Effect of accurate and inaccurate distance feedback on performance markers and pacing strategies during running

The influence of mental toughness on responses to feedback in snooker: A real-time examination

Two experiments investigated whether mental toughness (MT) is associated with the ability to respond to and/or overcome unwanted information during real-time sport performance. Participants were male snooker players ranging from club to professional level, and MT was measured using the MTQ48 (Clough et al., 2002). In experiment 1, players performed five break-off shots and received deceptive feedback (either positive or negative) from the researcher about their performance relative to other players. Then they performed another five break-offs. Results showed a significant decline in performance following feedback, but no interaction with the nature of feedback or MT variables. In experiment 2, feedback was delivered by a coach and yielded a significant effect on performance. Specifically, negative feedback improved performance while positive feedback impaired performance. The Life Control subscale of the MTQ48 was a significant covariate. The results suggest that negative feedback, delivered constructively by a respected figure, may act as a catalyst for performance enhancement in snooker and that this is moderated by MT.

Exploring rugby coaches perception and implementation of performance analytics

Professional coaches commonly rely on performance analysis and metrics to help make decisions regarding their practices, selection and tactics. However, few studies to date have explored coaches' perspectives of performance analysts successful integration into the high-performance environment. The aim of this study was to investigate coaches' philosophies surrounding performance analysis and how they perceived analysts could support and implement these approaches into coaching practices and match preparation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with five professional elite level Rugby Union coaches to investigate their perceptions of performance analysis, and the contribution of performance analysts to the high-performance environment. Results revealed three main dimensions, including the role, purpose, and desired attributes of a performance analyst. Firstly, the role of the analyst was described in terms of being an information specialist, who collects, filters, and delivers information to stakeholders, and a generalist, who helps coaches utilise technology. Secondly, the purpose of the analyst was described in terms of providing both accountability and support for coaches and players. Finally, the attributes needed of an analyst included the ability to form a close relationship with coaches, communicate complex information in meaningful ways, and who was proactive, innovative, and creative when tasked with delivering information. The findings highlighted the crucial roles, purposes, and attributes of a performance analyst within high-performance Rugby Union identified by coaches and the importance of the coach-analyst relationship to support these dimensions.

Measures of prefrontal functional near-infrared spectroscopy in visuomotor learning

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a promising technique for non-invasively assessing cortical brain activity during learning. This technique is safe, portable, and, compared to other imaging techniques, relatively robust to head motion, ocular and muscular artifacts and environmental noise. Moreover, the spatial resolution of fNIRS is superior to electroencephalography (EEG), a more commonly applied technique for measuring brain activity non-invasively during learning. Outcomes from fNIRS measures during learning might therefore be both sensitive to learning and to feedback on learning, in a different way than EEG. However, few studies have examined fNIRS outcomes in learning and no study to date additionally examined the effects of feedback. To address this apparent gap in the literature, the current study examined prefrontal cortex activity measured through fNIRS during visuomotor learning and how this measure is affected by task feedback. Activity in the prefrontal cortex decreased over the course of learning while being unaffected by task feedback. The findings demonstrate that fNIRS in the prefrontal cortex is valuable for assessing visuomotor learning and that this measure is robust to task feedback. The current study highlights the potential of fNIRS in assessing learning even under different task feedback conditions.

The effects of positive and negative verbal feedback on repeated force production

Studies indicate that providing subjects with positiveaugmented feedback (PAF) enhances motor learning and performance compared to negative- (NAF), or no-feedback. However, in the majority of these studies, the performance feedback was provided relative to a peer-group (e.g., "your performance is higher/lower than the norm"). Here we examined how different, and less explored types of PF and NF, influenced repeated force production of 22 resistance-trained subjects (50%-males). On three occasions, subjects completed 12 isometric maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) with their elbow flexors, while electromyography (EMG) was collected from their biceps and triceps brachii muscles. After every second repetition, subjects received either PF (e.g., "You are looking great."), NF (e.g., "You are not trying."), or no-feedback. All measurements were normalized to pre-test MVCs and reported aspercentages. Subjects applied greater forces in the NF condition compared to the PF (4.3%, 95%CI: 2.8, 5.8) and no-feedback (7.9%, 95%CI: 6.4, 9.4) conditions. Similarly, subjects demonstrated greater biceps EMG activity in the NF compared to the PF (6.6%, 95%CI: 3.7, 9.4) and no-feedback (2.8%, 95%CI: 9.9, 15.6) conditions. We speculate that NF can lead subjects to exert greater forces bysignaling that their efforts are lacking. These results indicate that under some circumstances, NF can have practical benefits over no-feedback and even PF; however, we note that NF should be delivered with caution since it may also hinder motivation and self-efficacy over time.

Marques M. Effects of Knowing the Task's Duration on Soccer Players' Positioning and Pacing Behaviour During Small-Sided Games

The study aimed to identify how the manipulation of knowledge regarding a training task duration constrains the pacing and tactical behaviour of soccer players when playing small-sided games (SSG). Twenty professional and experienced soccer players participated in a cross-sectional field study using three conditions: not informed on the duration of the SSG, which ended after 20 min (Unknown Condition); briefed about playing the SSG for 10 min, but after they completed the 10-min game, they were requested to complete another 10 min (Partial Condition) and informed before that they would play for 20 min (Known Condition). A global positioning system was used to measure the total distance covered and distances of different exercise training zones (walking to sprinting) and to access the dynamic players positioning through the distance from each player to all the teammates and opponents. Additionally, approximate entropy was measured to identify the regularity pattern of each gathered individual variable. The results indicate that the first 10 min of each scenario presented a higher physical impact independently of the initial information. During this time, the tactical behaviour also revealed higher variability. An increase in the distance of the teammates during the second period of 10-min for the Known scenario was also found, which may result from a lower pacing strategy. This study showed that the prior knowledge of the task duration led to different physical and tactical behaviours of the players. Furthermore, the relationship between the physical impact and the regularity of team game patterns should be well analysed by the coach, because the physical impact may be harmful to the development of the collective organization of the team.

Deception of Ambient Temperature Does Not Elicit Performance Benefits During a 5 km Run in Hot, Humid Conditions

Hanson, NJ, Carriveau, DM, Morgan, HE, Smith, AR, Michael, TJ, and Miller, MG. Deception of ambient temperature does not elicit performance benefits during a 5 km run in hot, humid conditions. J Strength Cond Res 32(8): 2250-2257, 2018-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of deception of ambient temperature on 5 km performance in recreational runners. Eleven participants (6 men, 5 women) each performed three 5 km runs in a random order consisting of a control trial (CON) in temperate conditions (21° C, 43% RH), a hot humid trial (HOT; 31° C, 65% RH) and a deception trial (DEC; 31° C, 65% RH), where participants were told it was 5° C lower than it actually was. Overall completion time was recorded at the end of trials; thermal sensation (TS), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and core temperature (TC) were recorded each kilometer. Participants completed the 5 km run faster in the CON condition (23:18 ± 2:05; mean ± SD) compared with DEC (p = 0.005) and HOT (p = 0.014). There was no difference in completion time (p = 0.554) between DEC (25:11 ± 2:41) and HOT (24:25 ± 2:47). Similarly, TS was lower in the CON condition (5.7 ± 0.2) compared with DEC and HOT (p < 0.001 and p = 0.016, respectively) and no differences were seen between the DEC (6.4 ± 0.2) and HOT (6.5 ± 0.2) conditions. No differences in RPE (p = 0.115) or rise in TC (p = 0.289) were seen between the 3 conditions. Deception of the environmental conditions did not positively affect 5 km running performance, and no differences were seen in physiological or psychological variables.

The Role of the Rating-of-Perceived-Exertion Template in Pacing

The rating-of-perceived-exertion (RPE) template is thought to regulate pacing and has been shown to be very robust in different circumstances.

PURPOSE

The primary purpose was to investigate whether the RPE template can be manipulated by changing the race distance during the course of a time trial. The secondary purpose was to study how athletes cope with this manipulation, especially in terms of the RPE template.

METHOD

Trained male subjects (N = 10) performed 3 cycling time trials: a 10-km (TT10), a 15-km (TT15), and a manipulated 15-km (TTman). During the TTman, subjects started the time trial believing that they were going to perform a 10-km time trial. However, at 7.5 km they were told that it was a 15-km time trial.

RESULTS

A significant main effect of time-trial condition on RPE scores until kilometer 7.5 was found (P = .016). Post hoc comparisons showed that the RPE values of the TT15 were lower than the RPE values of the TT10 (difference 0.60; CI95% 0.11, 1.0) and TTman (difference 0.73; CI95% 0.004, 1.5). After the 7.5 km, a transition phase occurs, in which an interaction effect is present (P = .011). After this transition phase, the RPE values of TTman and TT15 did not statistically differ (P = 1.00).

CONCLUSIONS

This novel distance-endpoint manipulation demonstrates that it is possible to switch between RPE templates. A clear shift in RPE during the TTman is present between the RPE templates of the TT10 and TT15. The shift strongly supports suggestions that pacing is regulated using an RPE template.

Cycling performance is superior for time-to-exhaustion versus time-trial in endurance laboratory tests

Time-to-exhaustion (TTE) trials are used in a laboratory setting to measure endurance performance. However, there is some concern with their ecological validity compared with time-trials (TT). Consequently, we aimed to compare cycling performance in TTE and TT where the duration of the trials was matched. Seventeen trained male cyclists completed three TTE trials at 80, 100 and 105% of maximal aerobic power (MAP). On a subsequent visit they performed three TT over the same duration as the TTE. Participants were blinded to elapsed time, power output, cadence and heart rate (HR). Average TTE was 865 ± 345 s, 165 ± 98 s and 117 ± 45 s for the 80, 100 and 105% trials respectively. Average power output was higher for TTE (294 ± 44 W) compared to TT (282 ± 43 W) at 80% MAP (P < 0.01), but not at 100 and 105% MAP (P > 0.05). There was no difference in cadence, HR, or RPE for any trial (P > 0.05). Critical power (CP) was also higher when derived from TTE compared to TT (P < 0.01). It is concluded that TTE results in a higher average power output compared to TT at 80% MAP. When determining CP, TTE rather than TT protocols appear superior.

Information Acquisition Differences between Experienced and Novice Time Trial Cyclists

PURPOSE

To use eye-tracking technology to directly compare information acquisition behavior of experienced and novice cyclists during a self-paced, 10-mile (16.1 km) time trial (TT).

METHOD

Two groups of novice (n = 10) and experienced cyclists (n = 10) performed a 10-mile self-paced TT on two separate occasions during which a number of feedback variables (speed, distance, power output, cadence, HR, and time) were projected within their view. A large RPE scale was also presented next to the projected information and participants. Participants were fitted with a head-mounted eye tracker and HR monitor.

RESULTS

Experienced cyclists performed both TT quicker than novices (F1,18 = 6.8, P = 0.018) during which they primarily looked at speed (9 of 10 participants), whereas novices primarily looked at distance (6 of 10 participants). Experienced cyclists looked at primary information for longer than novices across the whole TT (24.5% ± 4.2% vs 34.2% ± 6.1%; t18 = 4.2; P < 0.001) and less frequently than novices during the last quarter of the TT (49 ± 19 vs 80 ± 32; t18 = -2.6; P = 0.009). The most common combination of primary and secondary information looked at by experienced cyclists was speed and distance, respectively. Looking at 10 different primary-secondary feedback permutations, the novices were less consistent than the experienced cyclists in their information acquisition behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

This study challenges the importance placed on knowledge of the endpoint to pacing in previous models, especially for experienced cyclists for whom distance feedback was looked at secondary to, but in conjunction with, information about speed. Novice cyclists have a greater dependence on distance feedback, which they look at for shorter and more frequent periods than the experienced cyclists. Experienced cyclists are more selective and consistent in attention to feedback during TT cycling.

The Manipulation of Pace within Endurance Sport

In any athletic event, the ability to appropriately distribute energy is essential to prevent premature fatigue prior to the completion of the event. In sport science literature this is termed "pacing." Within the past decade, research aiming to better understand the underlying mechanisms influencing the selection of an athlete's pacing during exercise has dramatically increased. It is suggested that pacing is a combination of anticipation, knowledge of the end-point, prior experience and sensory feedback. In order to better understand the role each of these factors have in the regulation of pace, studies have often manipulated various conditions known to influence performance such as the feedback provided to participants, the starting strategy or environmental conditions. As with all research there are several factors that should be considered in the interpretation of results from these studies. Thus, this review aims at discussing the pacing literature examining the manipulation of: (i) energy expenditure and pacing strategies, (ii) kinematics or biomechanics, (iii) exercise environment, and (iv) fatigue development.

Conscious distance monitoring and perceived exertion in light-deprived cycling time trial

The monitoring of distance is crucial to calculate the metabolic requirement and the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) for a given exercise bout. Visual cues provide valuable information for distance estimation, navigation and orientation. The present study investigated if light deprivation may affect the conscious monitoring of distance, RPE and associative thoughts to exercise (ATE) during a 20-km cycling time trial (TT20km). Eleven male, endurance cyclists performed two TT20km in illuminated-control and light-deprived laboratory. They were asked to self-report RPE and ATE when they perceived they had completed each 2km.

RESULTS

The light deprivation resulted in elongated perceived distance at each actual 2km, rather than in illuminated-control trial (P<0.05). Although there was no difference in RPE when it was plotted as a function of the perceived distance, RPE was lowered in light-deprived environment when it was plotted as a function of the actual distance (P<0.05). Additionally, ATE was lowered during TT20km in light deprivation (P<0.01); however, pacing and performance were unaffected in light-deprived environment.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that pacing and performance were regulated through a system which was unaffected in light-deprived environment, despite the altered conscious distance monitoring and perceptive responses.

The effect of endpoint knowledge on perceived exertion, affect, and attentional focus during self-paced running

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of endpoint knowledge on psychophysiological variables. Twenty-two runners (11 men and 11 women) participated in 2 conditions: a run with an unknown endpoint and a run to the same distance with knowledge of the endpoint. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affect, heart rate, and attentional focus were assessed during testing. Subjects ran faster when the endpoint was known (p < 0.01) but no differences in RPE, affect, or heart rate between conditions were present (p > 0.05). There were differences in attentional focus between conditions (p = 0.034) and subjects reported more associative thoughts in the known endpoint condition. Cardiorespiratory fitness was a significant predictor of attentional focus in the known endpoint condition. In sum, when the endpoint was known, subjects used more associative strategies as RPE increased, and those with higher fitness levels used more associative strategies overall.

Physiological and psychological effects of deception on pacing strategy and performance: a review

The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring physiological limits are not surpassed, which has been shown to result in a metabolic reserve at the end of the exercise. There has been debate surrounding the theoretical models that have been proposed to explain how pace is regulated, with more recent research investigating a central control of exercise regulation. Deception has recently emerged as a common, practical approach to manipulate key variables during exercise. There are a number of ways in which deception interventions have been designed, each intending to gain particular insights into pacing behaviour and performance. Deception methodologies can be conceptualised according to a number of dimensions such as deception timing (prior to or during exercise), presentation frequency (blind, discontinuous or continuous) and type of deception (performance, biofeedback or environmental feedback). However, research evidence on the effects of deception has been perplexing and the use of complex designs and varied methodologies makes it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about how pacing strategy and performance are affected by deception. This review examines existing research in the area of deception and pacing strategies, and provides a critical appraisal of the different methodological approaches used to date. It is hoped that this analysis will inform the direction and methodology of future investigations in this area by addressing the mechanisms through which deception impacts upon performance and by elucidating the potential application of deception techniques in training and competitive settings.

Effects of deceptive running speed on physiology, perceptual responses, and performance during sprint-distance triathlon

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the effects of speed deception on performance, physiological and perceptual responses, and pacing during sprint-distance triathlon running.

METHODS

Eight competitive triathletes completed three simulated sprint-distance triathlons (0.75 km swim, 20 km bike, 5 km run) in a randomised order, with swimming and cycling sections replicating baseline triathlon performance. During the first 1.66 km of the run participants maintained an imposed speed, completing the remaining 3.33 km as quickly as possible. Although the participants were informed that initially prescribed running speed would reflect baseline performance, this was true during only one trial (Tri-Run100%). As such, other trials were either 3% faster (Tri-Run103%), or 3% slower (Tri-Run97%) than baseline during this initial period.

RESULTS

Performance during Tri-Run103% (1346±108 s) was likely faster than Tri-Run97% (1371±108 s), and possibly faster than Tri-Run100% (1360±125 s), with these differences likely to be competitively meaningful. The first 1.66 km of Tri-Run103% induced greater physiological strain compared to other conditions, whilst perceptual responses were not significantly different between trials.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears that even during 'all-out' triathlon running, athletes maintain some form of 'reserve' capacity which can be accessed by deception. This suggests that expectations and beliefs have a practically meaningful effect on pacing and performance during triathlon, although it is apparent that an individual's conscious intentions are secondary to the brains sensitivity to potentially harmful levels of physiological and perceptual strain.

Pacing strategies during repeated maximal voluntary contractions

PURPOSE

Pacing strategies have been reported to occur during continuous cyclical exercises. However, currently no studies have examined if pacing takes place during repeated maximal voluntary muscle contractions (MVCs). Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to examine if informing subjects on the number of MVCs they would perform would affect force and root mean squared electromyography (EMG), during similar fatiguing protocols.

METHODS

Thirty well-trained male subjects completed three fatiguing protocols in a randomized order. In the control condition participants were informed they would perform 12 MVCs, and then completed all 12. In the unknown condition they were not told how many MVCs they would perform, but were stopped after 12. Lastly, in the deception condition they were initially told they would perform only 6 MVCs, but after the 6 contractions they were asked to perform a few more repetitions and were stopped after 12.

RESULTS

Compared to the unknown condition, subjects demonstrated greater forces (p < 0.05, ES = 0.35-1.14, 2-7.5%) and biceps EMG (p < 0.05, ES = 0.6, 6%) in the deception condition during the first six MVCs. Additionally, under all conditions subjects applied greater forces in the last repetition (#12) relative to the previous one (#11) (p < 0.06, ES = 0.36-0.5, 2.8-3.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

The anticipation of performing a certain number of MVCs led the subjects to utilize different pacing strategies. The results also question the assumption that subjects followed the instruction to exert maximal effort during repeated MVCs.

Deception studies manipulating centrally acting performance modifiers: a review

Athletes anticipatorily set and continuously adjust pacing strategies before and during events to produce optimal performance. Self-regulation ensures maximal effort is exerted in correspondence with the end point of exercise, while preventing physiological changes that are detrimental and disruptive to homeostatic control. The integration of feedforward and feedback information, together with the proposed brain's performance modifiers is said to be fundamental to this anticipatory and continuous regulation of exercise. The manipulation of central, regulatory internal and external stimuli has been a key focus within deception research, attempting to influence the self-regulation of exercise and induce improvements in performance. Methods of manipulating performance modifiers such as unknown task end point, deceived duration or intensity feedback, self-belief, or previous experience create a challenge within research, as although they contextualize theoretical propositions, there are few ecological and practical approaches which integrate theory with practice. In addition, the different methods and measures demonstrated in manipulation studies have produced inconsistent results. This review examines and critically evaluates the current methods of how specific centrally controlled performance modifiers have been manipulated, within previous deception studies. From the 31 studies reviewed, 10 reported positive effects on performance, encouraging future investigations to explore the mechanisms responsible for influencing pacing and consequently how deceptive approaches can further facilitate performance. The review acts to discuss the use of expectation manipulation not only to examine which methods of deception are successful in facilitating performance but also to understand further the key components used in the regulation of exercise and performance.

Fatigue is a Brain-Derived Emotion that Regulates the Exercise Behavior to Ensure the Protection of Whole Body Homeostasis

An influential book written by A. Mosso in the late nineteenth century proposed that fatigue that “at first sight might appear an imperfection of our body, is on the contrary one of its most marvelous perfections. The fatigue increasing more rapidly than the amount of work done saves us from the injury which lesser sensibility would involve for the organism” so that “muscular fatigue also is at bottom an exhaustion of the nervous system.” It has taken more than a century to confirm Mosso’s idea that both the brain and the muscles alter their function during exercise and that fatigue is predominantly an emotion, part of a complex regulation, the goal of which is to protect the body from harm. Mosso’s ideas were supplanted in the English literature by those of A. V. Hill who believed that fatigue was the result of biochemical changes in the exercising limb muscles – “peripheral fatigue” – to which the central nervous system makes no contribution. The past decade has witnessed the growing realization that this brainless model cannot explain exercise performance. This article traces the evolution of our modern understanding of how the CNS regulates exercise specifically to insure that each exercise bout terminates whilst homeostasis is retained in all bodily systems. The brain uses the symptoms of fatigue as key regulators to insure that the exercise is completed before harm develops. These sensations of fatigue are unique to each individual and are illusionary since their generation is largely independent of the real biological state of the athlete at the time they develop. The model predicts that attempts to understand fatigue and to explain superior human athletic performance purely on the basis of the body’s known physiological and metabolic responses to exercise must fail since subconscious and conscious mental decisions made by winners and losers, in both training and competition, are the ultimate determinants of both fatigue and athletic performance.

Effect of deception and expected exercise duration on psychological and physiological variables during treadmill running and cycling

Effects of deception and expected duration on the rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affect, and heart rate (HR) were examined during treadmill (n=12) and cycling (n=8) exercise. Participants completed three conditions: (1) 20 MIN-exercise for 20 min, stop after 20 min; (2) 10 MIN-exercise for 10 min, in 10th min be told to exercise for 10 min more; and (3) UNKNOWN-no information about duration. Intensities were set at 70% and 65% of peak oxygen uptake for treadmill and cycling, respectively. RPE increased (treadmill) and affect decreased (treadmill and cycling) in the absence of changes in HR and oxygen uptake in the 10 MIN conditions. These changes suggest a disruption to a feed-forward/feedback system. The lower HR in the UNKNOWN conditions suggests a subconscious attempt to conserve energy when the duration of the exercise task is unknown.

The effect of a second runner on pacing strategy and RPE during a running time trial

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to examine performance, pacing strategy and perception of effort during a 5 km time trial while running with or without the presence of another athlete.

METHODS

Eleven nonelite male athletes participated in five 5 km time trials: two self-paced, maximal effort trials performed at the start and end of the study, and three trials performed in the presence of a second runner. In the three trials, the second runner ran either in front of the subject, behind the subject, or next to the subject. Performance times, heart rate, RPE, and a subjective assessment of the effect of the second runner on the athlete's performance were recorded during each of the trials.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in performance times, heart rate or RPE between any of the five trials. Running speed declined from the 1st to the 4th kilometer and then increased for the last kilometer in all five trials. Following the completion of all trials, 9 of the 11 subjects perceived it to be easier to complete the 5 km time trial with another runner in comparison with running alone.

CONCLUSIONS

While the athletes perceived their performance to be improved by the presence of another runner, their pacing strategy, running speed, heart rate and RPE were not significantly altered. These findings indicate that an athlete's subconscious pacing strategy is robust and is not altered by the presence of another runner.