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Fluorescence analysis of a tumor model in the chorioallantoic membrane used for the evaluation of different photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2017; 19:78-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2017.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Allison RR, Downie GH, Cuenca R, Hu XH, Childs CJ, Sibata CH. Photosensitizers in clinical PDT. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2014; 1:27-42. [PMID: 25048062 DOI: 10.1016/s1572-1000(04)00007-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 636] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy allow for the transfer and translation of light energy into a type II chemical reaction. In clinical practice, photosensitizers arise from three families-porphyrins, chlorophylls, and dyes. All clinically successful photosensitizers have the ability to a greater or lesser degree, to target specific tissues or their vasculature to achieve ablation. Each photosensitizer needs to reliably activate at a high enough light wavelength useful for therapy. Their ability to fluoresce and visualize the lesion is a bonus. Photosensitizers developed from each family have unique properties that have so far been minimally clinically exploited. This review looks at the potential benefits and consequences of each major photosensitizer that has been tried in a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ron R Allison
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; PDT Center, Leo Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Gordon H Downie
- PDT Center, Leo Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Rosa Cuenca
- PDT Center, Leo Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; Department of Surgical Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Xin-Hua Hu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; PDT Center, Leo Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; Department of Physics, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Carter Jh Childs
- PDT Center, Leo Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | - Claudio H Sibata
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; PDT Center, Leo Jenkins Cancer Center, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA; Department of Physics, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
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Sun Y, Responte D, Xie H, Liu J, Fatakdawala H, Hu J, Athanasiou KA, Marcu L. Nondestructive evaluation of tissue engineered articular cartilage using time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy and ultrasound backscatter microscopy. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2012; 18:215-26. [PMID: 22010819 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2011.0343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of this study is to evaluate the ability of a bimodal technique integrating time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy (TRFS) and ultrasound backscatter microscopy (UBM) for nondestructive detection of changes in the biochemical, structural, and mechanical properties of self-assembled engineered articular cartilage constructs. The cartilage constructs were treated with three chemical agents (collagenase, chondroitinase-ABC, and ribose) to induce changes in biochemical content (collagen and glycosaminoglycan [GAG]) of matured constructs (4 weeks); and to subsequently alter the mechanical properties of the construct. The biochemical changes were evaluated using TRFS. The microstructure and the thickness of the engineered cartilage samples were characterized by UBM. The optical and ultrasound results were validated against those acquired via conventional techniques including collagen and GAG quantification and measurement of construct stiffness. Current results demonstrated that a set of optical parameters (e.g., average fluorescence lifetime and decay constants) showed significant correlation (p<0.05) with biochemical and mechanical data. The high-resolution ultrasound images provided complementary cross-section information of the cartilage samples morphology. Therefore, the technique was capable of nondestructively evaluating the composition of extracellular matrix and the microstructure of engineered tissue, demonstrating great potential as an alternative to traditional destructive assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Sun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Vishwanath K, Chang K, Klein D, Deng YF, Chang V, Phelps JE, Ramanujam N. Portable, Fiber-Based, Diffuse Reflection Spectroscopy (DRS) Systems for Estimating Tissue Optical Properties. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2011; 62:206-215. [PMID: 21499501 PMCID: PMC3074566 DOI: 10.1366/10-06052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Steady-state diffuse reflection spectroscopy is a well-studied optical technique that can provide a noninvasive and quantitative method for characterizing the absorption and scattering properties of biological tissues. Here, we compare three fiber-based diffuse reflection spectroscopy systems that were assembled to create a light-weight, portable, and robust optical spectrometer that could be easily translated for repeated and reliable use in mobile settings. The three systems were built using a broadband light source and a compact, commercially available spectrograph. We tested two different light sources and two spectrographs (manufactured by two different vendors). The assembled systems were characterized by their signal-to-noise ratios, the source-intensity drifts, and detector linearity. We quantified the performance of these instruments in extracting optical properties from diffuse reflectance spectra in tissue-mimicking liquid phantoms with well-controlled optical absorption and scattering coefficients. We show that all assembled systems were able to extract the optical absorption and scattering properties with errors less than 10%, while providing greater than ten-fold decrease in footprint and cost (relative to a previously well-characterized and widely used commercial system). Finally, we demonstrate the use of these small systems to measure optical biomarkers in vivo in a small-animal model cancer therapy study. We show that optical measurements from the simple portable system provide estimates of tumor oxygen saturation similar to those detected using the commercial system in murine tumor models of head and neck cancer.
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Ramanujan VK, Ren S, Park S, Farkas DL. Non-invasive, Contrast-enhanced Spectral Imaging of Breast Cancer Signatures in Preclinical Animal Models In vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 1. [PMID: 21572915 DOI: 10.4172/2157-7013.1000102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We report here a non-invasive multispectral imaging platform for monitoring spectral reflectance and fluorescence images from primary breast carcinoma and metastatic lymph nodes in preclinical rat model in vivo. The system is built around a monochromator light source and an acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) for spectral selection. Quantitative analysis of the measured reflectance profiles in the presence of a widely-used lymphazurin dye clearly demonstrates the capability of the proposed imaging platform to detect tumor-associated spectral signatures in the primary tumors as well as metastatic lymphatics. Tumor-associated changes in vascular oxygenation and interstitial fluid pressure are reasoned to be the physiological sources of the measured reflectance profiles. We also discuss the translational potential of our imaging platform in intra-operative clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Krishnan Ramanujan
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Principal Investigator, Metabolic Photonics Laboratory Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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Pogue BW, Samkoe KS, Gibbs-Strauss SL, Davis SC. Fluorescent molecular imaging and dosimetry tools in photodynamic therapy. Methods Mol Biol 2010; 635:207-22. [PMID: 20552350 PMCID: PMC3787902 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-697-9_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Measurement of fluorescence and phosphorescence in vivo is readily used to quantify the concentration of specific species that are relevant to photodynamic therapy. However, the tools to make the data quantitatively accurate vary considerably between different applications. Sampling of the signal can be done with point samples, such as specialized fiber probes or from bulk regions with either imaging or sampling, and then in broad region image-guided manner. Each of these methods is described below, the application to imaging photosensitizer uptake is discussed, and developing methods to image molecular responses to therapy are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian W Pogue
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
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Sieron A, Gibinski P, Pustelny T, Kwiatek S, Opilski Z, Kawczyk-Krupka A, Woznica T, Maciak E, Kubica W, Urbanczyk M, Latos W. Optical biopsy using spectral camera in BCC and oral leukoplakia. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2008; 5:271-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2008.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2008] [Revised: 09/19/2008] [Accepted: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Plaetzer K, Krammer B, Berlanda J, Berr F, Kiesslich T. Photophysics and photochemistry of photodynamic therapy: fundamental aspects. Lasers Med Sci 2008; 24:259-68. [PMID: 18247081 DOI: 10.1007/s10103-008-0539-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 533] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2007] [Accepted: 01/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment modality for cancer and various other diseases. The clinical protocol covers the illumination of target cells (or tissue), which have been loaded with a photoactive drug (photosensitizer). In this review we describe the photophysical and primary photochemical processes that occur during PDT. Interaction of light with tissue results in attenuation of the incident light energy due to reflectance, absorption, scattering, and refraction. Refraction and reflection are reduced by perpendicular light application, whereas absorption can be minimized by the choice of a photosensitizer that absorbs in the far red region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Interaction of light and the photosensitizer can result in degradation, modification or relocalization of the drug, which differently affect the effectiveness of PDT. Photodynamic therapy itself, however, employs the light-induced chemical reactions of the activated photosensitizer (triplet state), resulting in the production of various reactive oxygen species, amongst them singlet oxygen as the primary photochemical product. Based on these considerations, the properties of an ideal photosensitizer for PDT are discussed. According to the clinical experience with PDT, it is proposed that the innovative concept of PDT is most successfully implemented into the mainstream of anticancer therapies by following an application-, i.e. tumor-centered approach with a focus on the actual clinical requirements of the respective tumor type.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Plaetzer
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
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Wollina U, Nelskamp C, Scheibe A, Fassler D, Schmidt WD. Fluorescence?remission sensoring of skin tumours: preliminary results. Skin Res Technol 2007; 13:463-71. [PMID: 17908200 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0846.2007.00252.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is one of the most common malignancies in men. Objective evaluation by digital dermoscopy, as for pigmented lesions, does not provide sufficient data to discriminate between benign and malignant lesions. Therefore, other techniques have to be developed. SETTING Hospitalized patients of an academic teaching hospital were evaluated. PATIENTS AND METHODS Because the simultaneous measurement of fluorescence and remission of skin is impossible, a principle of subsequent measurement of remission and fluorescence had been developed by our group. This was combined with dermoscopic imaging. VIS-NIR remission spectroscopy was performed using the laboratory device TIDAS. Fluorescence spectroscopy was realized using a SKINSKAN. Fluorescence emission was detected by a highly sensitive PMT-detector. Based on this evaluation, we developed an optimized measuring device (FRIS, fluorescence-remission-imaging sensor) combining sensors for fluorescence, remission and digital imaging with a white light ring illumination, a drilled mirror and fibre optics. FRIS consists of an industrial personal computer with a touch screen combining three UV-VIS spectrometer modules and a white light source for remission measurements and referencing. Furthermore, included are a CCD coloured camera module and an LED white light ring-illumination. Fluorescence emission is realized by a UV-LED with a peak wavelength of 370 nm. System control uses Window frames and a specifically developed software Skinrem3.exe . Using this technology, we performed a pilot study in 19 patients with 30 NMSC-suspicious lesions including: actinic keratosis (n=10), basal cell carcinoma (BCC; n=16) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC; n=4 with two in situ carcinomas). RESULTS Reproducibility measured or FRIS by relative standard deviation of repeated spectroscopic measurements was <0.1% for remission and 2% for fluorescence. The technology was able to generate typical pattern of remission-corrected fluorescence data. The fluorescence differences at 430 nm allow a differentiation between actinic keratoses and BCC. A decrease of the corrected lesional fluorescence >2 AU indicates BCC. To substantiate the diagnostic potency of this technology, further studies are needed. CONCLUSIONS A combination of fluorescence and remission readings of skin provides objective data in NMSC. We developed the FRIS equipment that allows a reproducible measurement and easy handling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Wollina
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Hospital Dresden-Friedrichstadt, Academic Teaching Hospital of the Technical University of Dresden, Friedrichstrasse, Dresden, Germany.
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Juzeniene A, Juzenas P, Ma LW, Iani V, Moan J. Topical application of 5-aminolaevulinic acid, methyl 5-aminolaevulinate and hexyl 5-aminolaevulinate on normal human skin. Br J Dermatol 2006; 155:791-9. [PMID: 16965430 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07484.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 5-Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) and its ester derivatives are used in photodynamic therapy. Despite extensive investigations, the differences in biodistribution and pharmacokinetics of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) induced by ALA and its derivatives are still not well understood, notably for humans. OBJECTIVES To study porphyrin accumulation after topical application of ALA and two of its ester derivatives in normal human skin. METHODS Creams containing 0.2%, 2% and 20% (w/w) of ALA, methyl 5-aminolaevulinate (MAL) and hexyl 5-aminolaevulinate (HAL) were applied on normal human skin of six volunteers. The amount and distribution of porphyrins formed in the skin was investigated noninvasively by means of fluorescence spectroscopy. RESULTS Fluorescence emission and excitation spectra exhibited similar spectral shapes for the all drugs, indicating that mainly PpIX was formed. Low concentrations (0.2% and 2%) of MAL induced considerably less PpIX in normal human skin than similar concentrations of ALA and HAL. A high concentration (20%) of ALA gave higher PpIX fluorescence in normal human skin than was found for MAL and HAL. CONCLUSIONS The concentrations inducing half of the maximal PpIX fluorescence are around 2% for ALA, 8% for MAL and 1% for HAL.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Juzeniene
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, 0310 Montebello, Oslo, Norway.
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Abstract
1. Photodynamic therapy is an established modality for the treatment of solid tumours and other accessible lesions. Although the concept and practice of combining light with a photosensitizing agent for the treatment of disease states has been around for almost a century, the understanding of the art and science therein has been tremendously enhanced over the past few years. 2. Photosensitized reactions are dependent on the generation of reactive oxygen species, in particular singlet oxygen, which accounts for the damaging effects on biological macromolecules, such as membrane lipids and proteins. Therefore, compounds that give a good yield of (1)O(2) are used as photosensitizers. 3. The main photosensitizers used in the clinical setting belong to the photofrin family; however, newer and more effective sensitizers are being evaluated for their potential clinical effectiveness. 4. Light sources have moved from the use of white light with specific filters in the old days to the more recent use of monochromatic light sources, such as lasers, to more sophisticated light-emitting diodes. However, dosimetry remains a big issue mainly because of difficulties in establishing the optimum treatment conditions for an approach that requires the fine-tuning of several variables, such as sensitizer and light doses and drug-to-light interval, as well as the issues of skin photosensitivity and low selectivity. A newer development to circumvent these and provide a broader application for this concept has been the phenomenon of photo-activation, whereby photo-exposure of chromophores to generate novel, small biologically active compounds has been demonstrated successfully. 5. The aim of the present review was to provide a general overview of the art and science of photodynamic therapy and to highlight some of the issues and recent developments in further advancing this modality of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shazib Pervaiz
- Department of Physiology, Yon Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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Utzinger U, Richards-Kortum RR. Fiber optic probes for biomedical optical spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2003; 8:121-47. [PMID: 12542388 DOI: 10.1117/1.1528207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2001] [Revised: 05/02/2002] [Accepted: 08/09/2002] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Fiber optic probes are a key element for biomedical spectroscopic sensing. We review the use of fiber optic probes for optical spectroscopy, focusing on applications in turbid media, such as tissue. The design of probes for reflectance, polarized reflectance, fluorescence, and Raman spectroscopy is illustrated. We cover universal design principles as well as technologies for beam deflecting and reshaping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urs Utzinger
- University of Arizona, Biomedical Engineering and Obstetrics & Gynecology, Tucson, Arizona 85724, USA.
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Juzenas P, Sharfaei S, Moan J, Bissonnette R. Protoporphyrin IX fluorescence kinetics in UV-induced tumours and normal skin of hairless mice after topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid methyl ester. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2002; 67:11-7. [PMID: 12007462 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(02)00269-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Accumulation of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) was investigated in normal skin and UV-induced tumours in hairless mice after topical application of a cream containing 2, 8 or 16% of 5-aminolevulinic acid methyl ester (ALA-Me). Higher levels of PpIX were measured in tumours compared to normal skin. The maximal amount of PpIX was reached at 1.5, 3 and 4 h after 2, 8 and 16% ALA-Me application, respectively. Higher tumour to normal skin PpIX fluorescence ratios were measured after application of 8 and 16% ALA-Me than after application of 2%. After irradiation with a broad spectrum of visible light from a slide projector, more than 90% of PpIX was bleached by fluences of 36 and 48 J/cm2, at fluence rates of 10 and 40 mW/cm2 respectively. At these fluences, the PpIX photobleaching rate was significantly higher (P<0.05) in normal mouse skin than in tumours. In addition, for a given fluence, more PpIX was photobleached at the lower fluence rate (10 mW/cm2) than at the higher fluence rate (40 mW/cm2) in normal skin (P<0.001) as well as in tumours (P<0.05) after exposure to 24 J/cm2 of light. In conclusion, the highest tumour to normal skin PpIX ratio was observed 3 h after application of 8% ALA-Me, suggesting that light exposure should be performed at this time in order to achieve an optimal PDT effect in this tumour model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petras Juzenas
- Division of Dermatology, Notre-Dame Hospital, Montreal University Hospital Center, 1560 Sherbrooke Street East, Rm. K-5201, Québec, H2L 4M1, Montreal, Canada
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Rovithakis GA, Maniadakis M, Zervakis M, Filippidis G, Zacharakis G, Katsamouris AN, Papazoglou TG. Artificial neural networks for discriminating pathologic from normal peripheral vascular tissue. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2001; 48:1088-97. [PMID: 11585032 DOI: 10.1109/10.951511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The identification of the state of human peripheral vascular tissue by using artificial neural networks is discussed in this paper. Two different laser emission lines (He-Cd, Ar+) are used to excite the chromophores of tissue samples. The fluorescence spectrum obtained, is passed through a nonlinear filter based on a high-order (HO) neural network neural network (NN) [HONN] whose weights are updated by stable learning laws, to perform feature extraction. The values of the feature vector reveal information regarding the tissue state. Then a classical multilayer perceptron is employed to serve as a classifier of the feature vector, giving 100% successful results for the specific data set considered. Our method achieves not only the discrimination between normal and pathologic human tissue, but also the successful discrimination between the different types of pathologic tissue (fibrous, calcified). Furthermore, the small time needed to acquire and analyze the fluorescence spectra together with the high rates of success, proves our method very attractive for real-time applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Rovithakis
- Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Greece.
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Filippidis G, Zacharakis G, Katsamouris A, Giannoukas A, Papazoglou TG. Single and double wavelength excitation of laser-induced fluorescence of normal and atherosclerotic peripheral vascular tissue. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2000; 56:163-71. [PMID: 11079477 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(00)00073-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Laser-induced fluorescence spectra were recorded from the exposure of peripheral vascular tissue to both helium-cadmium and argon-ion laser radiation. Spectral analysis was based on simple algebraic expressions constructed using the intensity difference of the various spectral regions. The above methods were developed in order to determine the degree of atherosclerosis according to the laser-induced fluorescence signal. Similar results with single wavelength excitation were observed during in vivo irradiation of peripheral vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Filippidis
- Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser, Laser and Applications Division, Crete, Greece.
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