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Hofmann-Lehmann R, Hartmann K. Feline leukaemia virus infection: A practical approach to diagnosis. J Feline Med Surg 2021; 22:831-846. [PMID: 32845225 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x20941785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PRACTICAL RELEVANCE Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus of domestic cats worldwide. Cats lacking strong FeLV-specific immunity and undergoing progressive infection commonly develop fatal FeLV-associated disease. Many aspects of FeLV infection pathogenesis have been elucidated, some during more recent years using molecular techniques. It is recommended that the FeLV status of every cat is known, since FeLV infection can influence the prognosis and clinical management of every sick cat. Moreover, knowledge of a cat's FeLV status is of epidemiological importance to prevent further spread of the infection. CLINICAL CHALLENGES Diagnosing FeLV infection remains challenging due to different outcomes of infection, which can vary over time depending on the balance between the virus and the host's immune system. Furthermore, testing for FeLV infection has become more refined over the years and now includes diagnostic assays for different viral and immunological parameters. Knowledge of FeLV infection pathogenesis, as well as the particulars of FeLV detection methods, is an important prerequisite for correct interpretation of any test results and accurate determination of a cat's FeLV status. AIMS The current review presents recent knowledge on FeLV pathogenesis, key features to be determined in FeLV infection, and frequently used FeLV detection methods, and their characteristics and interpretation. An algorithm for the diagnosis of FeLV infection in a single cat, developed by the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases, is included, and FeLV testing in specific situations is addressed. As well as increasing awareness of this deadly infection in domestic cats, the aim is to contribute diagnostic expertise to allow veterinarians in practice to improve their recognition, and further reduce the prevalence, of FeLV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Prof, Dr med vet, FVH Professor of Laboratory Medicine, Director of Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Head of Clinical Laboratory and Centre for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Prof, Dr med vet, Dr habil, Dip ECVIM-CA (Internal Medicine) Professor of Internal Medicine, Head of Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, Germany
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Little S, Levy J, Hartmann K, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Hosie M, Olah G, Denis KS. 2020 AAFP Feline Retrovirus Testing and Management Guidelines. J Feline Med Surg 2020; 22:5-30. [DOI: 10.1177/1098612x19895940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Clinical importance: Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infections are found in cats worldwide. Both infections are associated with a variety of clinical signs and can impact quality of life and longevity. Scope: This document is an update of the 2008 American Association of Feline Practitioners’ feline retrovirus management guidelines and represents current knowledge on pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention and treatment of retrovirus infections in cats. Testing and interpretation: Although vaccines are available for FeLV in many countries and for FIV in some countries, identification of infected cats remains an important factor for preventing new infections. The retrovirus status of every cat at risk of infection should be known. Cats should be tested as soon as possible after they are acquired, following exposure to an infected cat or a cat of unknown infection status, prior to vaccination against FeLV or FIV, and whenever clinical illness occurs. It might not be possible to determine a cat’s infection status based on testing at a single point in time; repeat testing using different methods could be required. Although FeLV and FIV infections can be associated with clinical disease, some infected cats, especially those infected with FIV, can live for many years with good quality of life. Management of infected cats: There is a paucity of data evaluating treatments for infected cats, especially antiretroviral and immunomodulatory drugs. Management of infected cats is focused on effective preventive healthcare strategies, and prompt identification and treatment of illness, as well as limiting the spread of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Little
- Bytown Cat Hospital, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Charing Cross Cat Clinic, Brantford, ON, Canada
| | - Julie Levy
- Maddie’s Shelter Medicine Program, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Charing Cross Cat Clinic, Brantford, ON, Canada
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
- Charing Cross Cat Clinic, Brantford, ON, Canada
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Charing Cross Cat Clinic, Brantford, ON, Canada
| | - Margaret Hosie
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK
- Charing Cross Cat Clinic, Brantford, ON, Canada
| | - Glenn Olah
- Albuquerque Cat Clinic, Albuquerque, NM, USA
- Charing Cross Cat Clinic, Brantford, ON, Canada
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Sarvani E, Tasker S, Kovacˇević Filipović M, Francuski Andrić J, Andrić N, Aquino L, English S, Attipa C, Leutenegger CM, Helps CR, Papasouliotis K. Prevalence and risk factor analysis for feline haemoplasmas in cats from Northern Serbia, with molecular subtyping of feline immunodeficiency virus. JFMS Open Rep 2018; 4:2055116918770037. [PMID: 29854412 PMCID: PMC5971391 DOI: 10.1177/2055116918770037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Objectives The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of feline haemoplasma infections in Northern Serbia, identify potential risk factors and perform molecular subtyping of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). Methods PCR analysis for feline haemoplasmas was performed on surplus EDTA blood samples from 373 cats from the Belgrade region, Serbia. An ELISA was used to determine the prevalence of feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and FIV; PCR was performed on a subpopulation of these cats. FIV subtyping was performed using PCR. Results Within this population, 64/373 cats (17.2%) were infected with one or more haemoplasma species. Mycoplasma haemofelis was detected in 20/373 cats (5.4%), ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ in 47/373 cats (12.6%) and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ in 23/373 cats (6.2%). Coinfections were observed in 21/373 cats (5.6%). Based on ELISA serological retroviral testing, 4/310 cats (1.3%) were infected with FeLV, whereas 78/331 (23.6%) were infected with FIV. Multivariable analysis identified significant associations between haemoplasma infection and anaemia (anaemic/non-anaemic, odds ratio [OR] 2.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04–7.1; P = 0.041]), male gender (male/female, OR 4.5, 95% CI 2.22–9.03; P <0.0005), outdoor access (yes/no, OR 5.2, 95% CI 2.28–11.92; P <0.0005), non-pedigree breed (non-pedigree/pedigree, OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.24–24.84; P = 0.025) and FIV seropositive status (positive/negative, OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.21–4.83; P = 0.012). PCR analysis of the FIV ELISA-positive samples revealed clade D as being the most prevalent. Conclusions and relevance All three known species of feline haemoplasma were detected, confirming their presence in Serbia; ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ was the most prevalent. We found a high prevalence of FIV-infected cats and FIV clade D was most prevalent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elpida Sarvani
- Diagnostic Laboratories, Molecular Diagnostic Unit, Langford Vets and School of Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, UK
| | - Séverine Tasker
- Diagnostic Laboratories, Molecular Diagnostic Unit, Langford Vets and School of Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, UK
| | | | - Jelena Francuski Andrić
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nenad Andrić
- Department for Equine, Small Animal, Poultry and Wild Animal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Larissa Aquino
- Laboratory of Veterinary Clinical Pathology, College of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, University of Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Sarah English
- Diagnostic Laboratories, Molecular Diagnostic Unit, Langford Vets and School of Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, UK
| | - Charalampos Attipa
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, UK
| | | | - Chris R Helps
- Diagnostic Laboratories, Molecular Diagnostic Unit, Langford Vets and School of Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, UK
| | - Kostas Papasouliotis
- Diagnostic Laboratories, Molecular Diagnostic Unit, Langford Vets and School of Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, UK
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Levy JK, Crawford PC, Tucker SJ. Performance of 4 Point-of-Care Screening Tests for Feline Leukemia Virus and Feline Immunodeficiency Virus. J Vet Intern Med 2017; 31:521-526. [PMID: 28158913 PMCID: PMC5354053 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.14648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 10/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background More than 3 million cats in the United States are infected with FeLV or FIV. The cornerstone of control is identification and segregation of infected cats. Hypothesis/Objectives To compare test performance with well‐characterized clinical samples of currently available FeLV antigen/FIV antibody combination test kits. Animals Surplus serum and plasma from diagnostic samples submitted by animal shelters, diagnostic laboratories, veterinary clinics, and cat research colonies. None of the cats had been vaccinated against FIV. The final sample set included 146 FeLV+, 154 FeLV−, 94 FIV+, and 97 FIV− samples. Methods Prospective, blind comparison to a gold standard: Samples were evaluated in 4 different point‐of‐care tests by ELISA antigen plate tests (FeLV) and virus isolation (FIV) as the reference standards. All test results were visually read by 2 blinded observers. Results Sensitivity and specificity, respectively, for FeLV were SNAP® (100%/100%), WITNESS® (89.0%/95.5%), Anigen® (91.8%/95.5%), and VetScan® (85.6%/85.7%). Sensitivity and specificity for FIV were SNAP® (97.9%/99.0%), WITNESS® (94.7%/100%), Anigen® (96.8%/99.0%), and VetScan® (91.5%/99.0%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance The SNAP® test had the best performance for FeLV, but there were no significant differences for FIV. In typical cat populations with seroprevalence of 1–5%, a majority of positive results reported by most point‐of‐care test devices would be false‐positives. This could result in unnecessary segregation or even euthanasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Levy
- Maddie's Shelter Medicine Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - P Cynda Crawford
- Maddie's Shelter Medicine Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - S J Tucker
- Maddie's Shelter Medicine Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Yilmaz H, Tekelioglu BK, Gurel A, Bamac OE, Ozturk GY, Cizmecigil UY, Altan E, Aydin O, Yilmaz A, Berriatua E, Helps CR, Richt JA, Turan N. Frequency, clinicopathological features and phylogenetic analysis of feline morbillivirus in cats in Istanbul, Turkey. J Feline Med Surg 2017; 19:1206-1214. [PMID: 28112564 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x16686728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Objectives The aim of the study was to investigate feline morbillivirus (FmoPV) frequency, phylogeny and associated pathology in cats in Istanbul, Turkey. Methods Samples from sick (n = 96) and dead ( n = 15) cats were analysed using reverse transcription PCR. Blood and urine analyses and histopathology were also performed. Results FmoPV RNA was detected in six cats (5.4%), including three sick (in the urine) and three dead cats (tissues). A significantly greater proportion of FmoPV RNA-positive cats had street access compared with non-infected cats. Blood samples from the morbillivirus-positive cats were negative for morbillivirus RNA. Tubular parenchymal cells, lymphoid and plasma cells in kidney and hepatocytes, lymphoid and plasma cells in liver from dead cats were also positive by immunohistochemistry for the viral N protein. Two FmoPV-positive cats were also positive for feline coronavirus RNA and one cat for feline immunodeficiency virus RNA and feline leukaemia virus proviral DNA. Phylogenetic analysis of the six FmoPV-positive cats showed that the strains were grouped into cluster D and had high similarity (98.5-100%) with strains from Japan and Germany. In the three FmoPV RNA-positive sick cats, respiratory, urinary and digestive system signs were observed as well as weight loss, fever and depression in some cats. Similar clinical signs were also seen in the morbillivirus RNA-negative sick cats. FmoPV RNA-positive cats had lower median red blood cell count, haemoglobin, albumin, albumin/globulin and urobilinogen and higher alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin compared with non-infected cats. Significant histopathology of FmoPV RNA-positive dead cats included tubulointerstitial nephritis characterised by severe granular and vacuolar degeneration of the epithelial cells of the cortical and medullary tubules as well as mononuclear cell infiltrates. Widespread lymphoid cell infiltrates were detected in the renal cortex and medullary regions of the kidneys. Cellular infiltration, cholangiohepatitis and focal necrosis in the liver were also found. Although virus-infected cells were found in the kidney and liver of FmoRV RNA-positive cats, tubulointerstitial nephritis, cholangiohepatitis and focal necrosis seen in FmoRV RNA-positive cats were similar to those observed in FmoRV RNA-negative cats. Conclusions and relevance This is the first study to show the presence of FmoPV infection in cats in Turkey. Sick cats, particularly those with kidney disease, should be tested for this virus. The genotypes found in this study were similar to previously reported strains, indicating that circulating morbilliviruses in Turkey are conserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huseyin Yilmaz
- 1 Department of Virology, University of Istanbul, Veterinary Faculty, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Bilge K Tekelioglu
- 2 Department of Pathology, University of Istanbul, Veterinary Faculty, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aydin Gurel
- 3 Department of Virology, University of Cukurova, Veterinary Faculty, Ceyhan, Adana, Turkey
| | - Ozge E Bamac
- 3 Department of Virology, University of Cukurova, Veterinary Faculty, Ceyhan, Adana, Turkey
| | - Gulay Y Ozturk
- 3 Department of Virology, University of Cukurova, Veterinary Faculty, Ceyhan, Adana, Turkey
| | - Utku Y Cizmecigil
- 1 Department of Virology, University of Istanbul, Veterinary Faculty, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Eda Altan
- 1 Department of Virology, University of Istanbul, Veterinary Faculty, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ozge Aydin
- 1 Department of Virology, University of Istanbul, Veterinary Faculty, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Eduardo Berriatua
- 5 Animal Health Department, Regional Campus of International Excellence 'Campus Mare Nostrum', Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Chris R Helps
- 6 University of Bristol, Langford Veterinary Services, Bristol, UK
| | - Juergen A Richt
- 7 Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Nuri Turan
- 1 Department of Virology, University of Istanbul, Veterinary Faculty, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
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6
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Westman ME, Malik R, Hall E, Sheehy PA, Norris JM. Determining the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) status of FIV-vaccinated cats using point-of-care antibody kits. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2015; 42:43-52. [PMID: 26459979 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study challenges the commonly held view that the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection status of FIV-vaccinated cats cannot be determined using point-of-care antibody test kits due to indistinguishable antibody production in FIV-vaccinated and naturally FIV-infected cats. The performance of three commercially available point-of-care antibody test kits was compared in a mixed population of FIV-vaccinated (n=119) and FIV-unvaccinated (n=239) cats in Australia. FIV infection status was assigned by considering the results of all antibody kits in concert with results from a commercially available PCR assay (FIV RealPCR™). Two lateral flow immunochromatography test kits (Witness FeLV/FIV; Anigen Rapid FIV/FeLV) had excellent overall sensitivity (100%; 100%) and specificity (98%; 100%) and could discern the true FIV infection status of cats, irrespective of FIV vaccination history. The lateral flow ELISA test kit (SNAP FIV/FeLV Combo) could not determine if antibodies detected were due to previous FIV vaccination, natural FIV infection, or both. The sensitivity and specificity of FIV RealPCR™ for detection of viral and proviral nucleic acid was 92% and 99%, respectively. These results will potentially change the way veterinary practitioners screen for FIV in jurisdictions where FIV vaccination is practiced, especially in shelter scenarios where the feasibility of mass screening is impacted by the cost of testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E Westman
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Richard Malik
- Centre for Veterinary Education, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Evelyn Hall
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Paul A Sheehy
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Jacqueline M Norris
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Kornya MR, Kornya MR, Little SE, Scherk MA, Sears WC, Bienzle D. Association between oral health status and retrovirus test results in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2015; 245:916-22. [PMID: 25285933 DOI: 10.2460/javma.245.8.916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine associations between oral health status and seropositivity for FIV or FeLV in cats. DESIGN Cross-sectional survey. ANIMALS 5,179 cats. PROCEDURES Veterinarians at veterinary clinics and animal shelters completed online training on oral conditions in cats and then scored oral health status of cats with no known history of vaccination against FIV. Age, sex, and results of an ELISA for retroviruses were recorded. Results were analyzed by means of standard logistic regression with binary outcome. RESULTS Of 5,179 cats, 237 (4.6%) and 186 (3.6%) were seropositive for FIV and FeLV, respectively, and of these, 12 (0.2%) were seropositive for FIV and FeLV. Of all 5,179 cats, 1,073 (20.7%) had gingivitis, 576 (11.1%) had periodontitis, 203 (3.9%) had stomatitis, and 252 (4.9%) had other oral conditions (overall oral disease prevalence, 2,104/5,179 [40.6%]). Across all age categories, inflammatory oral disease was associated with a significantly higher risk of a positive test result for FIV, compared with the seropositivity risk associated with other oral diseases or no oral disease. Stomatitis was most highly associated with risk of FIV seropositivity. Cats with any oral inflammatory disease were more likely than orally healthy cats to have a positive test result for FeLV. Increasing age was associated with a higher prevalence of oral disease in retrovirus-seronegative cats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Inflammatory oral disease was associated with an increased risk of seropositivity for retroviruses in naturally infected cats. Therefore, retroviral status of cats with oral inflammatory disease should be determined and appropriate management initiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Kornya
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Mathew R Kornya
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
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Davoust B, Parzy D, Demoncheaux JP, Tine R, Diarra M, Marié JL, Mediannikov O. Usefulness of a rapid immuno-migration test for the detection of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis in Africa. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 37:31-7. [PMID: 24252768 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2013.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A rapid immuno-migration test for the serological detection of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, Witness® Ehrlichia (WE) (Zoetis, France), was evaluated in 528 serum samples from dogs living in endemic areas of West and East Africa: Senegal (N=208), Ivory Coast (N=7), Sudan (N=27), and Djibouti (N=286). Of these dogs, 200 were French military working dogs (MWD) temporarily residing in Africa. The WE test results were compared with those obtained by indirect immunofluorescence (IFA). The sensitivity of WE was 97% [94.2, 98.7] with a specificity of 100% [98.6, 100]. In MWD, the seroprevalence (IFA) was 7%; in native dogs, it reached 77.1%. This significant difference can be explained by prophylactic measures from which MWD benefit. The WE test represents a simple, fast and reliable test for the detection of anti-Ehrlichia canis antibodies. Its implementation for the diagnosis of clinical cases has been validated in the field, and its use allows easy detection of asymptomatic dogs that may be carriers of E. canis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Davoust
- Research Unit of Emerging Infectious and Tropical Diseases (URMITE), UMR CNRS 7278 IRD 198, Aix-Marseille-Université, Marseille, France; Animal Epidemiology Working Group of the Military Health Service, Toulon, France.
| | - Daniel Parzy
- UMR - MD3, Faculté de pharmacie, Aix-Marseille-Université, Marseille, France; Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Brétigny, France
| | | | - Raphaël Tine
- Veterinary Services of the National Gendarmerie, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Mamadou Diarra
- Veterinary Services of the National Gendarmerie, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Jean-Lou Marié
- Animal Epidemiology Working Group of the Military Health Service, Toulon, France
| | - Oleg Mediannikov
- Research Unit of Emerging Infectious and Tropical Diseases (URMITE), UMR CNRS 7278 IRD 198, Institute of Research for the Development, Dakar, Senegal
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Daniels JB. Molecular diagnostics for infectious disease in small animal medicine: an overview from the laboratory. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2013; 43:1373-84, vii. [PMID: 24144096 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Molecular diagnostic tests have augmented the way in which veterinary practitioners approach the diagnosis of infectious disease. The technical bases of these tests are explained in addition to the general clinical applications for which they are most aptly suited, as individual assays are best discussed in the context of their respective diseases. In this article, an emphasis is placed on validation of molecular tests so that practitioners can be educated consumers of molecular diagnostics. The relationships between disease prevalence and positive and negative predictive values are discussed. Finally, examples of the pitfalls of multiplex polymerase chain reaction testing are illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B Daniels
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, 601 Vernon Tharp Drive, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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10
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Ammersbach M, Little S, Bienzle D. Preliminary evaluation of a quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay for diagnosis of feline immunodeficiency virus infection. J Feline Med Surg 2013; 15:725-9. [PMID: 23362341 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x13475465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) has high sensitivity and specificity for detection of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) antibodies, but does not distinguish between infection and vaccination. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays may distinguish infected from vaccinated cats. Performance of a commercial qPCR assay was assessed with blood samples from 29 FIV-infected non-vaccinated, 26 FIV-uninfected vaccinated and 35 FIV-uninfected non-vaccinated cats. FIV infection status of cats was assigned based on a combination of vaccination and medical history, prevention of contact with potentially infected cats and two FIV antibody ELISA results. Test sensitivity and specificity were determined against this gold standard. The qPCR test yielded positive results in samples from 23/29 FIV-infected non-vaccinated, 2/26 FIV-uninfected vaccinated and 0/35 FIV-uninfected non-vaccinated cats. It was concluded that the qPCR test was moderately sensitive and highly specific for the diagnosis of FIV infection, and that it may be suitable for ruling out FIV infection in cats with a positive antibody ELISA result and unknown vaccination history.
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11
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White J, Stickney A, Norris JM. Feline immunodeficiency virus: disease association versus causation in domestic and nondomestic felids. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2012; 41:1197-208. [PMID: 22041211 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is an important infection in both domestic and nondomestic cats. Although many studies have provided insight into FIV pathophysiology and immunologic responses to infection in cats, questions remain regarding the association of FIV with specific disease syndromes. For many diseases, both association and causation of disease with FIV remain to be confirmed and clarified. The use of experimental infection models is unlikely to yield answers about naturally infected domestic cats and is not feasible in nondomestic felids, many of which are endangered species. Researches might consider further study of naturally occurring disease with an emphasis on confirming which diseases have a likely association with FIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna White
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal, and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4412, New Zealand.
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12
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Cytauxzoon sp. infection in the first endemic focus described in domestic cats in Europe. Vet Parasitol 2012; 183:343-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Revised: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Morton JM, McCoy RJ, Kann RKC, Gardner IA, Meers J. Validation of real-time polymerase chain reaction tests for diagnosing feline immunodeficiency virus infection in domestic cats using Bayesian latent class models. Prev Vet Med 2011; 104:136-48. [PMID: 22098681 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2010] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 10/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of the current study were to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of three real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests for diagnosis of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in domestic cats, both individually and when interpreted in series with one of two serological tests, separately in populations of cats at low and high risk of being infected with FIV. One PCR test targeted the pol gene and two targeted the gag gene of FIV. For comparison, sensitivities and specificities of the individual serological tests (IDEXX SNAP(®) test and AGEN Simplify(®) test) were also estimated. The study populations consisted of domestic cats thought to be not vaccinated against FIV. Low-risk (males aged 4 years or less and females; n=128) and high-risk (males over 4 years; n=128) cats were selected from those where blood samples were submitted to a commercial clinical pathology service. Bayesian latent class models were used to obtain posterior probability distributions for sensitivity and specificity for each test, based on prior distributions obtained from three experts. Medians of the posterior sensitivity distributions for the PCR tests based on the pol gene and two regions of the gag gene tests ranged from 0.85 to 0.89, compared to 0.89-0.97 for the two serological tests. The medians of posterior specificity distributions for these PCR tests were 0.94-0.96, and 0.95-0.97 for the serological tests. In contrast, the PCR based on one region of the gag gene had lower median sensitivity. Sensitivities of combinations of these serological and PCR tests interpreted in series were low; medians of posterior sensitivity distributions ranged from 0.75 to 0.83. Relative to the low-risk population, median sensitivities in the high-risk population were lower for all tests other than the AGEN Simplify(®) test; specificities were similar in both populations. We conclude that the sensitivities of the two PCR tests based on the pol gene and two regions of the gag gene, respectively, in non-vaccinated cats are probably lower than the sensitivities of the two serological tests we assessed. We do not recommend screening cats whose FIV vaccination status is uncertain with one of these serological tests and then testing positives with one of these PCR tests because in non-vaccinates, the sensitivities of combinations of these serological and PCR tests interpreted in series are low. Assessment of the validity of these PCR assays in FIV-vaccinated cats is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Morton
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland 4343, Australia.
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Ammersbach M, Bienzle D. Methods for assessing feline immunodeficiency virus infection, infectivity and purification. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 143:202-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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15
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Maher IE, Tasker S, Polizopoulou Z, Dasopoulou A, Egan K, Helps CR, Papasouliotis K. Polymerase chain reaction survey of feline haemoplasma infections in Greece. J Feline Med Surg 2010; 12:601-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfms.2010.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to use real-time polymerase chain reaction assays to determine the prevalence of three haemoplasma species in cats from Greece and to evaluate possible associations between haemoplasma infection and age, gender, feline immunodeficiency virus/feline leukaemia virus (FIV/FeLV) status and packed cell volume (PCV). Ninety-seven cats (24 ill anaemic, 55 ill non-anaemic, 18 healthy non-anaemic) were included in the study. Twenty cats (20.6%) were haemoplasma positive; seven cats were infected only with Mycoplasma haemofelis, 10 were infected only with ‘ Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and three were co-infected with M haemofelis and ‘ Candidatus M haemominutum’. ‘ Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ was not detected. Haemoplasma infection was associated with older age ( P=0.019). M haemofelis infection tended to be more common in anaemic cats ( P=0.058). No association between gender and haemoplasma infection, or haemoplasma relative copy number and PCV, was detected. Retroviral infection rates were very low with only one FeLV proviral positive cat found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iona E. Maher
- Diagnostic Laboratories, School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Séverine Tasker
- Division of Companion Animal Studies, School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Zoe Polizopoulou
- Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anastasia Dasopoulou
- Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Kathy Egan
- Diagnostic Laboratories, School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Christopher R. Helps
- Division of Veterinary Pathology, Infection and Immunity, School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Kostas Papasouliotis
- Diagnostic Laboratories, School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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16
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A systematic approach to preclinical and clinical safety biomarker qualification incorporating Bradford Hill's principles of causality association. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2010; 88:260-2. [PMID: 20592723 DOI: 10.1038/clpt.2010.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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17
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18
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Lutz H, Addie D, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Egberink H, Frymus T, Gruffydd-Jones T, Hartmann K, Hosie MJ, Lloret A, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Radford AD, Thiry E, Truyen U, Horzinek MC. Feline leukaemia. ABCD guidelines on prevention and management. J Feline Med Surg 2009; 11:565-74. [PMID: 19481036 PMCID: PMC7172531 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfms.2009.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OVERVIEW Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus that may induce depression of the immune system, anaemia and/or lymphoma. Over the past 25 years, the prevalence of FeLV infection has decreased considerably, thanks both to reliable tests for the identification of viraemic carriers and to effective vaccines. INFECTION Transmission between cats occurs mainly through friendly contacts, but also through biting. In large groups of non-vaccinated cats, around 30-40% will develop persistent viraemia, 30-40% show transient viraemia and 20-30% seroconvert. Young kittens are especially susceptible to FeLV infection. DISEASE SIGNS The most common signs of persistent FeLV viraemia are immune suppression, anaemia and lymphoma. Less common signs are immune-mediated disease, chronic enteritis, reproductive disorders and peripheral neuropathies. Most persistently viraemic cats die within 2-3 years. DIAGNOSIS In low-prevalence areas there may be a risk of false-positive results; a doubtful positive test result in a healthy cat should therefore be confirmed, preferably by PCR for provirus. Asymptomatic FeLV-positive cats should be retested. DISEASE MANAGEMENT Supportive therapy and good nursing care are required. Secondary infections should be treated promptly. Cats infected with FeLV should remain indoors. Vaccination against common pathogens should be maintained. Inactivated vaccines are recommended. The virus does not survive for long outside the host. VACCINATION RECOMMENDATIONS All cats with an uncertain FeLV status should be tested prior to vaccination. All healthy cats at potential risk of exposure should be vaccinated against FeLV. Kittens should be vaccinated at 8-9 weeks of age, with a second vaccination at 12 weeks, followed by a booster 1 year later. The ABCD suggests that, in cats older than 3-4 years of age, a booster every 2-3 years suffices, in view of the significantly lower susceptibility of older cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Lutz
- European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD).
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19
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Risk factors for feline immunodeficiency virus antibody test status in Cats Protection adoption centres (2004). J Feline Med Surg 2009; 11:467-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfms.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/01/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A study was carried out to determine the prevalence of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) within a population of cats entering 10 UK adoption centres run by Cats Protection. All cats entering the adoption centres during 2004 were tested for FIV using a rapid enzyme immunoassay antibody test. The overall prevalence of positive test results was 3.1% (95% confidence intervals (CI) 2.7–3.5%), whilst the prevalence at different adoption centres varied from 0.8% (95% CI 0.1–1.5%) to 6.7% (95% CI 4.9–8.5%). Results of the multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that male cats, stray/feral cats and cats in poor health were at a greater risk of testing positive for FIV than female cats, cats that were relinquished by an owner and cats that were in good/fair health, respectively. No evidence was found for an association between neuter status and FIV test results. This study may help to identify cats that are relinquished to rescue centres with an increased risk of FIV for routine FIV testing.
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Tasker S, Caney SMA, Day MJ, Dean RS, Helps CR, Knowles TG, Lait PJP, Pinches MDG, Gruffydd-Jones TJ. Effect of chronic FIV infection, and efficacy of marbofloxacin treatment, on Mycoplasma haemofelis infection. Vet Microbiol 2006; 117:169-79. [PMID: 16876338 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2006] [Revised: 06/08/2006] [Accepted: 06/12/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of chronic feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection, and efficacy of marbofloxacin treatment, on Mycoplasma haemofelis infection. Six cats chronically infected with FIV-Glasgow8 (Group X) and six FIV-free cats (Group Y) were infected with M. haemofelis on Day 0 by intravenous blood inoculation. From Day 0 until Day 86 post-infection (pi), blood samples were collected for M. haemofelis and FIV provirus quantitative real-time PCR and haematology. Three of the six cats in each of Groups X and Y were randomly selected to receive marbofloxacin treatment (2 mg/kg PO q24 h) from Day 16 to 43 pi, with the remaining cats being untreated controls with no antibiotic treatment. The M. haemofelis copy numbers and haematological data were compared between Groups X and Y, and between marbofloxacin-treated and control cats using a Mann-Whitney U-test. M. haemofelis infection was associated with development of macrocytic hypochromic anaemia. In some cats, marked variation in M. haemofelis copy number over time (>100,000-fold difference within 48 h in some cats) and/or cycling of copy number was seen. No correlation was found between FIV provirus copy number and M. haemofelis copy number or haematological variables. No significant effect of chronic FIV infection on M. haemofelis copy number kinetics or haematological changes due to M. haemofelis infection was found, other than MCHC (P=0.03). Marbofloxacin treatment was associated with a significant decrease in M. haemofelis copy number (P=0.002), although consistent clearance of infection was not demonstrated. This study reveals the presence of marked fluctuations in M. haemofelis copy number kinetics in vivo and a significant response to marbofloxacin antibiotic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine Tasker
- School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol, UK.
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