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Luther AM, Varzandeh M, Beckermann C, Feyer L, Maaßen IK, Oldenhof H, Hackbarth S, Waberski D. Fertility after photodynamic inactivation of bacteria in extended boar semen. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1429749. [PMID: 39171264 PMCID: PMC11335528 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1429749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is an increasing challenge in semen preservation of breeding animals, especially in the porcine species. Bacteria are a natural component of semen, and their growth should be inhibited to protect sperm fertilizing capacity and the female's health. In pig breeding, where semen is routinely stored at 17°C in the liquid state, alternatives to conventional antibiotics are urgently needed. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) of bacteria is a well-established tool in medicine and the food industry but this technology has not been widely adopted in semen preservation. The specific challenge in this setting is to selectively inactivate bacteria while maintaining sperm integrity and functionality. The aim of this study was to test the principle of PDI in liquid stored boar semen using the photosensitizer 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(N-methyl-4-pyridyl)-21H,23H-porphine (TMPyP) and a white light LED-setup. In the first step, photophysical experiments comprising singlet oxygen phosphorescence kinetics of TMPyP and determination of the photosensitizer triplet time revealed a sufficiently high production of reactive singlet oxygen in the Androstar Premium semen extender, whereas seminal plasma acted as strong quencher. In vitro experiments with extended boar semen showed that the established PDI protocol preserves sperm motility, membrane integrity, DNA integrity, and mitochondrial activity while efficiently reducing the bacteria below the detection limit. A proof-of-concept insemination study confirmed the in vivo fertility of semen after photodynamic treatment. In conclusion, using the PDI approach, an innovative tool was established that efficiently controls bacteria growth in extended boar and maintains sperm fertility. This could be a promising contribution to the One Health concept with the potential to reduce antimicrobial resistance in animal husbandry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Marie Luther
- Unit for Reproductive Medicine/Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Mohammad Varzandeh
- Photobiophysics, Institute of Physics, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Beckermann
- Unit for Reproductive Medicine/Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Leon Feyer
- Photobiophysics, Institute of Physics, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Isabel Katharina Maaßen
- Unit for Reproductive Medicine/Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Harriёtte Oldenhof
- Unit for Reproductive Medicine/Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Steffen Hackbarth
- Photobiophysics, Institute of Physics, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dagmar Waberski
- Unit for Reproductive Medicine/Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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2
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Akhtar F, Misba L, Khan AU. The dual role of photodynamic therapy to treat cancer and microbial infection. Drug Discov Today 2024; 29:104099. [PMID: 39002771 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2024.104099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive treatment showing promise against cancer and microbial infections. PDT targets tumor cells while sparing healthy tissue, reducing side effects. It induces immunogenic cell death, potentially stimulating antitumor immune responses and reducing cancer recurrence. In microbial treatment, PDT effectively combats bacteria, fungi and viruses. Combining PDT with chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy enhances its efficacy. However, challenges such as tumor hypoxia, limited tissue penetration and phototoxicity necessitate ongoing research efforts to optimize PDT protocols and overcome limitations. Overall, PDT is versatile and continually advancing with refined protocols to improve its clinical utility against cancer and microbial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farheen Akhtar
- Antimicrobial Resistance Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Lama Misba
- Antimicrobial Resistance Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Asad U Khan
- Antimicrobial Resistance Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India.
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Sautour M, Théry T, Divoux G, Dupont S, Beney L, Gros CP, Desbois N. Synthesis and characterization of new acid-functionalized porphyrins displaying antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria, yeasts and filamentous fungi with or without ultra-high irradiance. Bioorg Med Chem 2024; 109:117810. [PMID: 38906069 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2024.117810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
The antimicrobial activity of new acid-functionalized porphyrins, with or without ultra-high irradiance, was investigated. Antibacterial efficacy was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-resistant or methicillin-sensitive strains) and antifungal efficacy was evaluated against the yeast Candida albicans and the filamentous fungi Aspergillus fumigatus. Overall, the porphyrins tested are more effective against S. aureus. The best results were obtained with zinc diacid porphyrins 4 and 5 after only 3 min of ultra-high irradiation (500 mW/cm2, 405 nm), demonstrating that acid-functionalized porphyrins are promising as novel antimicrobial drugs for surface disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Sautour
- Parasitology-Mycology Laboratory, University Hospital Biology Platform, Dijon University Hospital Center (CHU), 21000 Dijon, France; UMR PAM 1517, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Institut Agro, INRAE, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Thibaut Théry
- UMR PAM 1517, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Institut Agro, INRAE, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Gaëlle Divoux
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB, UMR CNRS 6302), Université de Bourgogne, 9 avenue Alain Savary, BP 47870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Sébastien Dupont
- UMR PAM 1517, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Institut Agro, INRAE, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Laurent Beney
- UMR PAM 1517, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Institut Agro, INRAE, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Claude P Gros
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB, UMR CNRS 6302), Université de Bourgogne, 9 avenue Alain Savary, BP 47870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Nicolas Desbois
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de l'Université de Bourgogne (ICMUB, UMR CNRS 6302), Université de Bourgogne, 9 avenue Alain Savary, BP 47870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France.
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4
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Campagno LP, Quiroga ED, Durantini EN, Alovero FL. TMPyP-mediated photoinactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa improved in the presence of a cationic polymer. Photochem Photobiol 2024; 100:674-685. [PMID: 37885315 DOI: 10.1111/php.13868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the most refractory organisms to antibiotic treatment and appears to be one of the least susceptible to photodynamic treatment. TMPyP is effective in the photoinactivation of P. aeruginosa, and the co-administration with the cationic polymer Eudragit®-E100 (Eu) potentiates this effect against isolates both sensitive and resistant to antibiotics. The fluorescent population (>98%) observed by flow cytometry after exposure to Eu + TMPyP remained unchanged after successive washings, indicating a stronger interaction/internalization of TMPyP in the bacteria, which could be attributed to the rapid neutralization of surface charges. TMPyP and Eu produced depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane, which increased when both cationic compounds were combined. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy, heterogeneously distributed fluorescent areas were observed after TMPyP exposure, while homogeneous fluorescence and enhanced intensity were observed with Eu + TMPyP. The polymer caused alterations in the bacterial envelopes that contributed to a deeper and more homogeneous interaction/internalization of TMPyP, leading to a higher probability of damage by cytotoxic ROS and explaining the enhanced result of photodynamic inactivation. Therefore, Eu acts as an adjuvant without being by itself capable of eradicating this pathogen. Moreover, compared with other therapies, this combinatorial strategy with a polymer approved for pharmaceutical applications presents advantages in terms of toxicity risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana P Campagno
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba y UNITEFA-CONICET, Edificio Ciencias II, Medina Allende y Haya de la Torre, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Ezequiel D Quiroga
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba y UNITEFA-CONICET, Edificio Ciencias II, Medina Allende y Haya de la Torre, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Edgardo N Durantini
- IDAS-CONICET, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físico-Químicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Fabiana L Alovero
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba y UNITEFA-CONICET, Edificio Ciencias II, Medina Allende y Haya de la Torre, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina
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Nguyen VN, Zhao Z, Tang BZ, Yoon J. Organic photosensitizers for antimicrobial phototherapy. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:3324-3340. [PMID: 35373787 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00647a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microbial infectious diseases, especially those caused by new and antibiotic-resistant pathogenic microbes, have become a significant threat to global human health. As an antibiotic-free therapy, phototherapy is a promising approach to treat microbial infections due to its spatiotemporal selectivity, non-invasiveness, minimal side effects, and broad antimicrobial spectrum. Although organic photosensitizer-based antimicrobial phototherapy has been extensively studied over the last decade, there has been no specific review article on this topic yet. It is important and timely to summarize recent research progress in this field. This tutorial review highlights the concept and significance of phototherapy and summarizes innovative types of organic photosensitizers with design strategies to deal with microbial infections. In addition, examples of organic antimicrobial photosensitizers, including antibacterial photosensitizers, antiviral photosensitizers, and antifungal photosensitizers are discussed. Finally, current challenges and future directions of organic photosensitizer-based phototherapy for clinical antimicrobial applications are presented. We believe that this tutorial review will provide general guidance for the future development of efficient photosensitizers and encourage preclinical and clinical studies for phototherapy-mediated antimicrobial treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van-Nghia Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea.
| | - Zheng Zhao
- School of Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Aggregate Science and Technology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518172, China.
| | - Ben Zhong Tang
- School of Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Aggregate Science and Technology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518172, China.
| | - Juyoung Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea.
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Schulz S, Ziganshyna S, Lippmann N, Glass S, Eulenburg V, Habermann N, Schwarz UT, Voigt A, Heilmann C, Rüffer T, Werdehausen R. The Meta-Substituted Isomer of TMPyP Enables More Effective Photodynamic Bacterial Inactivation than Para-TMPyP In Vitro. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10050858. [PMID: 35630304 PMCID: PMC9143678 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10050858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Porphyrinoid-based photodynamic inactivation (PDI) provides a promising approach to treating multidrug-resistant infections. However, available agents for PDI still have optimization potential with regard to effectiveness, toxicology, chemical stability, and solubility. The currently available photosensitizer TMPyP is provided with a para substitution pattern (para-TMPyP) of the pyridinium groups and has been demonstrated to be effective for PDI of multidrug-resistant bacteria. To further improve its properties, we synthetized a structural variant of TMPyP with an isomeric substitution pattern in a meta configuration (meta-TMPyP), confirmed the correct structure by crystallographic analysis and performed a characterization with NMR-, UV/Vis-, and IR spectroscopy, photostability, and singlet oxygen generation assay. Meta-TMPyP had a hypochromic shift in absorbance (4 nm) with a 55% higher extinction coefficient and slightly improved photostability (+6.9%) compared to para-TMPyP. Despite these superior molecular properties, singlet oxygen generation was increased by only 5.4%. In contrast, PDI, based on meta-TMPyP, reduced the density of extended spectrum β-lactamase-producing and fluoroquinolone-resistant Escherichia coli by several orders of magnitude, whereby a sterilizing effect was observed after 48 min of illumination, while para-TMPyP was less effective (p < 0.01). These findings demonstrate that structural modification with meta substitution increases antibacterial properties of TMPyP in PDI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Schulz
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (S.S.); (S.Z.); (V.E.)
| | - Svitlana Ziganshyna
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (S.S.); (S.Z.); (V.E.)
| | - Norman Lippmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Sarah Glass
- Leibniz Institute of Surface Engineering (IOM), 04318 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Volker Eulenburg
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (S.S.); (S.Z.); (V.E.)
| | - Natalia Habermann
- Institute of Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany; (N.H.); (U.T.S.)
| | - Ulrich T. Schwarz
- Institute of Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany; (N.H.); (U.T.S.)
| | - Alexander Voigt
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany; (A.V.); (C.H.)
| | - Claudia Heilmann
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany; (A.V.); (C.H.)
| | - Tobias Rüffer
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany; (A.V.); (C.H.)
- Correspondence: (T.R.); (R.W.)
| | - Robert Werdehausen
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; (S.S.); (S.Z.); (V.E.)
- Correspondence: (T.R.); (R.W.)
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7
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Sunday MO, Sakugawa H. A simple, inexpensive method for gas-phase singlet oxygen generation from sensitizer-impregnated filters: Potential application to bacteria/virus inactivation and pollutant degradation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 746:141186. [PMID: 32745862 PMCID: PMC7377787 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Airborne infectious diseases such as the new Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pose serious threat to human health. Indoor air pollution is a problem of global environmental concern as well. Singlet oxygen (1O2) is a reactive oxygen species that plays important role in bacteria/virus inactivation and pollutant degradation. In this study, we found that commercially available filters typically deployed in air purifier and air conditioning units, when impregnated with Rose Bengal (RB) as a 1O2 sensitizer, can be used for heterogeneous gas-phase generation of 1O2. It was confirmed that irradiation of the RB filter under oxygen gas stream produced 1O2, which was measured using furfuryl alcohol trapping method followed by HPLC analysis. It was also observed that the amount of 1O2 generated increases as the light intensity increased. Similarly, the sensitizer loading also positively influenced the 1O2 generation. The heterogeneous gas-phase generation of 1O2 can find potential applications in air purifier and air conditioning units for the purpose of bacteria/virus inactivation and/or pollutant degradation thereby improving indoor air quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Oluwatoyin Sunday
- Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan; Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
| | - Hiroshi Sakugawa
- Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, 1-7-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8521, Japan.
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Klausen M, Ucuncu M, Bradley M. Design of Photosensitizing Agents for Targeted Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy. Molecules 2020; 25:E5239. [PMID: 33182751 PMCID: PMC7696090 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25225239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation of microorganisms has gained substantial attention due to its unique mode of action, in which pathogens are unable to generate resistance, and due to the fact that it can be applied in a minimally invasive manner. In photodynamic therapy (PDT), a non-toxic photosensitizer (PS) is activated by a specific wavelength of light and generates highly cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide (O2-, type-I mechanism) or singlet oxygen (1O2*, type-II mechanism). Although it offers many advantages over conventional treatment methods, ROS-mediated microbial killing is often faced with the issues of accessibility, poor selectivity and off-target damage. Thus, several strategies have been employed to develop target-specific antimicrobial PDT (aPDT). This includes conjugation of known PS building-blocks to either non-specific cationic moieties or target-specific antibiotics and antimicrobial peptides, or combining them with targeting nanomaterials. In this review, we summarise these general strategies and related challenges, and highlight recent developments in targeted aPDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Klausen
- School of Chemistry and the EPSRC IRC Proteus, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, UK;
| | - Muhammed Ucuncu
- School of Chemistry and the EPSRC IRC Proteus, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, UK;
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir 35620, Turkey
| | - Mark Bradley
- School of Chemistry and the EPSRC IRC Proteus, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, UK;
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Beyene BB, Wassie GA. Antibacterial activity of Cu(II) and Co(II) porphyrins: role of ligand modification. BMC Chem 2020; 14:51. [PMID: 32818202 PMCID: PMC7427740 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-020-00701-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we report antibacterial activity of metalloporphyrins; 5, 10, 15, 20-tetrakis (para-X phenyl)porphyrinato M (II) [where X = H, NH2 and COOMe for M = Cu and X = COOH and OMe for M = Co]. The activity study of the as-synthesized metalloporphyrins toward two Gram-positive (S. aureus and S. pyogenes) and two Gram-negative (E. coli and K. pneumoniae) bacteria showed a promising inhibitory activity. Among the complexes under study, the highest antibacterial activity is observed for 5, 10, 15, 20-tetrakis (p-carboxyphenyl)porphyrinato cobalt (II), with inhibition zone of 16.5 mm against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). This activity could be attributed to the high binding ability of COOH group to cellular components, membranes, proteins, and DNA as well as the lipophilicity of the complex. Moreover, consistent with literature report, the study revealed that metalloporphyrins with electron withdrawing group at para-positions have better antibacterial activity than metalloporphyrin which possess electron donating group at para position.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belete B Beyene
- Department of Chemistry, Bahir Dar University, P. O. Box 79, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Getaneh A Wassie
- Department of Chemistry, Bahir Dar University, P. O. Box 79, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
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Beyene BB, Mihirteu AM, Ayana MT, Yibeltal AW. Synthesis, characterization and antibacterial activity of metalloporphyrins: Role of central metal ion. RESULTS IN CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rechem.2020.100073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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Sun YD, Zhu YX, Zhang X, Jia HR, Xia Y, Wu FG. Role of Cholesterol Conjugation in the Antibacterial Photodynamic Therapy of Branched Polyethylenimine-Containing Nanoagents. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2019; 35:14324-14331. [PMID: 31580079 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b02727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy is a promising approach for fighting bacterial infections because it can induce few side effects, develop no drug resistance, and realize precise treatment. However, most photosensitizers (PSs) have the disadvantages of poor water-solubility, severe self-quenching, and potential toxicity. Here, the cationic polymer polyethyleneimine (PEI) was used to prepare a cholesterol- and chlorin e6 (Ce6, a common PS)-conjugated compound via the carboxyl-amine reaction or the acyl chloride-amine reaction (abbreviated as Chol-PEI-Ce6). The as-prepared Chol-PEI-Ce6 molecules can self-assemble into close-to-spherical nanoparticles (NPs) with an average diameter of ∼15 nm and can bind to the bacterial surfaces via the synergistic hydrophobic insertion of the cholesterol moieties and electrostatic interaction between the cationic amine groups of PEI and the bacterial surfaces. Upon light irradiation, the NPs can effectively inactivate both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Besides, the interaction between Chol-PEI-Ce6 NPs and bacteria markedly enhances the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species after light irradiation, which may account for the excellent antibacterial performance of the NPs. More importantly, the NPs possess negligible dark cytotoxicity and good hemocompatibility. Therefore, the present work may have strong implications for developing novel antibacterial agents to fight against bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Dan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering , Southeast University , 2 Sipailou Road , Nanjing 210096 , P. R. China
| | - Ya-Xuan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering , Southeast University , 2 Sipailou Road , Nanjing 210096 , P. R. China
| | - Xiaodong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering , Southeast University , 2 Sipailou Road , Nanjing 210096 , P. R. China
| | - Hao-Ran Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering , Southeast University , 2 Sipailou Road , Nanjing 210096 , P. R. China
| | - Yang Xia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases , Nanjing Medical University , 136 HanZhong Road , Nanjing 210029 , P. R. China
| | - Fu-Gen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering , Southeast University , 2 Sipailou Road , Nanjing 210096 , P. R. China
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13
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Preuß A, Pfitzner M, Röder B. Mosquito larvae control by photodynamic inactivation of their intestinal flora - a proof of principal study on Chaoborus sp. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2019; 18:2374-2380. [PMID: 31380867 DOI: 10.1039/c9pp00156e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are carriers of dangerous infectious disease pathogens all over the world. Owing to travelling and global warming, tropical disease-carrying species such as Aedes, Anopheles and Culex spread beyond tropical and subtropical zones, even to Europe. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential of photodynamic agents to combat mosquito larvae. Three different photosensitizers were tested on Chaoborus sp. larvae: TMPyP and TPPS as antimicrobial photosensitizers, and mTHPC as a PDT drug against eukaryotic animal and human cells. Chaoborus sp. is a commercially available harmless species developing translucent larvae similar to the larvae of Aedes, Anopheles and Culex. The uptake of photosensitizers by the larvae was tested by fluorescence microscopy. All tested photosensitizers were observed in the intestinal tract of the living larvae, and none of the photosensitizers was found in the larval tissues. In phototoxicity tests, mTHPC and TPPS did not have any effect on the larvae, while TMPyP killed the larvae efficiently. TPPS is an antimicrobial photosensitizer, mainly phototoxic to Gram-positive bacteria. TMPyP is well known as an efficient photosensitizer against Gram-negative bacteria like most species of the intestinal flora. From this result, we conclude that the photodynamic inactivation of the intestinal flora leads to the death of mosquito larvae. The feasibility of mosquito larvae control by photodynamic inactivation of their intestinal flora instead of the direct killing of the larvae is a promising alternative to other highly toxic insecticides. Compared to insecticides and other biochemical toxins, photosensitizers are not dark toxic. No resistance against photosensitizers is known so far. Thus, the dilution of the active substances by being distributed in the environment, which promotes the development of resistance in biocides of all kinds, does not pose danger. Thus, it reduces the potential side effects on environment and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annegret Preuß
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
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Qi M, Chi M, Sun X, Xie X, Weir MD, Oates TW, Zhou Y, Wang L, Bai Y, Xu HHK. Novel nanomaterial-based antibacterial photodynamic therapies to combat oral bacterial biofilms and infectious diseases. Int J Nanomedicine 2019; 14:6937-6956. [PMID: 31695368 PMCID: PMC6718167 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s212807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral diseases such as tooth caries, periodontal diseases, endodontic infections, etc., are prevalent worldwide. The heavy burden of oral infectious diseases and their consequences on the patients' quality of life indicates a strong need for developing effective therapies. Advanced understandings of such oral diseases, e.g., inflammatory periodontal lesions, have raised the demand for antibacterial therapeutic strategies, because these diseases are caused by viruses and bacteria. The application of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) on oral infectious diseases has attracted tremendous interest in the past decade. However, aPDT had a minimal effect on the viability of organized biofilms due to the hydrophobic nature of the majority of the photosensitizers (PSs). Therefore, novel nanotechnologies were rapidly developed to target the delivery of hydrophobic PSs into microorganisms for the antimicrobial performance improvement of aPDT. This review focuses on the state-of-the-art of nanomaterials applications in aPDT against oral infectious diseases. The first part of this article focuses on the cutting-edge research on the synthesis, toxicity, and therapeutic effects of various forms of nanomaterials serving as PS carriers for aPDT applications. The second part discusses nanomaterials applications for aPDT in treatments of oral diseases. These novel bioactive nanomaterials have demonstrated great potential to serve as carriers for PSs to substantially enhance the PDT therapeutic effects. Furthermore, the novel aPDT applications not only have exciting therapeutic potential to inhibit bacterial plaque-initiated oral diseases, but also have a wide applicability to other biomedical and tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manlin Qi
- Department of Oral Implantology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Sciences and Technology for Stomatology Nanoengineering, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Minghan Chi
- Department of Oral Implantology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Sciences and Technology for Stomatology Nanoengineering, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaolin Sun
- Department of Oral Implantology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Sciences and Technology for Stomatology Nanoengineering, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xianju Xie
- Department of Orthodontics, School of Stomatology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Advanced Oral Sciences and Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
| | - Michael D Weir
- Department of Advanced Oral Sciences and Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
| | - Thomas W Oates
- Department of Advanced Oral Sciences and Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
| | - Yanmin Zhou
- Department of Oral Implantology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Sciences and Technology for Stomatology Nanoengineering, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Oral Implantology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Sciences and Technology for Stomatology Nanoengineering, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Advanced Oral Sciences and Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
| | - Yuxing Bai
- Department of Orthodontics, School of Stomatology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hockin HK Xu
- Department of Advanced Oral Sciences and Therapeutics, University of Maryland School of Dentistry, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
- Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD21201, USA
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15
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Porphyrinoid photosensitizers mediated photodynamic inactivation against bacteria. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 175:72-106. [PMID: 31096157 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.04.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The multi-drug resistant bacteria have become a serious problem complicating therapies to such a degree that often the term "post-antibiotic era" is applied to describe the situation. The infections with methicillin-resistant S. aureus, vancomycin-resistant E. faecium, third generation cephalosporin-resistant E. coli, third generation cephalosporin-resistant K. pneumoniae and carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa have become commonplace. Thus, the new strategies of infection treatment have been searched for, and one of the approaches is based on photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy. Photodynamic protocols require the interaction of photosensitizer, molecular oxygen and light. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy by porphyrinoid photosensitizers. In the first part of the review information on the mechanism of photodynamic action and the mechanism of the bacteria resistance to the photodynamic technique were described. In the second one, it was described porphyrinoids photosensitizers like: porphyrins, chlorins and phthalocyanines useable in photodynamic bacteria inactivation.
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16
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Silva AF, Santos AR, Trevisan DAC, Bonin E, Freitas CF, Batista AFP, Hioka N, Simões M, Graton Mikcha JM. Xanthene Dyes and Green
LED
for the Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens in Planktonic and Biofilm States. Photochem Photobiol 2019; 95:1230-1238. [DOI: 10.1111/php.13104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alex Fiori Silva
- Department of Clinical Analysis and Biomedicine State University of Maringá Maringá, Paraná Brazil
| | - Adriele Rodrigues Santos
- Department of Clinical Analysis and Biomedicine State University of Maringá Maringá, Paraná Brazil
| | | | - Edineia Bonin
- Department of Clinical Analysis and Biomedicine State University of Maringá Maringá, Paraná Brazil
| | | | | | - Noboru Hioka
- Department of Chemistry State University of Maringa Maringá Brazil
| | - Manuel Simões
- LEPABE Department of Chemical Engineering Faculty of Engineering University of Porto Porto Portugal
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17
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Tunçel A, Öztürk İ, Ince M, Ocakoglu K, Hoşgör-Limoncu M, Yurt F. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy against Staphylococcus aureus using zinc phthalocyanine and zinc phthalocyanine-integrated TiO2 nanoparticles. J PORPHYR PHTHALOCYA 2019. [DOI: 10.1142/s1088424619500238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is an increasing healthcare problem worldwide. In the present study, the effects of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) of ZnPc and ZnPc-integrated TiO2 nanoparticles (ZnPc-TiO[Formula: see text] were investigated against Staphylococcus aureus. A light emitting diode (LED) (630–700 nm, 17.4 mW/cm[Formula: see text] was used on S. aureus at different light doses (8 J/cm2 for 11 min, 16 J/cm2 for 22 min, 24 J/cm2 for 33 min) in the presence of the compounds under the minimum inhibitory concentration values. Both compounds showed similar phototoxicity toward S. aureus when high light doses (16 and 24 J/cm[Formula: see text] were applied. In addition, the success of APDT increased with an increasing light dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayça Tunçel
- Institute of Nuclear Science, Department of Nuclear Applications, Ege University, Bornova, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - İsmail Öztürk
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Izmir Katip Celebi University, Bornova, 35620, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Mine Ince
- Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Tarsus University, TR33400, Tarsus, Turkey
| | - Kasim Ocakoglu
- Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Tarsus University, TR33400, Tarsus, Turkey
| | - Mine Hoşgör-Limoncu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Ege University, Bornova, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Fatma Yurt
- Institute of Nuclear Science, Department of Nuclear Applications, Ege University, Bornova, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
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18
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Treatment of Infected Wounds in the Age of Antimicrobial Resistance: Contemporary Alternative Therapeutic Options. Plast Reconstr Surg 2019; 142:1082-1092. [PMID: 30252823 DOI: 10.1097/prs.0000000000004799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
As antibiotic resistance increases and antimicrobial options diminish, there is a pressing need to identify and develop new and/or alternative (non-antimicrobial-based) wound therapies. The authors describe the implications of antibiotic resistance on their current wound treatment paradigms and review the most promising non-antibiotic-based antimicrobial agents currently in research and development, with a focus on preclinical and human studies of therapeutic bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, cold plasma treatment, photodynamic therapy, honey, silver, and bioelectric dressings.
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19
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Sueoka K, Chikama T, Pertiwi YD, Ko JA, Kiuchi Y, Sakaguchi T, Obana A. Antifungal efficacy of photodynamic therapy with TONS 504 for pathogenic filamentous fungi. Lasers Med Sci 2018; 34:743-747. [DOI: 10.1007/s10103-018-2654-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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20
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Hu X, Huang YY, Wang Y, Wang X, Hamblin MR. Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy to Control Clinically Relevant Biofilm Infections. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1299. [PMID: 29997579 PMCID: PMC6030385 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilm describes a microbially-derived sessile community in which microbial cells are firmly attached to the substratum and embedded in extracellular polymeric matrix. Microbial biofilms account for up to 80% of all bacterial and fungal infections in humans. Biofilm-associated pathogens are particularly resistant to antibiotic treatment, and thus novel antibiofilm approaches needed to be developed. Antimicrobial Photodynamic therapy (aPDT) had been recently proposed to combat clinically relevant biofilms such as dental biofilms, ventilator associated pneumonia, chronic wound infections, oral candidiasis, and chronic rhinosinusitis. aPDT uses non-toxic dyes called photosensitizers (PS), which can be excited by harmless visible light to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). aPDT is a multi-stage process including topical PS administration, light irradiation, and interaction of the excited state with ambient oxygen. Numerous in vitro and in vivo aPDT studies have demonstrated biofilm-eradication or substantial reduction. ROS are produced upon photo-activation and attack adjacent targets, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids present within the biofilm matrix, on the cell surface and inside the microbial cells. Damage to non-specific targets leads to the destruction of both planktonic cells and biofilms. The review aims to summarize the progress of aPDT in destroying biofilms and the mechanisms mediated by ROS. Finally, a brief section provides suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- The Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ying-Ying Huang
- The Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yuguang Wang
- The Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Center of Digital Dentistry, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Michael R. Hamblin
- The Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
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21
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Grandi V, Sessa M, Pisano L, Rossi R, Galvan A, Gattai R, Mori M, Tiradritti L, Bacci S, Zuccati G, Cappugi P, Pimpinelli N. Photodynamic therapy with topical photosensitizers in mucosal and semimucosal areas: Review from a dermatologic perspective. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2018; 23:119-131. [PMID: 29669264 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic Therapy is a procedure based on the interaction between a Photosensitizer, a light source with a specific wavelength and oxygen. The aim of this review is to provide a brief and updated analysis of scientific reports on the use of PDT with topical PS in the management of oncological, infectious, and inflammatory disorders involving mucosal and semimucosal areas, with a specific focus on diseases of dermatologic interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vieri Grandi
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy.
| | - Maurizio Sessa
- University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Pharmacology "L. Donatelli", Via L. De Crecchio 7, Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Pisano
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Riccardo Rossi
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Arturo Galvan
- Private Practice Dermatologist, C.M.R, Via S. Giovanni Bosco, 24, 36015, Schio, Italy
| | - Riccardo Gattai
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Largo Brambilla 3, 50141, Florence, Italy
| | - Moira Mori
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Luana Tiradritti
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Stefano Bacci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Research Unit of Histology and Embriology, University of Florence, 50141, Florence, Italy
| | - Giuliano Zuccati
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Pietro Cappugi
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Nicola Pimpinelli
- University of Florence School of Health Sciences, Department of Surgical and Translational Medicine, Section of Dermatology, P. Palagi Hospital, Viale Michelangelo 41, 50125, Florence, Italy
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22
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Time-dependent antimicrobial effect of photodynamic therapy with TONS 504 on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Lasers Med Sci 2018; 33:1455-1460. [DOI: 10.1007/s10103-018-2490-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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23
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Iluz N, Maor Y, Keller N, Malik Z. The synergistic effect of PDT and oxacillin on clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Lasers Surg Med 2018; 50:535-551. [PMID: 29333608 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.22785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Staphylococcus aureus is a major pathogen in clinical microbiology. It is known to cause infections at various body sites and can be life-threatening. The development of resistance to many well-established antibiotic treatments and the prevalence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRAS) among hospital patients and the general community pose challenges in treating the pathogen. The antimicrobial effect of photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been a subject of study for a long time and can offer new strategies for dealing with resistant strains. OBJECTIVE In our study, we searched for a positive synergistic relationship between PDT and the standard antibiotics used to treat S. aureus and MRSA infections. MATERIALS AND METHODS The phototoxic profile of deuteroporphyrin (DP) in both resistant and susceptible clinical strains of S. aureus was determined by plating of treated and untreated broth cultures. Electron microscopy imaging was done to explore possible sites of damage and free-radical accumulation in the cells during DP-PDT. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of oxacillin, gentamicin, vancomycin, rifampin, and fusidic acid was determined using the broth dilution method, and the checkerboard method was used to detect and evaluate the synergistic potential of DP-PDT and antibiotic combinations. A synergistic combination was further characterized using broth cultures and plating. RESULTS DP-PDT using a light dose of 15 J/cm2 showed a bactericidal effect even with a small concentration of 17 μM DP. Transmission electron microscopy indicated profound damage in the cell wall and cell membrane, and the appearance of mesosome-like structures. Free radicals tend to localize in the cell membrane and inside the mesosome. No synergistic effect was detected by combining PDT with gentamicin, vancomycin, rifampin, and fusidic acid treatments. A positive synergistic effect was observed only in DP-PDT-oxacillin combined treatment using the checkerboard method. The effect was observed in clinical antibiotic-resistant isolates after DP-PDT using a light dose of 46 J/cm2 and small concentrations of DP. Oxacillin MIC decreased below 2 μg/ml in resistant strains under such conditions. Cultures which did not undergo new cycles of DP-PDT recovered their original oxacillin resistance after a few generations. CONCLUSIONS PDT with porphyrins shows possible new therapeutic options in treating drug-resistant S. aureus at body sites suitable for irradiation. The synergistic effect of DP-PDT with oxacillin on clinical strains illustrates the potential of PDT to augment traditional antibiotic treatment based on cell wall inhibitors. Lasers Surg. Med. 50:535-551, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natanel Iluz
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.,Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Yasmin Maor
- Infectious Diseases Control Unit, Wolfson Medical Center, Holon, Israel
| | - Natan Keller
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat-Gan, Israel.,Health Systems Management, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Zvi Malik
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.,The Zefat Academic College, Zefat, Israel
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24
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Müller A, Preuß A, Röder B. Photodynamic inactivation of Escherichia coli - Correlation of singlet oxygen kinetics and phototoxicity. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2017; 178:219-227. [PMID: 29156350 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2017.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) of bacteria may play a major role in facing the challenge of the ever expanding antibiotic resistances. Here we report about the direct correlation of singlet oxygen luminescence kinetics and phototoxicity in E. coli cell suspension under PDI using the widely applied cationic photosensitizer TMPyP. Through direct access to the microenvironment, the time resolved investigation of singlet oxygen luminescence plays a key role in understanding the photosensitization mechanism and inactivation pathway. Using the homemade set-up for highly sensitive time resolved singlet oxygen luminescence detection, we show that the cationic TMPyP is localized predominantly outside the bacterial cells but in their immediate vicinity prior to photodynamic inactivation. Throughout following light exposure, a clear change in singlet oxygen kinetics indicates a redistribution of photosensitizer molecules to at least one additional microenvironment. We found the signal kinetics mirrored in cell viability measurements of equally treated samples from same overnight cultures conducted in parallel: A significant drop in cell viability of the illuminated samples and stationary viability of dark controls. Thus, for the system investigated in this work - a Gram-negative model bacteria and a well-known PS for its PDI - singlet oxygen kinetics correlates with phototoxicity. This finding suggests that it is well possible to evaluate PDI efficiency directly via time resolved singlet oxygen detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Müller
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstr. 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Annegret Preuß
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstr. 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Beate Röder
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstr. 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
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25
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Huang L, El-Hussein A, Xuan W, Hamblin MR. Potentiation by potassium iodide reveals that the anionic porphyrin TPPS4 is a surprisingly effective photosensitizer for antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2017; 178:277-286. [PMID: 29172135 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2017.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
We recently reported that addition of the non-toxic salt, potassium iodide can potentiate antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation of a broad-spectrum of microorganisms, producing many extra logs of killing. If the photosensitizer (PS) can bind to the microbial cells, then delivering light in the presence of KI produces short-lived reactive iodine species, while if the cells are added after light the killing is caused by molecular iodine produced as a result of singlet oxygen-mediated oxidation of iodide. In an attempt to show the importance of PS-bacterial binding, we compared two charged porphyrins, TPPS4 (thought to be anionic and not able to bind to Gram-negative bacteria) and TMPyP4 (considered cationic and well able to bind to bacteria). As expected TPPS4+light did not kill Gram-negative Escherichia coli, but surprisingly when 100mM KI was added, it was highly effective (eradication at 200nM+10J/cm2 of 415nm light). TPPS4 was more effective than TMPyP4 in eradicating the Gram-positive bacteria, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and the fungal yeast Candida albicans (regardless of KI). TPPS4 was also highly active against E. coli after a centrifugation step when KI was added, suggesting that the supposedly anionic porphyrin bound to bacteria and Candida. This was confirmed by uptake experiments. We compared the phthalocyanine tetrasulfonate derivative (ClAlPCS4), which did not bind to bacteria or allow KI-mediated killing of E. coli after a spin, suggesting it was truly anionic. We conclude that TPPS4 behaves as if it has some cationic character in the presence of bacteria, which may be related to its delivery from suppliers in the form of a dihydrochloride salt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyi Huang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China; Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ahmed El-Hussein
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; The National Institute of Laser Enhanced Science, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - Weijun Xuan
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, First Clinical Medical College and Hospital, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, China
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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26
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Eckl DB, Dengler L, Nemmert M, Eichner A, Bäumler W, Huber H. A Closer Look at Dark Toxicity of the Photosensitizer TMPyP in Bacteria. Photochem Photobiol 2017; 94:165-172. [PMID: 28940456 DOI: 10.1111/php.12846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation of bacteria (PIB) is based on photosensitizers which absorb light and generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), killing cells via oxidation. PIB is evaluated by comparing viability with and without irradiation, where reduction of viability in the presence of the photosensitizer without irradiation is considered as dark toxicity. This effect is controversially discussed for photosensitizers like TMPyP (5,10,15,20-Tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridinio)porphyrin tetra(p-toluensulfonate). TMPyP shows a high absorption coefficient for blue light and a high yield of ROS production, especially singlet oxygen. Escherichia coli and Bacillus atrophaeus were incubated with TMPyP and irradiated with different light sources at low radiant exposures (μW per cm²), reflecting laboratory conditions of dark toxicity evaluation. Inactivation of E. coli occurs for blue light, while no effect was detectable for wavelengths >450 nm. Being more susceptible toward PIB, growth of B. atrophaeus is even reduced for light with emission >450 nm. Decreasing the light intensities to nW per cm² for B. atrophaeus, application of TMPyP still caused bacterial killing. Toxic effects of TMPyP disappeared after addition of histidine, quenching residual ROS. Our experiments demonstrate that the evaluation of dark toxicity of a powerful photosensitizer like TMPyP requires low light intensities and if necessary additional application of substances quenching any residual ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Eckl
- Institute for Microbiology and Archaea Center, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Linda Dengler
- Institute for Microbiology and Archaea Center, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Marina Nemmert
- Institute for Microbiology and Archaea Center, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anja Eichner
- Department of Dermatology, University hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Bäumler
- Department of Dermatology, University hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Harald Huber
- Institute for Microbiology and Archaea Center, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Martinez De Pinillos Bayona A, Mroz P, Thunshelle C, Hamblin MR. Design features for optimization of tetrapyrrole macrocycles as antimicrobial and anticancer photosensitizers. Chem Biol Drug Des 2017; 89:192-206. [PMID: 28205400 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses non-toxic dyes called photosensitizers (PS) and harmless visible light that combine to form highly toxic reactive oxygen species that kill cells. Originally, a cancer therapy, PDT, now includes applications for infections. The most widely studied PS are tetrapyrrole macrocycles including porphyrins, chlorins, bacteriochlorins, and phthalocyanines. The present review covers the design features in PS that can work together to maximize the PDT activity for various disease targets. Photophysical and photochemical properties include the wavelength and size of the long-wavelength absorption peak (for good light penetration into tissue), the triplet quantum yield and lifetime, and the propensity to undergo type I (electron transfer) or type II (energy transfer) photochemical mechanisms. The central metal in the tetrapyrrole macrocycle has a strong influence on the PDT activity. Hydrophobicity and charge are important factors that govern interactions with various types of cells (cancer and microbial) in vitro and the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution in vivo. Hydrophobic structures tend to be water insoluble and require a drug delivery vehicle for maximal activity. Molecular asymmetry and amphiphilicity are also important for high activity. In vivo some structures possess the ability to selectively accumulate in tumors and to localize in the tumor microvasculature producing vascular shutdown after illumination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Martinez De Pinillos Bayona
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, University College London, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK
| | - Pawel Mroz
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Connor Thunshelle
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard College, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Skwor TA, Klemm S, Zhang H, Schardt B, Blaszczyk S, Bork MA. Photodynamic inactivation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli: A metalloporphyrin comparison. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2016; 165:51-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2016.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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The potential of photodynamic therapy (PDT)-Experimental investigations and clinical use. Biomed Pharmacother 2016; 83:912-929. [PMID: 27522005 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.07.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 07/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an intensively studied part of medicine based on free radicals. These reactive species, extremely harmful for whole human organism, are used for eradication numerous diseases. Specific structure of ill tissues causes accumulation free radicals inside them without attack remaining healthy tissues. A rapid development of medicine and scientific research has led to extension of PDT towards treatment many diseases such as cancer, herpes, acne and based on antimicrobials. The presented review article is focused on the aforementioned disorders with accurate analysis of the newest available scientific achievements. The discussed cases explicitly indicate on high efficacy of the therapy. In most cases, free radicals turned out to be solution of many afflictions. Photodynamic therapy can be considered as promising treatment with comparable effectiveness but without side effects characteristic for chemotherapy.
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Wikene KO, Rukke HV, Bruzell E, Tønnesen HH. Physicochemical characterisation and antimicrobial phototoxicity of an anionic porphyrin in natural deep eutectic solvents. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2016; 105:75-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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González-Delgado JA, Castro PM, Machado A, Araújo F, Rodrigues F, Korsak B, Ferreira M, Tomé JP, Sarmento B. Hydrogels containing porphyrin-loaded nanoparticles for topical photodynamic applications. Int J Pharm 2016; 510:221-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Hamblin MR. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation: a bright new technique to kill resistant microbes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2016; 33:67-73. [PMID: 27421070 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2016.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses photosensitizers (non-toxic dyes) that are activated by absorption of visible light to form reactive oxygen species (including singlet oxygen) that can oxidize biomolecules and destroy cells. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) can treat localized infections. aPDI neither causes any resistance to develop in microbes, nor is affected by existing drug resistance status. We discuss some recent developments in aPDI. New photosensitizers including polycationic conjugates, stable synthetic bacteriochlorins and functionalized fullerenes are described. The microbial killing by aPDI can be synergistically potentiated (several logs) by harmless inorganic salts via photochemistry. Genetically engineered bioluminescent microbial cells allow PDT to treat infections in animal models. Photoantimicrobials have a promising future in the face of the unrelenting increase in antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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Gollmer A, Felgenträger A, Bäumler W, Maisch T, Späth A. A novel set of symmetric methylene blue derivatives exhibits effective bacteria photokilling – a structure–response study. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015; 14:335-51. [DOI: 10.1039/c4pp00309h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study focuses on the structure–response relationship of symmetrically substituted phenothiazinium dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Gollmer
- Department of Dermatology
- University Medical Center Regensburg
- Germany
| | | | - Wolfgang Bäumler
- Department of Dermatology
- University Medical Center Regensburg
- Germany
| | - Tim Maisch
- Department of Dermatology
- University Medical Center Regensburg
- Germany
| | - Andreas Späth
- Department of Organic Chemistry
- University of Regensburg
- Germany
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Maisch T, Eichner A, Späth A, Gollmer A, König B, Regensburger J, Bäumler W. Fast and effective photodynamic inactivation of multiresistant bacteria by cationic riboflavin derivatives. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111792. [PMID: 25469700 PMCID: PMC4254278 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation of bacteria (PIB) proves to be an additional method to kill pathogenic bacteria. PIB requires photosensitizer molecules that effectively generate reactive oxygen species like singlet oxygen when exposed to visible light. To allow a broad application in medicine, photosensitizers should be safe when applied in humans. Substances like vitamin B2, which are most likely safe, are known to produce singlet oxygen upon irradiation. In the present study, we added positive charges to flavin derivatives to enable attachment of these molecules to the negatively charged surface of bacteria. Two of the synthesized flavin derivatives showed a high quantum yield of singlet oxygen of approximately 75%. Multidrug resistant bacteria like MRSA (Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus), EHEC (enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii were incubated with these flavin derivatives in vitro and were subsequently irradiated with visible light for seconds only. Singlet oxygen production in bacteria was proved by detecting its luminescence at 1270 nm. After irradiation, the number of viable bacteria decreased up to 6 log10 steps depending on the concentration of the flavin derivatives and the light dosimetry. The bactericidal effect of PIB was independent of the bacterial type and the corresponding antibiotic resistance pattern. In contrast, the photosensitizer concentration and light parameters used for bacteria killing did not affect cell viability of human keratinocytes (therapeutic window). Multiresistant bacteria can be safely and effectively killed by a combination of modified vitamin B2 molecules, oxygen and visible light, whereas normal skin cells survive. Further work will include these new photosensitizers for topical application to decolonize bacteria from skin and mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Maisch
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anja Eichner
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Andreas Späth
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anita Gollmer
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Burkhard König
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | - Wolfgang Bäumler
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Lopes D, Melo T, Santos N, Rosa L, Alves E, Clara Gomes M, Cunha Â, Neves MGPMS, Faustino MAF, Domingues MRM, Almeida A. Evaluation of the interplay among the charge of porphyrinic photosensitizers, lipid oxidation and photoinactivation efficiency in Escherichia coli. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2014; 141:145-53. [PMID: 25463662 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is a simple and controllable method to destroy microorganisms based on the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (e.g., free radicals and singlet oxygen), which irreversibly oxidize microorganism's vital constituents resulting in lethal damage. This process requires the combined action of oxygen, light and a photosensitizer (PS), which absorbs and uses the energy from light to produce ROS. For a better understanding of the photoinactivation process, the knowledge on how some molecular targets are affected by PDI assumes great importance. The aim of this work was to study the relation between the number and position of positive charges on porphyrinic macrocycles and the changes observed on bacterial lipids. For that, five porphyrin derivatives, bearing one to four positive charges, already evaluated as PS on Escherichia coli inactivation, have been tested on lipid extracts from this bacterium, and also on a simple liposome model. The effects were evaluated by the quantification of lipid hydroperoxides and by analysis of the variation of fatty acyl profiles. E. coli suspensions and liposomes were irradiated with white light in the presence of each PS (5.0 μM). Afterwards, total E. coli lipids were extracted and quantified by phosphorus assay. Lipid oxidation on bacteria and on liposomes was quantified by ferrous oxidation in xylenol orange (FOX2 assay) and the analysis of the fatty acid profile was done by gas chromatography (GC). As previously observed for E. coli viability, an overall increase in the lipid hydroperoxides content, depending on the PS charge and on its distribution on the macrocycle, was observed. Analysis of the fatty acid profile has shown a decrease of the unsaturated fatty acids, corroborating the relation between lipid oxidation and PDI efficiency. Bacterial membrane phospholipids are important molecular targets of photoinactivation and the number of charges of the PS molecule, as well as their distribution, have a clear effect on the lipid oxidation and on the efficiency of PDI. The distinct extent of the formation of lipid hydroperoxy derivatives, depending on the PS used, is a good indicator of this process. The FOX2 assay allowed the detection of lipid peroxidation of E. coli membrane after PDI with all the five porphyrins, however, it was not the most appropriated method to quantify the relative lipid oxidation caused by PS with different efficiencies. The fatty acid analysis used to quantify the extent of lipid oxidation by the different PS provided better results. The same results were observed for the liposome model. Consequently, the model system based on liposomes is a fast and simple method that can be used for the screening of the efficiency of new PS, before proceeding with the more complex studies on bacterial models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Lopes
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Tânia Melo
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Nuno Santos
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Liliana Rosa
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Eliana Alves
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - M Clara Gomes
- Organic Chemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Ângela Cunha
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Maria G P M S Neves
- Organic Chemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Maria A F Faustino
- Organic Chemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - M Rosário M Domingues
- Mass Spectrometry Centre, Department of Chemistry and QOPNA, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Adelaide Almeida
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
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Abstract
The emergence of microbial resistance is becoming a global problem in clinical and environmental areas. As such, the development of drugs with novel modes of action will be vital to meet the threats created by the rise in microbial resistance. Microbial photodynamic inactivation is receiving considerable attention for its potentialities as a new antimicrobial treatment. This review addresses the interactions between photosensitizers and bacterial cells (binding site and cellular localization), the ultrastructural, morphological and functional changes observed at initial stages and during the course of photodynamic inactivation, the oxidative alterations in specific molecular targets, and a possible development of resistance.
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Gonzales FP, Felgenträger A, Bäumler W, Maisch T. Fungicidal photodynamic effect of a twofold positively charged porphyrin against Candida albicans planktonic cells and biofilms. Future Microbiol 2013; 8:785-97. [PMID: 23701333 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy is an interesting alternative for the treatment of superficial mucocutaneous mycoses. In immunodeficient patients, these infections are frequently recurrent and resistant to the most commonly used antifungal medications. Candida albicans biofilms frequently cause such infections that can even evolve to deep-seated mycoses. MATERIALS & METHODS The efficiency of a photodynamic therapy was investigated against C. albicans using a twofold positively charged porphyrin (XF-73) in comparison with the well-known fourfold positively charged porphyrin (5,10,15,20-tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridyl)-21H,23H-porphine, tetra-p-tosylate salt). RESULTS After incubation with 0.5 µM of XF-73 for 15 min and irradiation with blue light (12.1 J/cm(2)), the viability of C. albicans planktonic cells decreased by over 6 log10. For biofilm cells, a longer incubation time (4 h) with 1 µM of XF-73 and a light dose of 48.2 J/cm(2) was necessary to achieve over 5 log10 cell killing. Cell killing was mediated by singlet oxygen that was directly detected via its luminescence at 1270 nm in XF-73-incubated C. albicans biofilms for the first time. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy yielded better results for XF-73 compared with 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridyl)-21H,23H-porphine, tetra-p-tosylate salt when using the same conditions. CONCLUSION This study provides evidence that XF-73 is a highly efficient photosensitizer to kill C. albicans and it would be worthwhile to test this photosensitizer in clinical studies for both prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by this microorganism, preventing the spread of C. albicans throughout the bloodstream.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Pereira Gonzales
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
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Eichner A, Gonzales FP, Felgenträger A, Regensburger J, Holzmann T, Schneider-Brachert W, Bäumler W, Maisch T. Dirty hands: photodynamic killing of human pathogens like EHEC, MRSA and Candida within seconds. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2013; 12:135-47. [PMID: 22855122 DOI: 10.1039/c2pp25164g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hand hygiene is one of the most important interventions for reducing transmission of nosocomial life-threatening microorganisms, like methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) or Candida albicans. All three pathogens have become a leading cause of infections in hospitals. Especially EHEC is causing severe diarrhoea and, in a small percentage of cases, haemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) as reported for E. coli 104:H4 in Germany 2011. We revealed the possibility to inactivate very fast and efficiently MRSA, EHEC and C. albicans using the photodynamic approach. MRSA, EHEC and C. albicans were incubated in vitro with different concentrations of TMPyP for 10 s and illuminated with visible light (50 mW cm(-2)) for 10 and 60 s. 1 μmol l(-1) of TMPyP and an applied radiant exposure of 0.5 J cm(-2) achieved a photodynamic killing of ≥99.9% of MRSA and EHEC. Incubation with higher concentrations (up to 100 μmol l(-1)) of TMPyP caused bacteria killing of >5 log(10) (≥99.999%) after illumination. Efficient Candida killing (≥99.999%) was achieved first at a higher light dose of 12 J cm(-2). Different rise and decay times of singlet oxygen luminescence signals could be detected in Candida cell suspensions for the first time, indicating different oxygen concentrations in the surrounding for the photosensitizer and singlet oxygen, respectively. This confirms that TMPyP is not only found in the water-dominated cell surrounding, but also within the C. albicans cells. Applying a water-ethanol solution of TMPyP on ex vivo porcine skin, fluorescence microscopy of histology showed that the photosensitizer was exclusively localized in the stratum corneum regardless of the incubation time. TMPyP exhibited a fast and very effective killing rate of life-threatening pathogens within a couple of seconds that encourages further testing in an in vivo setting. Being fast and effective, antimicrobial photodynamic applications might become acceptable as a tool for hand hygiene procedures and also in other skin areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Eichner
- Department of Dermatology, Regensburg University Hospital, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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Dosselli R, Millioni R, Puricelli L, Tessari P, Arrigoni G, Franchin C, Segalla A, Teardo E, Reddi E. Molecular targets of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy identified by a proteomic approach. J Proteomics 2012; 77:329-43. [PMID: 23000218 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 06/19/2012] [Accepted: 09/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising tool to combat antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. During PDT, bacteria are killed by reactive oxygen species generated by a visible light absorbing photosensitizer (PS). We used a classical proteomic approach that included two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry analysis, to identify some proteins of Staphylococcus aureus that are damaged during PDT with the cationic PS meso-tetra-4-N-methyl pyridyl porphine (T4). Suspensions of S. aureus cells were incubated with selected T4 concentrations and irradiated with doses of blue light that reduced the survival to about 60% or 1%. Proteomics analyses of a membrane proteins enriched fraction revealed that these sub-lethal PDT treatments affected the expression of several functional classes of proteins, and that this damage is selective. Most of these proteins were found to be involved in metabolic activities, in oxidative stress response, in cell division and in the uptake of sugar. Subsequent analyses revealed that PDT treatments delayed the growth and considerably reduced the glucose consumption capacity of S. aureus cells. This investigation provides new insights towards the characterization of PDT induced damage and mechanism of bacterial killing using, for the first time, a proteomic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Dosselli
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35128 Padova, Italy.
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Lluïsa Sagristá M, Postigo F, Africa De Madariaga M, Pintó RM, Caballero S, Bosch A, Asunción Vallés M, Mora M. Photodynamic inactivation of viruses by immobilized chlorin-containing liposomes. J PORPHYR PHTHALOCYA 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s1088424609000759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The viral safety of blood derived products relies in properly chosen inactivation procedures. In this way, it has been reported that some photosensitizers are useful products for blood sterilization. The data presented here show the high incorporation efficiency of the chlorin 3-phorbinepropanol, 9,14-diethyl-4,8,13,18-tetramethyl-20-(3S-trans) (CHL) into anionic unilamellar liposomes, give a protocol for the steric immobilization of chlorin-containing liposomes in a chromatographic support and provide the studies of photodynamic inactivation of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) with chlorin-containing liposomes, free in solution and immobilized on Sephacryl S-1000 beads. The study demonstrates the successful inactivation of the enveloped virus BVDV by both preparations in culture medium and the resistance of the non-enveloped virus EMCV. The effectiveness of CHL-containing liposomes, in solution and immobilized in the chromatographic support, decreased when the culture media was replaced with human blood plasma. Moreover, the reduction factor of the virus titer after irradiation was smallest when immobilized liposomes were used. Nevertheless, the reduction factor for the virus titers of enveloped viruses after irradiation of human blood plasma samples with immobilized chlorin-containing liposomes increased with the reduction of the sample thickness. The more outstanding aspect of this paper is the design of a system useful for blood sterilization that can be easily removed after photodynamic treatment and, therefore, able to be applied in the manufacturing processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Lluïsa Sagristá
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Fernado Postigo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M. Africa De Madariaga
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa M. Pintó
- Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Santiago Caballero
- Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Bosch
- Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - M. Asunción Vallés
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Martí i Franqués 1, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Margarita Mora
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Maisch T, Spannberger F, Regensburger J, Felgenträger A, Bäumler W. Fast and effective: intense pulse light photodynamic inactivation of bacteria. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 39:1013-21. [PMID: 22354734 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-012-1103-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to investigate the photodynamic toxicity of TMPyP (5, 10, 15, 20-Tetrakis (1-methylpyridinium-4-yl)-porphyrin tetra p-toluenesulfonate) in combination with short pulses (ms) of an intense pulse light source within 10 s against Bacillus atrophaeus, Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-resistant S. aureus and Escherichia coli, major pathogens in food industry and in health care, respectively. Bacteria were incubated with a photoactive dye (TMPyP) that is subsequently irradiated with visible light flashes of 100 ms to induce oxidative damage immediately by generation of reactive oxygen species like singlet oxygen. A photodynamic killing efficacy of up to 6 log(10) (>99.9999%) was achieved within a total treatment time of 10 s using a concentration range of 1-100 μmol TMPyP and multiple light flashes of 100 ms (from 20 J cm(-2) up to 80 J cm(-2)). Both incubation of bacteria with TMPyP alone or application of light flashes only did not have any negative effect on bacteria survival. Here we could demonstrate for the first time that the combination of TMPyP as the respective photosensitizer and a light flash of 100 ms of an intense pulsed light source is enough to generate sufficient amounts of reactive oxygen species to kill these pathogens within a few seconds. Increasing antibiotic resistance requires fast and efficient new approaches to kill bacteria, therefore the photodynamic process seems to be a promising tool for disinfection of horizontal surfaces in industry and clinical purposes where savings in time is a critical point to achieve efficient inactivation of microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Maisch
- Department of Dermatology, Regensburg University Hospital, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
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Oriel S, Nitzan Y. Mechanistic aspects of photoinactivation of Candida albicans by exogenous porphyrins. Photochem Photobiol 2012; 88:604-12. [PMID: 22220682 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2012.01082.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of photoinactivation of Candida albicans by 3.5 μM uncharged, cationic or anionic porphyrins under blue light (407-420 nm) was found to be dependent on the uptake of porphyrins into yeast cells, and was also dependent on the presence or absence of proteins in the photosensitization medium. In a very protein-rich medium, a decrease in viability was observed only with the uncharged porphyrin. Photoinactivation by uncharged or cationic porphyrins in a protein-poorer medium resulted in total eradication, whereas no significant decrease was observed with the anionic porphyrin. Phototreatment in PBS resulted in eradication with all three porphyrins. X-ray microanalysis after phototreatment by the uncharged or cationic porphyrins in the protein-poor medium exhibited ion loss, indicating cell-membrane damage. Transmission electron microscopy indicated cellular and chromosomal damage. No ion loss or cell damage was observed in this medium with the anionic porphyrin. The efficiency of photoeradication of C. albicans is dependent on porphyrin uptake, which might lead (upon illumination) to processes that facilitate the formation of reactive oxygen species that damage the cells. Uptake of charged porphyrins is dependent on protein quantity and quality in the photosensitization microenvironment. This fact must be taken into account when using charged photosensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarit Oriel
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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Senge MO, Brandt JC. Temoporfin (Foscan®, 5,10,15,20-tetra(m-hydroxyphenyl)chlorin)--a second-generation photosensitizer. Photochem Photobiol 2011; 87:1240-96. [PMID: 21848905 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2011.00986.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
This review traces the development and study of the second-generation photosensitizer 5,10,15,20-tetra(m-hydroxyphenyl)chlorin through to its acceptance and clinical use in modern photodynamic (cancer) therapy. The literature has been covered up to early 2011.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias O Senge
- Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, St. James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland.
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Komagoe K, Kato H, Inoue T, Katsu T. Continuous real-time monitoring of cationic porphyrin-induced photodynamic inactivation of bacterial membrane functions using electrochemical sensors. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2011; 10:1181-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c0pp00376j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Pudziuvyte B, Bakiene E, Bonnett R, Shatunov PA, Magaraggia M, Jori G. Alterations of Escherichia coli envelope as a consequence of photosensitization with tetrakis(N-ethylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrin tetratosylate. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2011; 10:1046-55. [DOI: 10.1039/c1pp05028a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Stable synthetic cationic bacteriochlorins as selective antimicrobial photosensitizers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:3834-41. [PMID: 20625146 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00125-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation is a rapidly developing antimicrobial treatment that employs a nontoxic photoactivatable dye or photosensitizer in combination with harmless visible light to generate reactive oxygen species that are toxic to cells. Tetrapyrroles (e.g., porphyrins, chlorins, bacteriochlorins) are a class of photosensitizers that exhibit promising characteristics to serve as broad-spectrum antimicrobials. In order to bind to and efficiently penetrate into all classes of microbial cells, tetrapyrroles should have structures that contain (i) one or more cationic charge(s) or (ii) a basic group. In this report, we investigate the use of new stable synthetic bacteriochlorins that have a strong absorption band in the range 720 to 740 nm, which is in the near-infrared spectral region. Four bacteriochlorins with 2, 4, or 6 quaternized ammonium groups or 2 basic amine groups were compared for light-mediated killing against a gram-positive bacterium (Staphylococcus aureus), a gram-negative bacterium (Escherichia coli), and a dimorphic fungal yeast (Candida albicans). Selectivity was assessed by determining phototoxicity against human HeLa cancer cells under the same conditions. All four compounds were highly active (6 logs of killing at 1 microM or less) against S. aureus and showed selectivity for bacteria over human cells. Increasing the cationic charge increased activity against E. coli. Only the compound with basic groups was highly active against C. albicans. Supporting photochemical and theoretical characterization studies indicate that (i) the four bacteriochlorins have comparable photophysical features in homogeneous solution and (ii) the anticipated redox characteristics do not correlate with cell-killing ability. These results support the interpretation that the disparate biological activities observed stem from cellular binding and localization effects rather than intrinsic electronic properties. These findings further establish cationic bacteriochlorins as extremely active and selective near-infrared activated antimicrobial photosensitizers, and the results provide fundamental information on structure-activity relationships for antimicrobial photosensitizers.
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Wainwright M, Shah A, Meegan K, Loughran C, Smith A, Valli N, Dempster N. Phenothiazinium-fluoroquinolone drug conjugates. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2010; 35:405-9. [PMID: 20060690 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2009] [Revised: 11/27/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Synthesis and antibacterial screening of a homologous series of 3-dialkylaminophenothiazinium-7-norfloxacin conjugates was carried out alongside a corresponding series of symmetrical methylene blue derivatives. The norfloxacin conjugates maintained typical methylene blue derivative photoproperties, such as long wavelength absorption, but produced no measurable singlet oxygen in the standard assay and provided no significant increase in the magnitude of photoantibacterial action, this being similar to the methylene blue homologues, although both the conjugates and homologues were considerably more active than methylene blue itself both against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. DNA binding via intercalation was considerably greater for the series of norfloxacin conjugates than for the methylene blue homologues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Wainwright
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK.
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Maisch T, Wagner J, Papastamou V, Nerl HJ, Hiller KA, Szeimies RM, Schmalz G. Combination of 10% EDTA, Photosan, and a blue light hand-held photopolymerizer to inactivate leading oral bacteria in dentistryin vitro. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 107:1569-78. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04342.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Walther J, Bröcker MJ, Wätzlich D, Nimtz M, Rohde M, Jahn D, Moser J. Protochlorophyllide: a new photosensitizer for the photodynamic inactivation of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2008; 290:156-63. [PMID: 19025572 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2008.01413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The growing resistance against antibiotics demands the search for alternative treatment strategies. Photodynamic therapy is a promising candidate. The natural intermediate of chlorophyll biosynthesis, protochlorophyllide, was produced, purified and tested as a novel photosensitizer for the inactivation of five model organisms including Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, all responsible for serious clinical infections. When microorganisms were exposed to white light from a tungsten filament lamp (0.1 mW cm(-2)), Gram-positive S. aureus, L. monocytogenes and Bacillus subtilis were photochemically inactivated at concentrations of 0.5 mg L(-1) protochlorophyllide. Transmission electron microscopy revealed a disordered septum formation during cell division and the partial loss of the cytoplasmic cell contents. Gram-negative Y. pseudotuberculosis and Escherichia coli were found to be insensitive to protochlorophyllide treatment due to the permeability barrier of the outer membrane. However, the two bacteria were rendered susceptible to eradication by protochlorophyllide (10 mg L(-1)) upon addition of polymyxin B nonapeptide at 50 and 20 mg L(-1), respectively. The release of DNA and a detrimental rearrangement of the cytoplasm were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Walther
- Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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Casteel MJ, Jayaraj K, Gold A, Ball LM, Sobsey MD. Photoinactivation of Hepatitis A Virus by Synthetic Porphyrins¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00086.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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