Viral hepatitis in solid organ transplant recipients

Infections after organ transplantation and immune response

Organ transplantation has provided another chance of survival for end-stage organ failure patients. Yet, transplant rejection is still a main challenging factor. Immunosuppressive drugs have been used to avoid rejection and suppress the immune response against allografts. Thus, immunosuppressants increase the risk of infection in immunocompromised organ transplant recipients. The infection risk reflects the relationship between the nature and severity of immunosuppression and infectious diseases. Furthermore, immunosuppressants show an immunological impact on the genetics of innate and adaptive immune responses. This effect usually reactivates the post-transplant infection in the donor and recipient tissues since T-cell activation has a substantial role in allograft rejection. Meanwhile, different infections have been found to activate the T-cells into CD₄⁺ helper T-cell subset and CD₈⁺ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte that affect the infection and the allograft. Therefore, the best management and preventive strategies of immunosuppression, antimicrobial prophylaxis, and intensive medical care are required for successful organ transplantation. This review addresses the activation of immune responses against different infections in immunocompromised individuals after organ transplantation.

Transplantation of Renal Allografts From Organ Donors Reactive for HCV Antibodies to HCV-Negative Recipients: Safety and Clinical Outcome

Introduction

Because of the shortage of available organs for renal transplantation, strategies enabling the safe use of organs from donors with potential chronic infections such as hepatitis C are necessary. The aim of this study was to analyze the outcome of renal transplant donation from hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive donors.

Methods

Between September 2002 and May 2007, 51 kidneys (34 donors) reactive for HCV antibodies were further evaluated. Six kidneys (5 donors) were transplanted to 6 recipients with known chronic HCV infection. The remaining 29 donors underwent extended virological testing. Nine donors were HCV RNA positive and thus not suitable for HCV-negative patients. Twenty donors (21 kidneys) did not have detectable HCV RNA copies and were transplanted into 21 HCV-negative recipients. Clinical outcomes focusing on safety, allograft function, and de novo HCV infection in the recipient were collected.

Results

There were no de novo HCV infections detected in recipients who were HCV negative before transplantation. The extended virological donor screening did not have an impact on median cold ischemia time. Five-year graft survival was 75%.

Discussion

Organs from anti-HCV-reactive, nonviremic donors can be transplanted safely to HCV-negative recipients.

Successful Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C Infection With Direct-Acting Antivirals in a Heart Transplant Recipient: A Case Report

BACKGROUND

Heart transplant (HT) recipients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection are noted to have higher rates of HCV related morbidity and mortality. Treatment of HCV in the past was fraught with low cure rates, increased risk of graft rejection, and medication-related side effects.

CASE REPORT

We report a case of successful treatment of HCV infection in a HT recipient. The patient was found to have HCV during his pretransplant workup. He underwent uneventful orthotopic HT in 2000. The HCV infection was monitored with regular liver enzymes and the surveillance liver biopsies at 2 and 5 years after HT showed mild but stable liver disease, and he stayed on chronic immunosuppression. He was not offered interferon-based HCV therapy because of the risk of steroid-resistant graft failure and cardiac decompensation. With the availability of the new direct-acting antivirals (DAA) for HCV infection, and worsening of liver fibrosis on noninvasive testing, we treated him with sofosbuvir and simeprevir for 12 weeks. During treatment, he remained clinically stable from a cardiac standpoint and he showed biochemical improvement in his liver and renal functions. Tacrolimus levels remained stable and did not require any dose adjustment. He showed rapid virologic response and subsequently achieved sustained virologic response at 12 weeks.

CONCLUSION

DAA use was safe and effective in treating HCV infection in a HT recipient.

Low incidence of acute rejection in hepatitis B virus positive liver transplant recipients and the impact of hepatitis B immunoglobulin

Historically, hepatitis B virus (HBV) liver transplantation (LT) recipients have less acute cellular rejection (ACR) than those without HBV. We questioned whether this has persisted in an era of decreased Hepatitis B immunoglobulin use (HBIG) given its in vitro immunoregulatory effects. We compared the incidence, risk factors and outcomes of ACR among 40,593 primary LT recipients with HBV, hepatitis C, steatohepatitis, and immune liver disease (OPTN 2000-2011). We also assessed the in vitro effect of HBIG on alloimmune lymphoproliferation and regulatory T cell generation using mixed lymphocyte reactions. In multivariate analysis, HBV status remained a strong independent predictor of freedom from ACR (OR 0.58, 95% CI: 1.5-2.1). Patient (67.7% vs 72.3%) and graft (60.8% vs 69.1%) survival were significantly lower in patients with ACR versus no ACR for all causes except HBV. HBIG use had no statistical association with ACR. In vitro, HBIG at concentrations equivalent to clinical dosing did not inhibit lymphoproliferation or promote regulatory T cell development. In summary, the incidence and impact of ACR is lower now for HBV LT and does not appear to be secondary to HBIG by our in vitro and in vivo analyses. Rather, it may be due to the innate immunosuppressive properties of chronic HBV infection.

Living-donor kidney transplant from hepatitis B surface antigen-positive donors to hepatitis B antibody-positive recipients without hepatitis B immunoglobulin prophylaxis in an endemic country

OBJECTIVES

Living-donor kidney transplant from donors who are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus can be considered as a possibility to compensate for insufficiency of organ transplants, particularly in a hepatitis B virus endemic country. In this study, the safety and efficacy were reviewed retrospectively in living-donor kidney transplant from donors who were chronically infected with hepatitis B virus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the years between 2012 and 2013, we transplanted 4 renal grafts from hepatitis B surface antigen-positive living donors to antihepatitis B antibody-positive recipients. Lamivudine was prescribed for recipients after transplant without hepatitis B immunoglobulin.

RESULTS

In 1-year follow-up, there were no abnormal findings in the levels of renal and liver enzymes, and there was no unwanted seroconversion to positive hepatitis B surface antigen.

CONCLUSIONS

When combined with careful hepatitis B virus-monitoring, renal grafts from hepatitis B surface antigen-positive living donors can be transplanted to hepatitis B antibody-positive recipients, without the need for hepatitis B immunoglobulin prophylaxis, in a hepatitis B virus endemic country.

Donor-Derived Infections: Incidence, Prevention, and Management

Organ donors reflect the diverse US population, and there are an increasing number of donors born in, who have resided in, or who have traveled to underdeveloped areas of the world or areas with geographically restricted infections. As such, these donors are exposed to pathogens that can potentially be transmitted to recipients of the donor’s organs. Additionally, there are newer techniques to identify many pathogens that may be transmitted from the donor to the transplant recipients. Finally, high-profile reports of several donor-derived infections have heightened awareness of donor-derived infections and have likely contributed to increased recognition. In this chapter, the incidence, methods of identification and prevention, and management of unexpected donor-derived infections will be reviewed.

Commercially available immunoglobulins contain virus neutralizing antibodies against all major genotypes of polyomavirus BK

Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) form the basis of immunotherapeutic strategies against many important human viral infections. Accordingly, we studied the prevalence, titer, genotype-specificity, and mechanism of action of anti-polyomavirus BK (BKV) NAbs in commercially available human immune globulin (IG) preparations designed for intravenous (IV) use. Pseudovirions (PsV) of genotypes Ia, Ib2, Ic, II, III, and IV were generated by co-transfecting a reporter plasmid encoding luciferase and expression plasmids containing synthetic codon-modified VP1, VP2, and VP3 capsid protein genes into 293TT cells. NAbs were measured using luminometry. All IG preparations neutralized all BKV genotypes, with mean EC50 titers as high as 254 899 for genotype Ia and 6,666 for genotype IV. Neutralizing titers against genotypes II and III were higher than expected, adding to growing evidence that infections with these genotypes are more common than currently appreciated. Batch to batch variation in different lots of IG was within the limits of experimental error. Antibody mediated virus neutralizing was dose dependent, modestly enhanced by complement, genotype-specific, and achieved without effect on viral aggregation, capsid morphology, elution, or host cell release. IG contains potent NAbs capable of neutralizing all major BKV genotypes. Clinical trials based on sound pharmacokinetic principles are needed to explore prophylactic and therapeutic applications of these anti-viral effects, until effective small molecule inhibitors of BKV replication can be developed.

The impact of diabetes mellitus and glycemic control on clinical outcomes following liver transplant for hepatitis C

Hepatitis C is the leading indication for liver transplantation in the USA and recurrence is universal. The impact of preexisting diabetes, new-onset diabetes after transplant (NODAT), and glycemic control on fibrosis progression has not been studied. This retrospective longitudinal cohort study included adult liver recipients with hepatitis C transplanted between 2000 and 2011. Patients were divided into three groups: preexisting diabetes (n = 41), NODAT (n = 59), and no diabetes (n = 103). Patients with preexisting diabetes (70%) or NODAT (59%) were more likely to develop hepatitis C recurrence (≥stage 1 fibrosis), as compared to non-diabetics (36%, p = 0.006). There was also a trend toward a higher incidence of at least Stage 2 fibrosis (36% and 48% vs. 23%, respectively; p = 0.063). Patients with tight glycemic control had a lower rate of Stage 2 fibrosis development (78% vs. 60%, p = 0.027), while those with good control (<150 mg/dL) also had lower rates of Stage 2 fibrosis (84% vs. 62%, p = 0.004). Multivariable analysis verified a decreased rate of recurrence for patients with blood glucose <138 mg/dL (p = 0.021), after controlling for confounders. These results demonstrate that diabetes is strongly associated with an increased risk of hepatitis C virus-related fibrosis development and glycemic control may reduce the risk and severity of recurrence.

[Contraindications to lung transplantation: evolving limits?]

In France, the higher frequency of pulmonary sample in organ donors and the enhancement of surgical and perioperative life support techniques, have increased the number procedures and the short term prognosis of lung transplantation (LT). In this setting, the classical contraindications of LT need to be reconsidered. In this article, some of the classical contraindication of LT are confronted to the experience acquired in other solid organ transplantations or from some LT centers. Specific situations such as LT in patients with previous cancer, HIV infection, viral hepatitis, nutritional disorders, acutely ill LT candidates and aging candidates are addressed. Surgical contraindications are not reviewed.

The reliability of HBV core antibody in serological screening for hepatitis B virus

INTRODUCTION

Accurate diagnosis of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is essential for infection control, treatment and screening of potential blood, organ and tissue donors. We assessed the sensitivity of the HBsAg and HBcAb as screening assays alone and in combination for detecting HBV infection in a series of Australian patients. The performance of the Architect (Abbott Diagnostics, Germany) and the Elecsys (Roche Diagnostics, Germany) platforms were assessed for detection of HBcAb.

METHODS

There were 2778 blood samples assessed using the COBAS Ampliprep/TaqMan test for HBV DNA, of which 331 sera had concurrent HBV serology testing. This allowed determination of the correlation between HBV DNA and different serological markers. Of the 331 sera, 260 had sufficient residual volume to be retested for HBcAb using both Elecsys and the Architect assays.

RESULTS

Of the 331 patients, one (0.3%) was negative by the Architect Anti-HBc II assay, in the presence of HBV DNA and positive HBsAg, consistent with recent infection. Positive HBcAb in the absence of HBV DNA was found in 67 of 331 (20.2%) patients. Of these, 18 of 67 had isolated HBcAb with negative results on all other tests, with 12 of 18 (3.6%) demonstrating low HBcAb signals on chemiluminscent microparticle assay. No cases of detectable HBV DNA in the presence of negative serology were found. When the HBcAb was used as a marker for past exposure or chronic HBV infection, the Architect Anti-HBc II assay demonstrated sensitivity and specificity of 98% and 79.9%, respectively, compared to 90% and 78.9%, respectively, for the Elecsys Anti-HBc assay. The combination of the Architect Anti-HBc II and HBsAg assays, as per conventional solid organ donor and recipient screening protocols, had 90% specificity and 100% sensitivity for determining HBV infection.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that the use of combined HBsAg and HBcAb is sensitive and reliable for screening and predicting HBV nucleic acid test (NAT) positivity, whereas HBcAb alone missed an acute infection in this study population. There were no significant differences detectable between the Architect and the Elecsys HBcAb assays (p=0.001), suggesting laboratories should assess individual assays in the local population before use as screening tests.

Infections in liver transplant recipients

Liver transplant is a life-saving procedure for many end-stage liver diseases. Despite measures such as the use of protective barriers, antimicrobial prophylaxis, and vaccination, infections still represent a major cause of morbidity and mortality after liver transplant. This article reviews major infectious concerns after liver transplant.

Are liver transplant recipients protected against hepatitis A and B?

BACKGROUND

Liver transplant recipients are at an increased risk for liver failure when infected with hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV). Therefore, it is important to vaccinate these individuals. The aim of the study was to evaluate how well liver transplanted patients in our unit were protected against HAV and HBV infection. Furthermore we investigated the vaccination rate and the antibody response to vaccination in these liver transplanted patients.

METHODS

Patients liver transplanted from January 2007 until August 2010 with a posttransplant check-up during the period March-November 2010 were included (n = 51). Information considering diagnose, date of transplantation, Child-Pugh score, and vaccination were collected from the patient records. Anti-HAV IgG and anti-HBs titers in serum samples were analyzed and protective levels were registered.

RESULTS

Of the patients 45% were protected against hepatitis A infection and 29% against hepatitis B infection after transplantation. Only 26% were vaccinated according to a complete vaccination schedule and these patients had a vaccine response for HAV and HBV of 50% and 31%, respectively. An additional 31% received ≥ 1 doses of vaccine, but not a complete vaccination and the vaccine response was much lower among these patients, stressing the importance of completing the vaccination schedule.

CONCLUSION

Even when patients were fully vaccinated, they did not respond to the same degree as healthy individuals. Patients seemed to be more likely to respond to a vaccination if they had a lower Child-Pugh score, suggesting that patients should be vaccinated as early as possible in the course of their liver disease.

Recurrent hepatitis C virus infection post liver transplantation: impact of choice of calcineurin inhibitor

Recurrence of hepatitis C virus infection following liver transplantation (LT) for hepatitis C is universal. After LT, hepatitis C is associated with accelerated fibrosis progression and reduced graft and patient survival. Furthermore, responses to antiviral therapy in patients with recurrent hepatitis C virus post-transplant are consistently sub-optimal. Calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) like cyclosporine A (CsA) and tacrolimus continue to dominate immunosuppressive regimens in this population; however, there is still uncertainty as to whether either offers an advantage in terms of patient outcomes. Although tacrolimus demonstrates improved efficacy in the general LT population, differences have begun to emerge between these agents regarding diabetogenic potential, antiviral activity, and fibrosis progression in patients with hepatitis C. This review critically evaluates the existing literature, providing an overview of the reported differences, concluding that despite conflicting evidence, a potential benefit of CsA in patients with hepatitis C is supported by the data and warrants further investigation. Future studies examining the role of CNIs in hepatitis C virus-positive LT recipients are required to accurately examine the effects of CNIs on outcomes such as fibrosis progression, survival, and effects on response to antiviral therapy, to provide robust information that allows clinicians to make an informed choice concerning which CNI is best for their patients.

Effect of maintenance immunosuppressive drugs on virus pathobiology: evidence and potential mechanisms

Recent evidence suggesting a potential anti-CMV effect of mTORis is of great interest to the transplant community. However, the concept of an immunosuppressant with antiviral properties is not new, with many accounts of the antiviral properties of several agents over the years. Despite these reports, to date, there has been little effort to collate the evidence into a fuller picture. This manuscript was developed to gather the evidence of antiviral activity of the agents that comprise a typical immunosuppressive regimen against viruses that commonly reactivate following transplant (HHV1 and 2, VZV, EBV, CMV and HHV6, 7, and 8, HCV, HBV, BKV, HIV, HPV, and parvovirus). Appropriate immunosuppressive regimens posttransplant that avoid acute rejection while reducing risk of viral reactivation are also reviewed. The existing literature was disparate in nature, although indicating a possible stimulatory effect of tacrolimus on BKV, potentiation of viral reactivation by steroids, and a potential advantage of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition in several viral infections, including BKV, HPV, and several herpesviruses.

Evaluating the risk of transmission of infection from donor to recipient of a solid organ transplantation

In the context of solid organ transplantation, screening of potential organ donors is crucial, and should be performed with great rigor to minimize the risk of transmission of certain infectious processes. This review aims to update understanding of the possible pathologies involved, as well as of emerging infections that, as a result of globalization, are gaining increasing prominence on a daily basis.

Common infections in kidney transplant recipients

Infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in kidney transplant recipients. To some extent, these may be preventable. Careful pretransplant screening, immunization, and post-transplant prophylactic antimicrobials may all reduce the risk for post-transplant infection. However, because transplant recipients may not manifest typical signs and symptoms of infection, diagnoses may be confounded. Furthermore, treatment regimens may be complicated by drug interactions and the need to maintain immunosuppression to avoid allograft rejection. This article reviews common post-transplant infections, including prophylactic, diagnostic, and treatment strategies, providing guidance regarding care of kidney transplant patients with infection.

MRI-guided biopsy to correlate tissue specimens with MR elastography stiffness readings in liver transplants

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) can noninvasively measure the stiffness of liver tissue and display this information in anatomic maps. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) guidance has not previously been used to biopsy segments of heterogeneous stiffness identified on MRE. Dedicated study of MRE in post-liver transplant patients is also limited. In this study, the ability of real-time MRI to guide biopsies of segments of the liver with different MRE stiffness values in the same post-transplant patient was assessed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MRE was performed in 9 consecutive posttransplant patients with history of hepatitis C. Segments of highest and lower stiffness on MRE served as targets for subsequent real-time MRI-guided biopsy using T2-weighted imaging. The ability of MRI-guided biopsy to successfully obtain tissue specimens was assessed. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare mean stiffness differences for highest and lower MRE stiffness segments, with α = 0.05.

RESULTS

MRI guidance allowed successful sampling of liver tissue for all (18/18) biopsies. There was a statistically significant difference in mean MRE stiffness values between highest (4.61 ± 1.99 kPa) and lower stiffness (3.03 ± 1.75 kPa) (P = .0039) segments biopsied in the 9 posttransplant patients.

CONCLUSION

Real-time MRI can guide biopsy in patients after liver transplantation based on MRE stiffness values. This study supports the use of MRI guidance to sample tissue based on functional information.

Influence of anti-HBc positive organ donor in lung donor selection

INTRODUCTION

The risk of hepatitis B virus (HBV) transmission through donor organs with HBsAg(-) and anti-HBc(+) serology has not been extensively studied in lung transplantation. The objectives of this study are to ascertain the influence of the anti-HBc(+) on the acceptance of the lung for transplantation, to comment on the published literature and to suggest an algorithm for action.

METHODS

A survey conducted in the 7 Spanish lung transplantation teams. The updated search of the literature was performed using medical databases from 1994 to February 2012.

RESULTS

All of the teams vaccinate the lung recipients against HBV, although none quantify the anti-HBs titers. When given an anti-HBc(+) donor, 3 teams change their strategy: one does not accept the offer, one selects the receptor from among patients in emergency status and another adds pharmacological prophylaxis. Only 3 publications refer to the serologic evolution of the receptors. At the moment there have been no reported cases of hepatitis B or HBsAg positivity post-transplant, but 4 out of the 50 anti-HBc(-) receptors changed to anti-HBc(+) in the follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of anti-HBc in the donor influences the decision to accept a lung donor, although there is little information on its repercussions. To date, there has been no reported case of transmission of HBV, but post-transplant anti-HBc seroconversions have been described, which suggests contact with viral particles. Although rare, an anti-HBc(+) donor can harbor a hidden HBV infection. The risk of infection can be reduced with adequate anti-HBs titers or with appropriate pharmacological measures.

Influence of HBcAb positivity in the organ donor in heart transplantation

OBJECTIVE

There is a significant risk of hepatitis B transmission from HBsAg (-), HBcAb (+) donors in liver transplantation, but there is little information about hepatitis B transmission from HBcAb heart donors. The present study examines the influence of HBcAb presence in relation to heart donor acceptance and offers an update of the published studies.

DESIGN

Survey and medical database update from 1994 to October 2011.

SETTING

Spanish heart transplantation teams.

PATIENTS

Not applicable.

STUDY VARIABLES

Acceptance of heart transplant from an HBcAb (+) organ donor.

RESULTS

Twelve out of 15 surveyed teams were seen to vaccinate against HBV, and two quantify HBsAb titers. Seven teams specifically request donor HBcAb status. If the latter proves positive, two do not accept transplantation, two accept if the donor is also HBsAb (+), one selects the receptor under emergency conditions, and three use drug prophylaxis isolatedly or complementary to the above. Only one case of hepatitis B has been reported in a HBcAb (-) and HBsAb (-) receptor that did not receive prophylactic measures. There have been reports of seroconversion of the HBcAb and HBsAb markers, though with an uncertain etiology.

CONCLUSIONS

HBcAb seropositivity influences acceptance of a heart donor, but agreement is lacking. There is limited information on receptor evolution. To date there has been one reported case of hepatitis B after heart transplant. Although rare, an HBcAb (+) donor can harbor occult HBV infection. The risk of infection can be prevented with appropriate HBsAb titers following vaccination or by pharmacological measures.

Hungarian consensus guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of B, C, and D viral hepatitis

More than 1% of the Hungarian population is infected with hepatitis B, C, or D viruses. Since 2006 the diagnostics and therapy of these infections are carried out in treatment centers according to national guidelines – since 2010 according to financial protocols. The consensus-based guidelines for 2012 are published in this paper. The guidelines stress the importance of quick and detailed virologic evaluations, the applicability of transient elastography as an acceptable alternative of liver biopsy in this regard, as well as the relevance of appropriate consistent follow up schedule for viral response during therapy. The first choice of therapy in chronic hepatitis B infection is pegylated interferon for 48 weeks or continuous entecavir therapy. The later must be continued for at least 6 months after hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) seroconversion. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarat is not yet reimbursed by the National Health Insurance Fund. Adefovir dipivoxil is recommended mainly in combination therapy. Lamivudine is no longer a first choice; patients currently taking lamivudine must switch if response is inadequate. Appropriate treatment of patients taking immunosuppressive medications is highly recommended. Pegylated interferon based therapy is recommended for the treatment of concomitant hepatitis D infection. Treatment naive chronic hepatitis C patients should initially receive pegylated interferon and ribavirin dual combination therapy. In genotype 1 infection if response is insufficient at 4 or 12 weeks one of the two new direct acting antivirals (boceprevir or telaprevir) should be added. The length of treatment is usually 48 weeks; in cases of extended early viral response shorter courses are recommended. Previous treatment failure patients with genotype 1 infection should receive a protease inhibitor backed triple combination therapy, mostly for 48 weeks. However, relapsers without cirrhosis and with extended rapid viral response, shorter telaprevir based combination therapy is sufficient. Drug-drug interactions as well as emergence of viral resistance are of particular importance. For genotype 2 or 3 HCV infections 24 weeks, for genotype 4 infections 24, 48 or 72 weeks of pegylated interferon plus ribavirin therapy is recommended in general. The guidelines published here become protocols when published as official publications of the Hungarian Health Authority. Orv. Hetil., 2012, 153, 375–394.

Management of viral infections in solid organ transplant recipients

Management of viral infections after transplantation involves antiviral drug therapy (if available) and reduction in immunosuppression, which allows for development of pathogen-specific immunity to the offending virus. Prevention of viral infections is of the utmost importance, and this may be accomplished through vaccination, antiviral strategies and infection control measures. This article discusses the current management of selected viral pathogens that cause clinical illness in solid organ transplant recipients. The benefits and toxicities of antiviral therapies are discussed in the context of prevention and treatment of various viral diseases. The emerging issue of antiviral resistance is emphasized for cytomegalovirus, recurrent hepatitis B and influenza, while the importance of immunominimization is discussed in the management of BK nephropathy and virus-associated malignancies.

Decreased post-transplant survival among heart transplant recipients with pre-transplant hepatitis C virus positivity

BACKGROUND

Transplant centers are reluctant to perform heart transplantation in patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection because augmented immunosuppression could potentially increase mortality. However, there have been few studies examining whether HCV infection reduces survival after heart transplantation.

METHODS

We used data from the the U.S. Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients to perform a multicenter cohort study evaluating the association between recipient pre-transplant HCV status and survival after heart transplantation. Adults undergoing heart transplantation between January 1, 1993 and December 31, 2007 were eligible to participate.

RESULTS

Among 20,687 heart transplant recipients (443 HCV-positive and 20,244 HCV-negative) at 103 institutions followed for a mean of 5.6 years, mortality was higher among HCV-positive than HCV-negative recipients (177 [40%] vs 6,367 [31.5%]; p = 0.0001). After matching on propensity score, hospital and gender, the hazard ratio (HR) of death for HCV-positive heart transplant recipients was 1.32 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.08 to 1.61). Mortality rates were higher among HCV-positive heart transplant recipients at 1 year (9.4% vs 8.2%), 5 years (26.3% vs 22.9%), 10 years (53.1% vs 43.4%) and 15 years (74.8% vs 62.3%) post-transplantation. HRs did not vary by gender or overall number of heart transplantations performed at the center.

CONCLUSIONS

Pre-transplant HCV positivity is associated with decreased survival after heart transplantation.

An update on donor-derived disease transmission in organ transplantation

Several recent donor-to-recipient disease transmissions have highlighted the importance of this rare complication of solid organ transplantation. The epidemiology of donor-derived disease transmissions in the United States has been described through reports to the Organ Procurement and Transplant Network (OPTN); these reports are reviewed and categorized by the ad hoc Disease Transmission Advisory Committee (DTAC); additional data comes through the published literature. From these reports, it is possible to estimate that donor-derived disease transmission complicates less than 1% of all transplant procedures but when a transmission occurs, significant morbidity and mortality can result. Only through continued presentation of the available data can continuous quality improvements be made. As the epidemiology of donor-derived disease transmission has become better understood, several groups have been working on methods to further mitigate this risk.

Critical care issues in patients after liver transplantation

The majority of patients who undergo liver transplantation (LT) spend some time in the intensive care unit during the postoperative period. For some, this is an expected part of the immediate posttransplant recovery period, whereas for others, the stay is more prolonged because of preexisting conditions, intraoperative events, or postoperative complications. In this review, 4 topics that are particularly relevant to the postoperative intensive care of LT recipients are discussed, with an emphasis on current knowledge specific to this patient group. Infectious complications are the most common causes of early posttransplant morbidity and mortality. The common patterns of infection seen in patients after LT and their management are discussed. Acute kidney injury and renal failure are common in post-LT patients. Kidney injury identification, etiologies, and risk factors and approaches to management are reviewed. The majority of patients will require weaning from mechanical ventilation in the immediate postoperative period; the approach to this is discussed along with the approach for those patients who require a prolonged period of mechanical ventilation. A poorly functioning graft requires prompt identification and appropriate management if the outcomes are to be optimized. The causes of poor graft function are systematically reviewed, and the management of these grafts is discussed.

Infections in liver transplant recipients

Liver transplantation is a standard life-saving procedure for the treatment of many end-stage liver diseases. The success of this procedure may be limited by infectious complications. In this article, we review the contemporary state of infectious complications during the post-operative period, with particular emphasis on those that occur most commonly during the first 6 mo after liver transplantation. Bacteria, and less commonly Candida infections, remain the predominant pathogens during the immediate post-operative period, especially during the first month, and infections caused by drug-resistant strains are emerging. Infections caused by cytomegalovirus and Aspergillus sp. present clinically during the "opportunistic" period characterized by intense immunosuppression. As newer potent immunosuppressive therapies with the major aim of reducing allograft rejection are developed, one potential adverse effect is an increase in certain infections. Hence, it is essential for liver transplant centers to have an effective approach to prevention that is based on predicted infection risk, local antimicrobial resistance patterns, and surveillance. A better understanding of the common and most important infectious complications is anticipated to lead to improvements in quality of life and survival of liver transplant recipients.