,1-diphenyl-2-trinitrophenylhydrazine free radicals. Oral administration of C60 dissolved in grape seed oil markedly reduced the level of the serum inflammatory marker CRP in beagle dogs.

Conclusion

In summary, a trace amount of hydrophobic C60 in hydrophilic media effectively produced anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in cells and animals. C60 dissolved in grape seed oil is a novel anti-inflammatory and antioxidant drug candidate.

Wound healing activity of aqueous dispersion of fullerene C60 produced by "green technology"

In addition to exhibited antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, fullerene C60 is a promising wound healing agent. An important stage in the production of fullerene-based ointments is the stability of the aqueous fullerene dispersion (AFD) with minimum size of colloidal fullerene aggregates and sufficiently high concentration. To achieve these parameters tangential flow filtration of fullerene C60 was used ("green technology"). As estimated by small-angle neutron scattering and dynamic light scattering purified AFDs with narrow-size distribution nanoclusters have a size of 6 nm and are assembled into agglomerates which reach a size of 150 nm. The ability of the AFD to exhibit regenerative activity was studied using the animal wound model. This study shows for the first time that the fullerene-based composition stimulates the healing of wounds of various origins. We assume that the mechanism of the AFD wound-healing activity is associated with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and macrophages activity.

Ginsenoside Rg3 attenuates skin disorders via down-regulation of MDM2/HIF1α signaling pathway

Background

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) acts as a master switch for inflammatory responses. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) which is an active ingredient of Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae) is known to possess various therapeutic effects. However, a modulatory effect of Rg3 on TSLP expression in the inflammatory responses remains poorly understood.

Methods

We investigated antiinflammatory effects of Rg3 on an in vitro model using HMC-1 cells stimulated by PMA plus calcium ionophore (PMACI), as well as an in vivo model using PMA-induced mouse ear edema. TSLP and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or real-time PCR analysis. Murine double minute 2 (MDM2) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) expression levels were detected using Western blot analysis.

Results

Rg3 treatment restrained the production and mRNA expression levels of TSLP and VEGF in activated HMC-1 cells. Rg3 down-regulated the MDM2 expression level increased by PMACI stimulation. The HIF1α expression level was also reduced by Rg3 in activated HMC-1 cells. In addition, Rg3-administered mice showed the decreased redness and ear thickness in PMA-irritated ear edema. Rg3 inhibited the TSLP and VEGF levels in the serum and ear tissue homogenate. Moreover, the MDM2 and HIF1α expression levels in the ear tissue homogenate were suppressed by Rg3.

Conclusion

Taken together, the current study identifies new mechanistic evidence about MDM2/HIF1α pathway in the antiinflammatory effect of Rg3, providing a new effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of skin inflammatory diseases.

Nanomedicine in Healing Chronic Wounds: Opportunities and Challenges

The poor healing associated with chronic wounds affects millions of people worldwide through high mortality rates and associated costs. Chronic wounds present three main problems: First, the absence of a suitable environment to facilitate cell migration, proliferation, and angiogenesis; second, bacterial infection; and third, unbalanced and prolonged inflammation. Unfortunately, current therapeutic approaches have not been able to overcome these main issues and, therefore, have limited clinical success. Over the past decade, incorporating the unique advantages of nanomedicine into wound healing approaches has yielded promising outcomes. Nanomedicine is capable of stimulating various cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the wound microenvironment via antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and angiogenetic effects, potentially reversing the wound microenvironment from nonhealing to healing. This review briefly discusses wound healing mechanisms and pathophysiology and then highlights recent findings regarding the opportunities and challenges of using nanomedicine in chronic wound management.

Human Mast Cells From Adipose Tissue Target and Induce Apoptosis of Breast Cancer Cells

Mast cells (MC) are important immune sentinels found in most tissue and widely recognized for their role as mediators of Type I hypersensitivity. However, they also secrete anti-cancer mediators such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). The purpose of this study was to investigate adipose tissue as a new source of MC in quantities that could be used to study MC biology focusing on their ability to bind to and kill breast cancer cells. We tested several cell culture media previously demonstrated to induce MC differentiation. We report here the generation of functional human MC from adipose tissue. The adipose-derived mast cells (ADMC) are phenotypically and functionally similar to connective tissue expressing tryptase, chymase, c-kit, and FcεRI and capable of degranulating after cross-linking of FcεRI. The ADMC, sensitized with anti-HER2/neu IgE antibodies with human constant regions (trastuzumab IgE and/or C6MH3-B1 IgE), bound to and released MC mediators when incubated with HER2/neu-positive human breast cancer cells (SK-BR-3 and BT-474). Importantly, the HER2/neu IgE-sensitized ADMC induced breast cancer cell (SK-BR-3) death through apoptosis. Breast cancer cell apoptosis was observed after the addition of cell-free supernatants containing mediators released from FcεRI-challenged ADMC. Apoptosis was significantly reduced when TNF-α blocking antibodies were added to the media. Adipose tissue represents a source MC that could be used for multiple research purposes and potentially as a cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy through the expansion of autologous (or allogeneic) MC that can be targeted to tumors through IgE antibodies recognizing tumor specific antigens.

An In Vitro Model of Gastric Inflammation and Treatment with Cobalamin

Pernicious anaemia (PA) is an autoimmune condition where antibodies target intrinsic factor and parietal cells, reducing the patient's ability to absorb cobalamin promoting atrophic gastritis. Treatment guidelines are based on excretion data of hydroxocobalamin from healthy individuals obtained 50 years ago. This manuscript describes the use of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) to stimulate low grade inflammation in an epithelial colorectal cell line to assess the efficacy of methylcobalamin and hydroxocobalamin. Nitric oxide increased significantly in cells exposed to higher doses of PMA (100 ng/ml, 150 ng/ml, and 200 ng/ml) accompanied by a loss of the characteristic cobblestone morphology with no negative effect on cell activity or viability. A significant reduction in nitric oxide production was associated with the addition of 200 pg/ml hydroxocobalamin, alongside a return to the characteristic cobblestone morphology. This study highlights the use of PMA to promote low grade inflammation in human cell lines to model gastric inflammation associated with autoimmunity; furthermore it raises questions regarding the concentration of cobalamin administered clinically to restore cell functionality, feasibly allowing the patient to receive reduced quantity of the vitamin more regularly, providing the patient with levels which are akin to dietary intake.

NF-κB inhibitors that prevent foam cell formation and atherosclerotic plaque accumulation

The transformation of monocyte-derived macrophages into lipid-laden foam cells is one inflammatory process underlying atherosclerotic disease. Previous studies have demonstrated that fullerene derivatives (FDs) have inflammation-blunting properties. Thus, it was hypothesized that FD could inhibit the transformation process underlying foam cell formation. Fullerene derivatives inhibited the phorbol myristic acid/oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced differentiation of macrophages into foam cells as determined by lipid staining and morphology.Lipoprotein-induced generation of TNF-α, C5a-induced MC activation, ICAM-1 driven adhesion, and CD36 expression were significantly inhibited in FD treated cells compared to non-treated cells. Inhibition appeared to be mediated through the NF-κB pathway as FD reduced expression of NF-κB and atherosclerosis-associated genes. Compared to controls, FD dramatically inhibited plaque formation in arteries of apolipoprotein E null mice. Thus, FD may be an unrecognized therapy to prevent atherosclerotic lesions via inhibition of foam cell formation and MC stabilization.

Permeation of skin with (C60) fullerene dispersions

Dispersions in transcutol/isopropyl myristate make C₆₀ fullerene molecules suitable for transdermal delivery. We found that C₆₀ can successfully permeate the skin using pig skin in Franz diffusion cells. Molecular dynamics simulations and transmission electron microscopy confirmed these observations. Basic cosmetic formulations with transcutol/isopropyl myristate without harsh organic solvents show a high potential for delivery of C₆₀ for biopharmaceutical and cosmetics applications.

Relative Stability of Empty Exohedral Fullerenes: π Delocalization versus Strain and Steric Hindrance

Predicting and understanding the relative stability of exohedral fullerenes is an important aspect of fullerene chemistry, since the experimentally formed structures do not generally follow the rules that govern addition reactions or the making of pristine fullerenes. First-principles theoretical calculations are of limited applicability due to the large number of possible isomeric forms, for example, more than 50 billion for C₆₀X₈. Here we propose a simple model, exclusively based on topological arguments, that allows one to predict the relative stability of exohedral fullerenes without the need for electronic structure calculations or geometry optimizations. The model incorporates the effects of π delocalization, cage strain, and steric hindrance. We show that the subtle interplay between these three factors is responsible for (i) the formation of non-IPR (isolated pentagon rule) exohedral fullerenes in contrast with their pristine fullerene counterparts, (ii) the appearance of more pentagon-pentagon adjacencies than predicted by the PAPR (pentagon-adjacency penalty rule), (iii) the changes in regioisomer stability due to the chemical nature of the addends, and (iv) the variations in fullerene cage stability with the progressive addition of chemical species.

Potential Suppressive Effects of Two C60 Fullerene Derivatives on Acquired Immunity

The therapeutic effects of fullerene derivatives on many models of inflammatory disease have been demonstrated. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms of these nanoparticles remain to be elucidated, though their beneficial roles in allergy and autoimmune diseases suggest their suppressive potential in acquired immunity. Here, we evaluated the effects of C₆₀ pyrrolidine tris-acid (C₆₀-P) and polyhydroxylated fullerene (C₆₀(OH)₃₆) on the acquired immune response in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, both C₆₀ derivatives had dose-dependent suppressive effects on T cell receptor-mediated activation of T cells and antibody production by B cells under anti-CD40/IL-4 stimulation, similar to the actions of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. In addition, C₆₀-P suppressed ovalbumin-specific antibody production and ovalbumin-specific T cell responses in vivo, although T cell-independent antibodies responses were not affected by C₆₀-P. Together, our data suggest that fullerene derivatives can suppress acquired immune responses that require T cells.

Anti-inflammatory effect of fullerene C60 in a mice model of atopic dermatitis

Background

Water-soluble form of fullerene C₆₀ is a promising tool for the control of ROS-dependent inflammation including allergic diseases. Anti-inflammatory effects of C₆₀ (nC₆₀) aqueous dispersion were evaluated in the mouse models of atopic dermatitis using subcutaneous (SC) and epicutaneous (EC) applications during 50 days period. A highly stable nC₆₀ was prepared by exhaustive dialysis of water-organic C₆₀ solution against water, where the size and ζ-potential of fullerene nanoparticles are about 100 nm and −30 mV, respectively.

Results

To induce skin inflammation, female BALB/c mice were EC sensitized with ovalbumin three times during one-weekly exposures. The nC₆₀ solution was administrated in mice subcutaneously (SC) (0.1 mg/kg) and epicutaneously (EC) (1 mg/kg). Significant suppression of IgE and Th2 cytokines production and a concomitant rise in concentrations of Th1 cytokines were observed in nC₆₀-treated groups. In addition, a significant increase in the levels of Foxp3⁺ and filaggrin mRNA expression was observed at EC application. Histological examination of skin samples indicated that therapeutic effect was achieved by both EC and SC treatment, but it was more effective with EC. Pronounced reduction of the eosinophil and leukocyte infiltration in treated skin samples was observed.

Conclusions

We suppose that nC60 treatment shifts immune response from Th2 to Th1 and restores to some extent the function of the skin barrier. This approach can be a good alternative to the treatment of allergic and other inflammatory diseases.

Inhibition of inflammatory arthritis using fullerene nanomaterials

Inflammatory arthritis (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis; RA) is a complex disease driven by the interplay of multiple cellular lineages. Fullerene derivatives have previously been shown to have anti-inflammatory capabilities mediated, in part, by their ability to prevent inflammatory mediator release by mast cells (MC). Recognizing that MC can serve as a cellular link between autoantibodies, soluble mediators, and other effector populations in inflammatory arthritis, it was hypothesized that fullerene derivatives might be used to target this inflammatory disease. A panel of fullerene derivatives was tested for their ability to affect the function of human skin-derived MC as well as other lineages implicated in arthritis, synovial fibroblasts and osteoclasts. It is shown that certain fullerene derivatives blocked FcγR- and TNF-α-induced mediator release from MC; TNF-α-induced mediator release from RA synovial fibroblasts; and maturation of human osteoclasts. MC inhibition by fullerene derivatives was mediated through the reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and FcγR-mediated increases in cellular reactive oxygen species and NF-κB activation. Based on these in vitro data, two fullerene derivatives (ALM and TGA) were selected for in vivo studies using K/BxN serum transfer arthritis in C57BL/6 mice and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in DBA/1 mice. Dye-conjugated fullerenes confirmed localization to affected joints in arthritic animals but not in healthy controls. In the K/BxN moldel, fullerenes attenuated arthritis, an effect accompanied by reduced histologic inflammation, cartilage/bone erosion, and serum levels of TNF-α. Fullerenes remained capable of attenuating K/BxN arthritis in mast cell-deficient mice Cre-Master mice, suggesting that lineages beyond the MC represent relevant targets in this system. These studies suggest that fullerene derivatives may hold promise both as an assessment tool and as anti-inflammatory therapy of arthritis.

PVP formulated fullerene (C60) increases Rho-kinase dependent vascular tissue contractility in pregnant Sprague Dawley rats

Pregnancy is a unique physiological state, in which C60 fullerene is reported to be distributed in both maternal and fetal tissues. Tissue distribution of C60 differs between pregnant and non-pregnant states, presumably due to functional changes in vasculature during pregnancy. We hypothesized that polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) formulated C60 (C60/PVP) increases vascular tissue contractility during pregnancy by increasing Rho-kinase activity. C60/PVP was administered intravenously to pregnant and non-pregnant female Sprague Dawley rats. Vascular responses were assessed using wire myography 24h post-exposure. Increased stress generation was observed in uterine artery, thoracic aorta and umbilical vein. Rho-Rho-kinase mediated force maintenance was increased in arterial segments from C60/PVP exposed pregnant rats when compared to PVP exposed rats. Our findings suggest that intravenous exposure to C60/PVP during pregnancy increases vascular tissue contractility of the uterine artery through elements of Rho-Rho-kinase signaling during late stages of pregnancy.

A steroid-mimicking nanomaterial that mediates inhibition of human lung mast cell responses

Water-soluble fullerenes can be engineered to regulate activation of mast cells (MC) and control MC-driven diseases in vivo. To further understand their anti-inflammatory mechanisms a C70-based fullerene conjugated to four myo-inositol molecules (C70-I) was examined in vitro for its effects on the signaling pathways leading to mediator release from human lung MC. The C70-I fullerene stabilizes MC and acts synergistically with long-acting β2-adrenergic receptor agonists (LABA) to enhance inhibition of MC mediator release through FcεRI-simulation. The inhibition was paralleled by the upregulation of dual-specificity phosphatase one (DUSP1) gene and protein levels. Concomitantly, increases in MAPK were blunted in C70-I treated cells. The increase in DUSP1 expression was due to the ability of C70-I to prevent the ubiquitination and degradation of DUSP1. These findings identify a mechanism of how fullerenes inhibit inflammatory mediator release from MC and suggest they could potentially be an alternative therapy for steroid resistant asthmatics.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

This study investigates the role and mechanism of action of fullerenes in deactivating mast cell-based inflammation, paving the way to the development of a novel, non-steroid therapy in reactive airway disease.

Application of fullerenes in nanomedicine: an update

Fullerenes are carbon spheres presently being pursued globally for a wide range of applications in nanomedicine. These molecules have unique electronic properties that make them attractive candidates for diagnostic, therapeutic and theranostic applications. Herein, the latest research is discussed on developing fullerene-based therapeutics as antioxidants for inflammatory diseases, their potential as antiviral/bacterial agents, utility as a drug delivery device and the promise of endohedral fullerenes as new MRI contrast agents. The recent discovery that certain fullerene derivatives can stabilize immune effector cells to prevent or inhibit the release of proinflammatory mediators makes them potential candidates for several diseases such as asthma, arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Gadolinium-containing endohedral fullerenes are being pursued as diagnostic MRI contrast agents for several diseases. Finally, a new class of fullerene-based theranostics has been developed, which combine therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities to specifically detect and kill cancer cells.

Liposome formulation of fullerene-based molecular diagnostic and therapeutic agents

Fullerene medicine is a new but rapidly growing research subject. Fullerene has a number of desired structural, physical and chemical properties to be adapted for biological use including antioxidants, anti-aging, anti-inflammation, photodynamic therapy, drug delivery, and magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. Chemical functionalization of fullerenes has led to several interesting compounds with very promising preclinical efficacy, pharmacokinetic and safety data. However, there is no clinical evaluation or human use except in fullerene-based cosmetic products for human skincare. This article summarizes recent advances in liposome formulation of fullerenes for the use in therapeutics and molecular imaging.

Effect of buckminsterfullerenes on cells of the innate and adaptive immune system: an in vitro study with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

C60 nanoparticles, the so-called buckminsterfullerenes, have attracted great attention for medical applications as carriers, enzyme inhibitors or radical scavengers. However, publications evaluating their immunological mechanisms are still rather limited. Therefore, we aimed to analyze systematically the in vitro influence of polyhydroxy-C60 (poly-C60) and N-ethyl-polyamino-C60 (nepo-C60) on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from healthy individuals, angling their effect on proliferation, expression of surface markers, and cytokine production. We isolated PBMC from 20 healthy subjects and incubated them in a first step only with poly-C60 or nepo-C60, and in a second step together with recall antigens (purified protein derivative, tetanus toxoid, bacillus Calmette-Guérin). Proliferation was determined by (3)H-thymidine incorporation, activation of PBMC-subpopulations by flow cytometry by measurement of the activation marker CD69, and secretion of T helper cell type 1 (TH1)- (interferon-gamma [IFN-γ], tumor necrosis factor beta [TNF-β]), TH2- (interleukin-5 [IL-5], -13, -10) and macrophage/monocyte-related cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α) into the supernatants by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Both fullerenes did not influence T cell reactivity, with no enhanced expression of CD69 and production of T cell cytokines observed, the CD4/CD8 ratio remaining unaffected. In contrast, they significantly enhanced the release of IL-6 and CD69-expression by CD56 positive natural killer cells. PBMC, which had been cultured together with the three recall antigens were not affected by both fullerenes at all. These data indicate that fullerenes do not interact with T cell reactivity but may activate cells of the innate immune system. Furthermore, they seem to act only on 'naïve' cells, which have not been prestimulated with recall antigens, there are however, large inter individual differences.

Fullerene antioxidants decrease organophosphate-induced acetylcholinesterase inhibition in vitro

Although organophosphate (OP)-induced acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition is the critical mechanism causing toxicities that follow exposure, other biochemical events, including oxidative stress, have been reported to contribute to OP toxicity. Fullerenes are carbon spheres with antioxidant activity. Thus, we hypothesized that fullerenes could counteract the effects of OP compounds and tested this hypothesis using two in vitro test systems, hen brain and human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Cells were incubated with eight different derivatized fullerene compounds before challenge with paraoxon (0=control, 5×10(-8), 10(-7), 2×10(-7) or 5×10(-7) M) or diisopropylphosphorofluoridate (DFP, 0=control, 5×10(-6), 10(-5), 2×10(-5), and 5×10(-5) M) and measurement of AChE activities. Activities of brain and SH-SY5Y AChE with OP compounds alone ranged from 55-83% lower than non-treated controls after paraoxon and from 60-92% lower than non-treated controls after DFP. Most incubations containing 1 and 10 μM fullerene derivatives brought AChE activity closer to untreated controls, with improvements in AChE activity often >20%. Using dissipation of superoxide anion radicals as an indicator (xanthine oxidation as a positive control), all fullerene derivatives demonstrated significant antioxidant capability in neuroblastoma cells at 1 μM concentrations. No fullerene derivative at 1 μM significantly affected neuroblastoma cell viability, when determined using either Alamar Blue dye retention or a luminescent assay for ATP production. These studies suggest that derivatized fullerene nanomaterials have potential capability to ameliorate OP-induced AChE inhibition resulting in toxicities.

Evidence of deep percutaneous penetration associated with anti-inflammatory activity of topically applied Helicteres gardneriana extract: a photoacoustic spectroscopy study

PURPOSE

To apply the photoacoustic spectroscopy technique to investigate the penetration rate of topically applied Helicteres gardneriana extract used as anti-inflammatory agent.

METHODS

Experiments were performed ex vivo in a well-controlled group of mice. The crude extract was obtained from leaves of the plant Helicteres gardneriana. Croton oil was applied into the ventral surface of the mouse's right and left auricles in order to induce an inflammatory response. The left auricle was treated with crude extract, while the right one served as the control. After 6 h, the auricles were sectioned for measurements of edema intensity, myeloperoxidase activity and the formulation penetration rate.

RESULTS

Croton oil induced inflammatory response in both auricles. The application of Helicteres gardneriana extract reduced significantly the edema of the auricle and inhibited the activity of the myeloperoxidase enzyme. The photoacoustic data showed that the propagation of the formulation was efficient to reach the deep region of the auricle, crossing the cartilage. The strong anti-inflammatory effect was associated with the observed deep penetration of the formulation.

CONCLUSION

This pre-clinical study showed the anti-inflammatory effect of Helicteres gardneriana extract. The photoacoustic technique was useful to demonstrate that this anti-inflammatory activity was associated with deep percutaneous penetration.

A new class of human mast cell and peripheral blood basophil stabilizers that differentially control allergic mediator release

Treatments for allergic disease block the effects of mediators released from activated mast cells and blood basophils. A panel of fullerene derivatives was synthesized and tested for their ability to preempt the release of allergic mediators in vitro and in vivo. The fullerene C(70)-tetraglycolic acid significantly inhibited degranulation and cytokine production from mast cells and basophils, while C(70)-tetrainositol blocked only cytokine production in mast cells and degranulation and cytokine production in basophils. The early phase of FcepsilonRI inhibition was dependent on the blunted release of intracellular calcium stores, elevations in reactive oxygen species, and several signaling molecules. Gene microarray studies further showed the two fullerene derivatives inhibited late phase responses in very different ways. C(70)-tetraglycolic acid was able to block mast cell-driven anaphylaxis in vivo, while C(70)-tetrainositol did not. No toxicity was observed with either compound. These findings demonstrate the biological effects of fullerenes critically depends on the moieties added to the carbon cage and suggest they act on different FcepsilonRI-specific molecules in mast cells and basophils. These next generation fullerene derivatives represent a new class of compounds that interfere with FcepsilonRI signaling pathways to stabilize mast cells and basophils. Thus, fullerene-based therapies may be a new approach for treating allergic diseases.

Uptake and distribution of fullerenes in human mast cells

Fullerenes are carbon cages of variable size that can be derivatized with various side chain moieties resulting in compounds that are being developed into nanomedicines. Although fullerene use in several preclinical in vitro and in vivo models of disease has demonstrated their potential as diagnostic and therapeutic agents, little is known about how they enter cells, what organelles they target, and the time course for their cellular deposition. Fullerenes (C(70)) that have already been shown to be potent inhibitors of mast cell (MC)-mediated allergic inflammation were conjugated with Texas red (TR) and used in conjunction with confocal microscopy to determine mechanisms of uptake, the organelle localization, and the duration they can be detected in situ. We show that C(70)-TR are nonspecifically endocytosed into MCs, where they are shuttled throughout the cytoplasm, lysosomes, mitochondria, and into endoplasmic reticulum at different times. No nuclear or secretory granule localization was observed. The C(70)-TR remained detectable within cells at 1 week. These studies show that MCs endocytose fullerenes, where they are shuttled to organelles involved with calcium and reactive oxygen species production, which may explain their efficacy as cellular inhibitors. From the clinical editor: Fullerenes are carbon cages of variable size that have already been shown to be potent inhibitors of mast cell (MC)-mediated allergic inflammation. These were conjugated with Texas red (TR) and used in conjunction with confocal microscopy to determine mechanisms of uptake, the organelle localization, and duration, demonstrating that MCs endocytose fullerenes, which are shuttled to organelles involved with calcium and reactive oxygen species production. This intracellular trafficking may explain the efficacy of fullerenes as cellular inhibitors.