Detection of haptoglobin and serum amyloid A as biomarkers in naturally infected Mycoplasma bovis calves

The livestock sector of Pakistan is increasing rapidly and it plays important role both for rural community and national economy. It is estimated that almost 8 million rural people are involved in livestock rearing and earning about 35-40 % of their income from the livestock sector. Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) infection causes significant economic losses in dairy animals especially young calf in the form of clinical illnesses such as pneumonia, poly-arthritis, respiratory distress and mortality. M. bovis is hard to diagnose and control because of uneven disease appearance and it is usually noticed in asymptomatic animals. For the identification of M. bovis in sub-clinical and clinical samples, determination of acute phase proteins i.e., haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA) are important tools for the timely diagnosis of disease. Therefore, early diagnosis of disease and hemato-biochemical changes are considered beneficial tools to control the infectious agent to uplift the economy of the dairy farmers. For this purpose, blood samples were collected from 200 calves of Bovidae family. Serum was separated from blood samples to determine the concentration of Hp and SAA, while blood samples were processed to determine hematological changes in blood from calves by using hematological analyzer. The blood plasma obtained from the blood samples was processed to measure oxidative stress factors. Lungs tissues from slaughterhouses/ morbid calves were collected to observe histopathological changes. The results of present study indicated that level of SAA and Hp remarkably increased (P < 0.05) in M. bovis infected calves in comparison to healthy calves. The oxidative stress markers indicated that nitric oxide and MDA levels in the infected calves increased significantly (P < 0.05), while infected claves had considerably lower levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione. These findings indicate that oxidative stress play role to increase the level of APPs, while monitoring of APPs levels may serve as a valuable addition to the clinical evaluation of naturally infected calves with M. bovis. The hematological parameters were decreased significantly (P < 0.05). Altogether, this study suggests that Hp and SAA are proposed as promising biomarkers for detecting naturally occurring M. bovis infection in calves.

Seroprevalence of mycoplasmosis in broiler, layer, and native chickens in Giza, Egypt

We aimed to investigate Mycoplasma infections among chicken flocks (Ross, Lohmann and native) in Giza, Egypt, using serological tests, including the slide plate agglutination (SPA) test, hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The slide plate agglutination examination, a serological test, indicated the prevalence of Mg and Ms infections of 10.9% and 13.2%, respectively. On 91 SPA test positive serum samples for either Mg or Ms, a passive hemagglutination/hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test was performed. The SPA and HI test findings were found to be comparable. On 90 SPA test positive samples, an ELISA was performed using commercial kits for Mg and Ms serodiagnosis. According to the ELISA data, only 83.33% and 18.88% of SPA test positive samples were confirmed as positive for Ms and Mg infections, respectively. The prevalence increased to 84.44% and 77.77%, respectively, when suspected samples were deemed positive.

Molecular detection of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) in domestic cats (Felis catus) in Romania

BACKGROUND

The hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) of the genus Mycoplasma are recognized as important bacteria that parasitize red blood cells, causing hemolytic anemia in many mammalian species, including cats. No information is available concerning the presence of feline hemoplasma infections in cats in Romania. Thus, the objective of the present study was to provide data on the occurrence and molecular characterization of hemotropic mycoplasmas in client-owned cats in Romania.

METHODS

Blood samples from 51 unhealthy cats, originating from Timişoara Municipality, Romania, were screened for the presence of hemoplasmas using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the 16S rRNA gene and sequencing assays. PCR-positive samples were subsequently analyzed by phylogenetic and population genetic analysis.

RESULTS

Molecular analysis revealed 11 (21.6%) positive samples, consisting of 8 (72.7%) Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and 3 (27.3%) Mycoplasma haemofelis confirmed positives. Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis was not detected, and no co-infections were registered. No significant associations (p > 0.05) were found between the hemoplasma infection status and age, gender, breed, presence of ectoparasites, feline leukemia virus/feline immunodeficiency virus positivity of cats, or the sampling season. However, outdoor access was positively associated (p = 0.049) with infection and could be considered a risk factor (OR = 4.1) in acquiring feline hemotropic mycoplasmas. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that our sequences clustered with those selected from the GenBank database in two distinct clades. The registered population genetic indices were strongly supportive of the great variance in sequences between the recorded Mycoplasma species.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings support the occurrence of feline hemoplasma infections in previously uninvestigated territories of Europe, providing useful information for small animal practitioners. To our knowledge, the present survey is the first reported molecular evidence of feline hemoplasma infections in Romania.

Sequence variation and immunogenicity of the Mycoplasma genitalium MgpB and MgpC adherence proteins during persistent infection of men with non-gonococcal urethritis

Mycoplasma genitalium is a sexually transmitted bacterial pathogen that infects men and women. Antigenic variation of MgpB and MgpC, the immunodominant adherence proteins of M. genitalium, is thought to contribute to immune evasion and chronic infection. We investigated the evolution of mgpB and mgpC sequences in men with non-gonococcal urethritis persistently infected with M. genitalium, including two men with anti-M. genitalium antibodies at enrollment and two that developed antibodies during follow-up. Each of the four patients was persistently infected with a different strain type and each patient produced antibodies targeting MgpB and MgpC. Amino acid sequence evolution in the variable regions of MgpB and MgpC occurred in all four patients with changes observed in single and multiple variable regions over time. Using the available crystal structure of MgpC of the G37 type strain we found that predicted conformational B cell epitopes localize predominantly to the variable region of MgpC, amino acids that changed during patient infection lie in these epitopes, and variant amino acids are in close proximity to the conserved sialic acid binding pocket. These findings support the hypothesis that sequence variation functions to avoid specific antibodies thereby contributing to persistence in the genital tract.

Early detection and differential serodiagnosis of Mycoplasma hyorhinis and Mycoplasma hyosynoviae infections under experimental conditions

Mycoplasma hyorhinis (MHR) and Mycoplasma hyosynoviae (MHS) are common opportunistic pathogens in the upper respiratory tract and tonsils of swine. The identification of the specific species involved in clinical cases using conventional diagnostic methods is challenging. Therefore, a recombinant chimeric polypeptide based on the seven known variable lipoproteins (A-G) specific of MHR and a cocktail of surface proteins detergent-extracted from MHS cultures were generated and their suitability as antemortem biomarkers for serodiagnosis of MHR- and MHS-infection were evaluated by ELISA. M. hyorhinis and MHS ELISA performance, evaluated using serum samples collected over a 56-day observation period from pigs inoculated with MHR, MHS, M. hyopneumoniae, M. flocculare, or Friis medium, varied by assay, targeted antibody isotype, and cutoffs. The progressions of MHR and MHS clinical diseases were evaluated in relation to the kinetics of the isotype-specific antibody response in serum and bacterial shedding in oral fluids during the observation period. In pigs inoculated with MHR, bacterial DNA was detected in one or more of the 5 pens at all sampling points throughout the study, IgA was first detected at DPI 7, one week before the first clinical signs, with both IgA and IgG detected in all samples collected after DPI 14. The peak of MHS shedding (DPI 8) coincided with the onset of the clinical signs, with both IgA and IgG detected in all serum samples collected ≥ DPI 14. This study demonstrated, under experimental conditions, that both ELISAs were suitable for early detection of specific antibodies against MHR or MHS. The diagnostic performance of the MHR and MHS ELISAs varied depending on the selected cutoff and the antibody isotype evaluated. The high diagnostic and analytical specificity of the ELISAs was particularly remarkable. This study also provides insights into the infection dynamics of MHR-associated disease and MHS-associated arthritis not previously described.

First molecular evidence of bovine hemoplasma species (Mycoplasma spp.) in water buffalo and dairy cattle herds in Cuba

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (aka hemoplasmas) are small bacteria which cause infectious anemia in several mammalian species including humans. Information on hemoplasma infections in Cuban bovines remains scarce and no studies applying molecular methods have been performed so far. The aim of the present study was to utilize real-time PCR and sequence analysis to investigate dairy cattle and buffalo from Cuba for the presence of bovine hemoplasma species.

RESULTS

A total of 80 blood samples from 39 buffalo and 41 dairy cattle were investigated for the presence of Mycoplasma wenyonii and "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos" using two species-specific real-time TaqMan PCR assays. PCR results revealed overall 53 (66.2%; 95% CI: 55.3-75.7%) positive animals for M. wenyonii and 33 (41.2%; 95% CI: 31.1-52.2%) for "Ca. M. haemobos"; the latter were all co-infections with M. wenyonii. The sample prevalences were similar in cattle and buffalo. Based on the sequence analysis of the nearly full-length 16S rRNA gene from two cattle and two buffalo, the presence of M. wenyonii and "Ca. M. haemobos" was confirmed. Statistical analysis revealed that buffalo and cattle one year of age or older were more frequently infected with M. wenyonii or "Ca. M. haemobos" than younger animals. PCR-positivity was not associated with anemia; however, the infection stage was unknown (acute infection versus chronic carriers).

CONCLUSIONS

The high occurrence of bovine hemoplasma infections in buffalo and dairy cattle may have a significant impact on Cuban livestock production. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first molecular evidence of bovine hemoplasma species infection in dairy cattle and buffalo from Cuba and the Caribbean.

Laboratory diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections: data analysis from clinical practice

An etiological diagnosis of respiratory infections caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae is particularly challenging due to the lack of a definite standard test. This study aimed to analyse the correlation and combination of diagnostic results obtained from direct and indirect assays (Mycoplasma pneumoniae DNA by PCR and serology) in use at a first level diagnostic laboratory. Samples from patients with respiratory infections tested for M. pneumoniae during routine clinical practice were retrospectively analysed. In pediatric patients <15 years old, we documented a significantly higher proportion of IgM positive results (23.6% versus 3.9% in ≥15-year-old patients, p<0.0001) but a lower IgM specificity (false positive IgM 34.8% versus 12.2% in ≥15 years old patients, p 0.01), as verified by seroconversion. A small percentage (4%) of respiratory samples were positive for M. pneumoniae DNA regardless of age and type of sample. Assuming IgM positivity as the reference standard, PCR showed a total lack of sensitivity in patients <15 years old and 20% sensitivity in children <15 years old; specificity was 95% in both age groups. Agreement between PCR and IgM serology was slight (Cohen's kappa 0.09). According to our data, no single diagnostic test could be considered optimal for M. pneumoniae detection and improved assays are required.

Occurrence of hemotropic mycoplasmas in non-human primates (Alouatta caraya, Sapajus nigritus and Callithrix jacchus) of southern Brazil

Hemoplasmas, the erythrocyte-associated mycoplasmas, have been detected in several primates, causing mostly subclinical infection. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of hemoplasma infection in captive and free-ranging monkeys from southern Brazil, as well as factors and hematological abnormalities associated with infection. Blood samples from 40 non-human primates (NHP) were tested for hemoplasmas and coinfections. An overall of 10/40 (25.0%) NHP tested positive for hemoplasmas using PCR-based assays, including 9/14 (64.3%) black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) and 1/24 (4.2%) black-horned capuchin (Sapajus nigritus). Infection was not statistically associated with anemia, but wild-born monkeys and male black howler monkeys were more likely to be positive when compared with captive-born animals and female black howler monkeys, respectively. The sequences from the black howler monkey hemoplasma were similar (94% identity) to the squirrel monkey hemoplasma ("Candidatus Mycoplasma kahanei") and were phylogenetically located in a different cluster when compared to the human hemoplasma ("Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis").

[The occurrence of "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae" infections in clinically asymptomatic South American Camelids in Austria]

Reports of CMhl infections in South American Camelids in Europe are only available from the United Kingdom and Switzerland. Knowing that CMhl infections can lead to severe disease resulting in death if combined with other diseases or stress, it was the aim of this study to assess prevalence data from camelids in Austria. In comparison to the previous studies a representative number of camelids was investigated nationwide. Data were assessed due to differences in geographical region, age, sex, species, and origin. A relatively high prevalence of 25.8% was recorded. CMhl was detected significantly more often in alpacas (Vicunja pacos) than in llamas (Lama glama) and more frequently in animals younger than 2 years. Additionally regional differences have been observed, which might be due to climatic differences and/or variations in insect vectors. In this study apperantly clinical healthy animals were shown to be infected with CMhl. Camelids infected with CMhl are a pathogen reservoir. The results of this study indicate different risk levels of infection between llamas and alpacas and between younger and older animals. The data presented underline the necessity of further studies on CMhlI infections in South American Camelids.

Application of Molecular and Serological Methods for Rapid Detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum Infection (Avian mycoplasmosis)

Mycoplasma infection is a major problem in veterinary medicine and in poultry production. The pathogen has many strains, so that diagnosis of the disease using culture method is not effective. The objective of this work was to evaluate the prevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) in Kuwait poultry farms using serology and molecular methods in comparison to the culture under specific conditions. A total of 50 swab samples from choanal cleft and tracheal samples and blood samples were obtained from three different local farms, the blood samples were processed for an Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) detection and the swab samples for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and culture methods detection. A PCR diagnostic kit (VenoMGs) and ELISA diagnostic kit (ProFLOK), were used in comparison to the traditional culture method, to study the spread of this disease in samples from broiler and layer flocks. Fifty chicken samples were tested for mycoplasmosis, samples tested with ELISA gave 24 positive (48%) and 29 were positive by PCR (58%) and only seven (14%) were positive with culture methods. Swab samples obtained from the choanal cleft gave more positive (60%) with PCR than tracheal samples (56.6%). The culture gave 20 and 5% positive, respectively for tracheal and choanal samples. The methods reported here are of high sensitivity and specificity for Mycoplasma. Both the PCR and ELISA methods are superior to culture method for detection of avian mycoplasmosis. This study showed that MG infection is prevalent in commercial broiler and layer chickens in Kuwait poultry farms. The use of these methods for surveillance of the disease will establish data concerning the predominant Mycoplasmosis diseases in Kuwait if done on a large scale.

[PERSISTENCE OF MYCOPLASMA DURING UROLITHIASIS]

AIM

Study the frequency of detection of mycoplasma and ureaplasma in clinical material from urolithiasis patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Clinical material samples (blood sera, urine, uroliths) from 31 urolithiasis patients were obtained during operations of urolith-removal. Cultural method, LAR and PCR were used in the study.

RESULTS

The study of clinical material from 31 patients by PCR has shown, that in 25 individuals. (80.6%) DNA of mycoplasma and ureaplasma was detected, and mycoplasma DNA was more frequently detected in uroliths and less--in-blood sera. Mycoplasma hominis DNA was detected in clinical material of a significantly largerninmber of patients. 23 cultures were isolated from 8 patients by a cultural method, that were identified by PCR as M. hominis. All the isolates have grown as "mini colonies". Even after multiple passages in agar medium, reversion of "mini-colonies" into colonies with a classic morphology was not obtained.

CONCLUSION

A high frequency of detection of mycoplasma and ureaplasma in clinical material of patients with urolithiasis was established. The isolated M. hominis cultures have only grown as "mini-colonies". The phenomenon discovered could give evidence on high variability of mycoplasma and a possibility of existence of previously unknown form of their persistence in human organism.

Prevalence and diagnosis of hemotrophic mycoplasma infection in research sheep and its effects on hematology variables and erythrocyte membrane fragility

Hemotrophic mycoplasma (hemoplasma) infection in research sheep can confound experimental results and contribute to morbidity and mortality. Prevalence and clinicopathologic studies historically relied on blood-smear diagnosis, but systematic studies using current molecular techniques are warranted. Here we sought to report the prevalence of subclinical infection in our study population, compare diagnostic sensitivity and specificity between blood smears and a PCR assay, and determine the effects of infection on CBC variables and erythrocyte membrane fragility. We collected whole-blood samples from 111 convenience-sampled research sheep. All samples were tested for hemoplasmas by using a PCR assay, blood smears were evaluated for visual presence of hemoplasmas, and CBC and osmotic fragility assays were performed. Subclinical prevalence, according to PCR diagnosis, was 14.1% (14 of 99) in our study population. Relative to the PCR assay, blood-smear diagnosis was 8.3% sensitive and 100% specific for hemoplasma detection. Subclinical infection was associated with changes in MCV, MCHC, RBC distribution width, and absolute monocyte count. Acute infection was associated with changes in RBC mass, Hgb concentration, MCV, MCH, MCHC, and absolute lymphocyte and monocyte counts. Acute infection was associated with increased mean erythrocyte fragility compared with that in uninfected control and treated sheep. We demonstrated that hemoplasma infection is common in our study population, blood-smear evaluation is insensitive at detecting infection, and infection is associated with changes in CBC variables and increased erythrocyte membrane fragility. These findings raise concerns regarding the suitability of hemoplasma-infected sheep for biomedical research.

[Circulating immune complexes as a depot of conservation of mycoplasma cell components]

AIM

Study the possibility of prolonged conservation in macroorganism of antigens, mycoplasma cell DNA and live pathogen cells as part of CIC against the background of persisting antigen biostructures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aggregate-hemagglutination, direct immunofluorescence reactions and PCR method were used to determine antigens and DNA. Circulating immune complexes from blood sera samples were isolated by M. Digeon et al., mycoplasma isolation from CIC was carried out in SP-4 medium, species identity of the isolated mini-colonies was confirmed by real-time PCR method.

RESULTS

In patients with urogenital and respiratory pathology the frequency of detection of Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma pneumoniae in free state was 63.3, 53.1 and 80.82% of cases, respectively. Specific CIC in patients with verified respiratory mycoplasmosis 1 month after the onset of the disease were registered in patients with severe course of the disease, bronchitis and diseases of upper respiratory tract--in 92.5, 74.7 and 25.7% of cases, respectively. In children, bronchial asthma patients the frequency of detection of antigens and DNA of M. pneumoniae cells in free state was 72.6 and 12.33%, as part of CIC--in 60.27 and 43.8% of cases, respectively. Antigens and DNA of M. hominis in blood of this group of patients were detected in 32.9 and 26.02%, as part of CIC--in 53.42 and 52.05% of cases, respectively. During repeated examination of 12 children after etiotropic therapy execution (generally in 1.5 - 6 months) in 75% of cases antigens of both M. pneumoniae and M. hominis were detected in free state and as part of CIC. DNA of cells of these mycoplasma species were detected in 20 and 33%, as part of CIC--in41.6 and 50% of cases, respectively. In 5 patients after 6 months (after 1 year in 1 case) mycoplasma antigens and DNA were identified in CIC or in blood sera. During cultivation of CIC components precipitated from 5 blood samples of patients of this group containing M. hominis DNA, culture of M. hominis mini-colonies were isolated in 4 cases.

CONCLUSION

The possibility of prolonged persistence of antigens, DNA and whole mycoplasma cells in both free state and as part of CIC in patients with respiratory and urogenital pathology was shown. CIC are thus a peculiar depot, a place of conservation of not only various mycoplasma cell components, but also live cells.

[Generalized mycoplasma infection in patients and carriers]

AIM

Study of possibility of generalization of mycoplasma infection in patients with urogenital pathology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Among the examined patients 5 males characterized by risky sexual behavior with pronounced symptoms of infection or without those were selected. Patients were examined by a complex of methods for the presence of mycoplasma infection by culture, PCR, DFA, PHA, AHR and by detection of specific immune complexes in blood sera. Scrapes from urogenital tract, blood sera samples, urine, saliva, prostatic fluid were materials for the study.

RESULTS

In blood of all patients in ELISA antibodies against Mycoplasma hominis were detected; in PHA they were detected only in 2 individuals. In all the patients in blood CIC were detected including antigens and DNA of one or several mycoplasma species. Sperm of 3 individuals was infected by Ureaplasma spp., 2--M. genitalium. In saliva of 2 individuals M. hominis was detected, 3--U. urealyticum.

CONCLUSION

In all the examined patients the infection was shown to have generalized character. This phenomenon presents itself as quite significant because mycoplasma may cause anti-apoptotic and oncogenic effect.

[Study on changes in cytokines of infertile women with mycoplasma infection and intervention with traditional Chinese medicines]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the changes in cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-2, TNF-alpha) of peripheral blood and cervical mucous of infertile women with mycoplasma infection and the effect of intervention of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs).

METHOD

According to the results of culture of mycoplasma from genital tracts, 72 patients with positive mycoplasma were randomly divided into the TCM group (38 cases) and the western medicine group (34 cases). The western medicine group was treated with 0.5 g azithromycin for 3 days and consecutively treated for six courses of treatment, each course of treatment of 4 days. The TCM group were treated with Xiaozhi decoction twice every day for 6 weeks. The IL-1beta, IL-2 and TNF-alpha levels of the peripheral blood and cervical mucous of the two groups were measured by the Ria testing before and after the treatment, and the mycoplasma culture (-) of 32 infertile women as set for control.

RESULT

Before the treatment, TNF-alpha and IL-1beta in levels of the two treatment groups were higher than those of the control group (P < 0.01). In the TCM group, TNF-alpha and IL-1beta levels showed significant differences compared with those before the treatment (P < 0.05) and those of the western group after the treatment (P < 0.01); and IL-2 level didn't have significant change before and after the treatment. The cytokines in peripheral blood of the two treatment groups showed notable difference compared with those of the control group (P < 0.01). In TCM group, IL-2 level had remarkable difference compared with that before the treatment (P < 0.01) and compared with the control group after the treatment (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-2, TNF-alpha) in the peripheral blood and cervical mucous increase in infertile women with the mycoplasma infection, suggesting that TCMs can effectively inhibit the levels of IL-1beta, IL-2, TNF-alpha in the peripheral blood and IL-1beta, TNF-alpha in cervical mucous. It is proved that Xiaozhi decoction can be used to treat infertile women with mycoplasma infection.

[Role of opportunistic infection causative agent in etiology of obstructive bronchitis and prolonged subfebrility in children]

AIM

Determine the role of opportunistic infections causative agents in ethology of obstructive bronchitises and prolonged subfebrilities in children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

56 children with the diagnosis of obstructive bronchitis and 46 children with the diagnosis of prolonged subfebrility were examined for the presence of herpes, mycoplasma and pneumocystic infections. EIA, IIF, rapid culture method, PCR were used.

RESULTS

The highest number of cases of mixed infection was detected in children with HHV-6 infection. Mixed infection was diagnosed 6 times more frequently in children with obstructive bronchitis and 9 times in children with prolonged subfebrility. The number of children with pneumocystosis in combination with other infections was 2.4 and 2 times higher than with monoinfection; with CMV infection--4 and 2 times; with HSV infection--5 and 4 times; EBV infection--6 and 3.7 times. The only exception was mycoplasmosis detected in children with obstructive bronchitis where the difference between the number of mono and mixed infection cases was insignificant.

CONCLUSION

The data obtained give evidence of wide spread of opportunistic infections.

[Unusual forms of persistence of Mycoplasma hominis in organism of infected humans]

AIM

Study previously unknown forms of persistence of Mycoplasma hominis in host organism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Culture method was used for detection of mycoplasmas. Identification was carried out by serological, electron microscopy methods, classic PCR and real time PCR; circulating immune complexes (CIC) were isolated by PEG precipitation.

RESULTS

Classic micoplasma cultures could not be isolated from blood even once. At the same time "mini-colony" cultures composed of mini-cells that were hardly passaged but sometimes formed continuous layer of the same colonies were isolated from blood serum samples with high frequency. During reseeding for more than 1 year they never acquired classic form. Not only antigens of M. hominis but its DNA were shown to be present in CIC. Viable cells forming "mini-colonies" identical to those isolated from blood sera were isolated from circulating immune complexes. A system of evidence on identity of isolated M. hominis cultures is presented. Cultures had infectivity and an ability to persist in organs of experimentally infected mice.

CONCLUSION

The isolated forms are apparently the result of adaptation of mycoplasmas to humoral immunity factors.

[Efficacy of azithromycin and its impact on cytokine system in urogenital infections]

Seventy five patients with urogenital chlamydial and mycoplasmic infections were enrolled in the trial. In the etiotropic therapy azithromycin was used in the standard dosage (1.0-1.5 g) depending on the infection. The treatment with azithromycin, in addition to the high eradication rates, was also evident of its effect on the cytokine levels in the patients, that was characteristic of a significant increase of the IFN-gamma level and a decrease of the IL-1beta and IL-6 levels in the blood.

First morphological characterization of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' using electron microscopy

At least three haemotropic mycoplasmas have been recognized in cats: Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ (CMhm) and ‘Candidatus M. turicensis’ (CMt). The latter was originally identified in a Swiss pet cat with haemolytic anaemia and shown to be prevalent in domestic cats and wild felids worldwide using molecular methods. So far, there has been no confirmatory morphological evidence of the existence of CMt presumably due to low blood loads during infection while CMhm has only been characterized by light microscopy with discrepant results. This study aimed to provide for the first time electron microscopic characteristics of CMt and CMhm and to compare them to Mhf. Blood samples from cats experimentally infected with CMt, CMhm and Mhf were used to determine copy numbers in blood by real-time PCR and for transmission and scanning electron microscopy. High resolution scanning electron microscopy revealed CMt and CMhm to be discoid-shaped organisms of 0.3 μm in diameter attached to red blood cells (RBCs). In transmission electron microscopy of CMt, an oval organism of about 0.25 μm with several intracellular electron dense structures was identified close to the surface of a RBC. CMhm and CMt exhibited similar morphology to Mhf but had a smaller diameter. This is the first study to provide morphological evidence of CMt thereby confirming its status as a distinct haemoplasma species, and to present electron microscopic features of CMhm.

Development of multiplex polymerase chain reaction for detection of feline hemotropic mycoplasma in blood and tissue specimens

A multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed for the detection of feline hemotropic mycoplasmas which simultaneously differentiates infections of Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (CMhm) and Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (CMtc) in feline blood and spleen. These organisms are responsible for the cause of various pathogenicity of feline infectious anemia. These infections are difficult to be detected by microscopic examination, the most commonly used method for general laboratory diagnoses. Specific primers were designed by selected consensus 16S rDNA sequences of three distinct species. The multiplex PCR assay developed in this study was sensitive and specific with detection limit 100 copies/microl DNA of Mhf and CMhm and 10 copies/microl DNA of CMtc. No amplicons could be amplified for other blood parasites or bacterial pathogens. This multiplex PCR will allow studies of pathogenicity and the monitoring of clinical treatment.

Rapid serodiagnosis with the use of surface plasmon resonance imaging for the detection of antibodies against major surface protein A of Mycoplasma synoviae in chickens

Mycoplasma synoviae, a major worldwide pathogen in poultry, causes respiratory tract infection and arthritis in chickens and turkeys. Two major surface antigens of M. synoviae are encoded by a single gene, vlhA (variably expressed lipoprotein and hemagglutinin). The gene product is cleaved post-translationally to yield the lipoprotein major surface protein (MSP) B (MSPB) and the hemagglutinin MSPA. The availability of MSPA as an antigen for serodiagnosis was studied by means of a protein chip based on surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi). The diagnostic potential of SPRi for measurement of levels of antibody to MSPA was compared with that of a conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. The results from SPRi, a process that took only 1 h, were similar to those from ELISA. Therefore, MSPA can be used as an antigen for serologic studies, and SPRi, a label-free and high-throughput method, may be a valuable tool in avian serodiagnostic studies.

Immediate relief of Mycoplasma pneumoniae encephalitis symptoms after intravenous immunoglobulin

Mycoplasma pneumoniae may cause acute encephalitis, resulting in severe neurologic complications despite antibiotic therapy. We report the case of a 12-year-old patient who presented with acute onset of orofacial tics, motor restlessness, compulsive behavior, and cerebellar symptoms. Cerebrospinal fluid examination demonstrated lymphocytic meningitis. Polymerase chain reaction for M. pneumoniae was strongly positive in the cerebrospinal fluid. Blood and cerebrospinal fluid were negative for M. pneumoniae antibodies (immunoglobulin M and immunoglobulin G). The child was administered intravenous gamma-globulin, which led to a dramatic improvement of her clinical condition and disappearance of the symptoms within 72 hours. This novel case points to the potential value of gamma-globulin in M. pneumoniae encephalitis confirmed with polymerase chain reaction and suggests that immediate administration of intravenous gamma-globulin in suspected mycoplasma encephalitis should be investigated in a larger patient cohort.

[Persistence of Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum in organism of infected animals]

AIM

To study the possibility of existence of antigenemia during urogenital mycoplasmal infections by detection the antigens of agents in blood and viscera of infected animals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rabbits and mice were intraperitoneally inoculated with Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum, their antigens and DNAs. Samples of blood and visceral organs were studied by several methods: cultural with use of standard media, PCR, RT-PCR, indirect hemagglutination test, and immunofluorescence assay for detection of antibodies.

RESULTS

Bacteremia with M. hominis develops during 2 months after inoculation in rabbits and 3 weeks after inoculation in mice. Antigens of M. hominis and U. urealyticum were detected in serum and visceral organs significantly frequently than live cells and DNAs. Prolonged preservation of the antigens in animals' blood and viscera after intraperitoneal administration of "pure" antigens points to the presence of true mycoplasmal antigenemia. Forms of existence of antigens in organism are different-they can represent corpuscular antigens as well as soluble molecular compounds circulating in blood both in free state and in structure of immune complexes. Antigens as well as live cells are preserved in all studied organs.

CONCLUSION

Inoculation of rabbits and mice with M. hominis or U. urealyticum resulted in development of generalized infection with persistence of the agent in all studied organs during initial phase of infection and predominant persistence in organs of immunogenesis during later phases.

[Preservation of antigens and DNA of urogenital mycoplasmas in circulating immune complexes]

AIM

To study the time of preservation of antigens and DNA of urogenital mycoplasmas in circulating immune complexes (CIC) in blood of rabbits after single inoculation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rabbits were inoculated with Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealiticum cell cultures washed in fetal calf serum. Reaction of aggregate-hemagglutination, immunofluorescence assay and PCR were used for detection of mycoplasmas' antigens and DNA.

RESULTS

It was shown that DNA and antigens of M. hominis persist in free state and in structure of CIC during 1 month and 3 months respectively. In immunized rabbits antigens and DNA of mycoplasmas were detected in CIC structure even 6 months after the last immunization. Pattern of detection of DNA and antigens of U. urealyticum in blood of inoculated rabbits consists in that both DNA and antigens of the microorganism were detected in structure of CIC in blood samples during 70 days, whereas in free state they were detected only during 35 days. Incomplete elimination of CIC is possibly related to their small size (11S and lower) that allows them to circulate for a long time.

CONCLUSION

Prolonged persistence of antigens and DNA of mycoplasmas in CIC structure is a fact that requires refinement of diagnostic criteria used for control of effectiveness of etiotropic therapy.

[Serum detection of human urogenital mycoplasma]

The authors compared the detection rate of DNA of urogenital Mycoplasmas (Ureaplasma spp. and M. hominis) in the urogenital tract (UGT) and serum samples by polymerase chain reaction. Testing the smears and serum samples from the same patients (n = 112) showed that Ureaplasma was more frequently detected in the UGT smears than in the serum samples. There was the same trend towards M. hominis although the difference was not so significant. Therefore, the detection of these microorganisms in UGT is of more informative value for diagnostic purposes. Examination of the serum samples for these purposes provides useful information in understanding the mechanisms of generalization of Mycoplasma infections and studying the routes and modes of spreading these bacteria in the organism.

Use of therapeutic plasma exchange in the management of acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis: a case report and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHLE) is a rare, fatal, central nervous demyelinating disease characterized by a rapid fulminant clinical course. Successful management requires early diagnosis, aggressive management of cerebral edema, and immunosuppression. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is infrequently used and commences after initial management fails.

CASE REPORT

A 31-year-old man presented with right arm weakness, whose symptoms rapidly progressed to hemiplegia and aphasia. The patient was initially managed with glucocorticosteroids. Decompressive craniotomy and brain biopsies were performed when his intracranial pressure increased. Brain biopsy findings were consistent with AHLE. Mycoplasma pneumonia immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin M serologies revealed recent infection. Despite surgical and medical management, he decompensated on Day 11, and TPE was initiated. The patient received a total of 10 TPE treatments. On the fourth day of TPE treatment, he was extubated. Twenty-one days after TPE began, he was ambulating with near normal muscle strength and was discharged. Four months after initial presentation, the patient has normal strength and is working full-time.

CONCLUSIONS

AHLE has a fulminant course requiring accurate and rapid diagnosis. Successful therapy requires aggressive management of intracranial pressure and immunosuppression. Two other reports of AHLE document successful management with TPE. Each of these patients survived with minimal neurologic impairments. Given the likely immune-mediated nature of this disease, combined treatment of steroids, surgery, and TPE may lead to shorter hospital stays and improved neurologic outcomes. Clinical studies are needed to further study the effect of TPE on neurologic outcome in AHLE.

Evidence for Mycoplasma ssp., Chlamydia pneunomiae, and human herpes virus-6 coinfections in the blood of patients with autistic spectrum disorders

We examined the blood of 48 patients from central and southern California diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) by using forensic polymerase chain reaction and found that a large subset (28/48 or 58.3%) of patients showed evidence of Mycoplasma spp. infections compared with two of 45 (4.7%) age-matched control subjects (odds ratio = 13.8, P < 0.001). Because ASD patients have a high prevalence of one or more Mycoplasma spp. and sometimes show evidence of infections with Chlamydia pneumoniae, we examined ASD patients for other infections. Also, the presence of one or more systemic infections may predispose ASD patients to other infections, so we examined the prevalence of C. pneumoniae (4/48 or 8.3% positive, odds ratio = 5.6, P < 0.01) and human herpes virus-6 (HHV-6, 14/48 or 29.2%, odds ratio = 4.5, P < 0.01) coinfections in ASD patients. We found that Mycoplasma-positive and -negative ASD patients had similar percentages of C. pneumoniae and HHV-6 infections, suggesting that such infections occur independently in ASD patients. Control subjects also had low rates of C. pneumoniae (1/48 or 2.1%) and HHV-6 (4/48 or 8.3%) infections, and there were no coinfections in control subjects. The results indicate that a large subset of ASD patients shows evidence of bacterial and/or viral infections (odds ratio = 16.5, P < 0.001). The significance of these infections in ASD is discussed in terms of appropriate treatment.

Improved enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to reveal Mycoplasma agassizii exposure: a valuable tool in the management of environmentally sensitive tortoise populations

The precarious status of desert (Gopherus agassizii) and gopher (Gopherus polyphemus) tortoises has resulted in research and conservation efforts that include health assessments as a substantial component of management decision-making. Therefore, it is critical that available diagnostic tests for diseases impacting these species undergo rigorous standardization and validation. Since 1992, analysis of exposure of tortoises to Mycoplasma agassizii, an etiological agent of upper respiratory tract disease, has relied on the detection of specific M. agassizii antibody by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We report here substantive refinements in the diagnostic assay and discuss the implications of its use in wildlife conservation and management. The ELISA has been refined to include more stringent quality control measures and has been converted to a clinically more meaningful titer reporting system, consistent with other diagnostic serologic tests. The ELISA results for 5,954 desert and gopher tortoises were plotted, and a subset of these serum samples (n = 90) was used to determine end-point titers, to establish an optimum serum dilution for analyzing samples, and to construct a standard curve. The relationship between titer and A405 was validated using 77 serum samples from known positive (n = 48) and negative (n = 29) control tortoises from prior transmission studies. The Youden index, J, and the optimal cut point, c, were estimated using ELISA results from the 77 control sera. Based on this evaluation, the refinement has substantially improved the performance of the assay (sensitivity of 0.98, specificity of 0.99, and J of 0.98), thus providing a clinically more reliable diagnostic test for this important infection of tortoises.

Detection of mixed infections with "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" and Mycoplasma haemofelis using real-time TaqMan polymerase chain reaction

The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of real-time TaqMan PCR assays for detection of coinfections with "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (Mhm), and Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), in vitro and over time in experimentally infected cats. First, the ability of each real-time PCR assay to detect and quantify mixed infections was determined in vitro by testing mixtures of plasmids containing Mhm and Mhf 16S rDNA with each assay. Subsequently, 4 specific pathogen-free (SPF) cats, 2 of which were splenectomized, were inoculated with blood from a cat infected with both Mhm and Mhf. Sixteen blood samples were then collected from each cat over a 55-day period. Each of the 64 postinoculation samples was tested using both conventional polymerase chain reaction (cPCR) and real-time PCR for the 16S rRNA gene of each organism. When applied to mixtures of plasmid DNA from each species, the results of quantitation with each of the real-time PCR assays approximately reflected the number of plasmid copies present. Forty-nine of 64 post-inoculation samples (77%) were positive using both cPCR and real-time PCR, 4 (6%) were positive using cPCR only, and 3 (5%) were positive using real-time PCR only. Both organisms were detected in 23 samples using real-time PCR. Mixed infections were not detected using cPCR. The size of the corresponding cPCR products suggested infection with Mhm in 4 and Mhf in 18 of these samples. The use of multiple separate real-time PCR assays rather than cPCR alone should thus be considered for epidemiologic studies of hemoplasmosis in cats.

Experimental evidence for transmission of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches by fomites

Ever since Mycoplasma gallisepticum emerged among house finches in North America, it has been suggested that bird aggregations at feeders are an important cause of the epidemic of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis because diseased birds could deposit droplets of pathogen onto the feeders and thereby promote indirect transmission by fomites. In this paper we bring the first experimental evidence that such transmission (bird-to-feeder-to-bird) does actually take place. House finches infected via this route, however, developed only mild disease and recovered much more rapidly than birds infected from the same source birds but directly into the conjunctiva. While it is certainly probable that house finch aggregations at artificial feeders enhance pathogen transmission, to some degree transmission of M. gallisepticum by fomites may serve to immunize birds against developing more severe infections. Some such birds develop M. gallisepticum antibodies, providing indication of an immune response, although no direct evidence of protection.

[Detection frequency of haemoplasma infections of the domestic cat in Germany]

We present epidemiological data on the frequency of infections with haemotrophic Mycoplasma spp. (feline haemoplasmas) in domestic cats in Germany. From November 2004 to October 2006 135 blood samples of anaemic patients and cats without clinical symptoms were examined with conventional and real-time PCR methods. In 15,6 % of the samples DNA of one or more haemoplasma species could be detected. 8,9 % of the samples (12 cats) were infected with "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum, whereas 7,4 % (10 cats) were infected with Mycoplasma haemofelis. Out of these, one cat harboured both species. The recently described species "Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis" was found in 2.2 % of all samples (3 cats) and was restricted to animals coinfected with M. haemofelis. No correlation could be detected between the infection with haemotrophic Mycoplasma spp. and clinical signs of anaemia or disease. Infections were significantly correlated with age, male gender or coinfections with retroviruses (FIV, FeLV). Our data indicate, that chronically infected carriers without clinical symptoms are frequent in the investigated cat populations in Germany and that the screening of blood-donors for the presence of Mycoplasma spp. infections is advisable before clinical use.

Use of immunoblotting to detect antibodies to Mycoplasma crocodyli infection in the sera of crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus)

An immunoblotting protocol for the detection of antibodies to Mycoplasma crocodyli was developed using sonicated antigen of the reference strain 266/93. Immunoblotting detected nine reacting antigens, of which the 33 and 40kDa antigens were immunodominant. There was no difference in reactivity of the antigens against sera obtained from vaccinated and infected crocodiles. Both antigens are candidates for other serological and molecular studies. This is the first report to develop and apply an immunoblotting test for detection of antibody to M. crocodyli infection in crocodiles.

Field trial of two dual vaccines against Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (large colony type) in goats

Two vaccines against Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (LC type) were developed using inactivated strains selected in previous characterization studies. The vaccines differed in terms of the adjuvants used: aluminium hydroxide (vaccine A) or aluminium hydroxide plus purified saponin (vaccine B). These vaccines were tested on 60 pregnant goats and 60 seronegative kids that were challenged by placing in a herd with a history of caprine contagious agalactia (CCA). Our findings indicate the effectiveness of the vaccines in preventing the appearance of new clinical signs such as mastitis, abortion, pneumonia and polyarthritis in CCA affected herds.

Development of a sensitive and specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on recombinant antigens for rapid detection of antibodies against Mycoplasma agalactiae in sheep

We developed a new recombinant enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (rELISA) for serodiagnosis of contagious agalactia (CA), a disease caused by Mycoplasma agalactiae in sheep and goats. The assay is based on two M. agalactiae surface proteins, namely, P80 and P55. Identification of these immunodominant and common antigens was accomplished by examining the antibody response elicited in sheep during experimental infection and comparing it to the protein expression profiles of 75 M. agalactiae field strains. Our rELISA was tested with 343 sera, collected from sheep with a laboratory-confirmed diagnosis of CA (n = 223) and from healthy animals (n = 120). All sera had previously been tested by Western blotting (WB) for reactivity against M. agalactiae. In addition, our rELISA was compared with a commercial routine ELISA based on inactivated antigens (CHEKiT). Among the 223 samples that were WB positive for M. agalactiae, 209 (93.7%) tested positive for rP80-P55 with our ELISA, whereas only 164 (73.8%) tested positive with the CHEKiT ELISA. Among the 120 samples tested that were WB negative for M. agalactiae, 96.7% were confirmed as negative with our rELISA, while only 75.8% were confirmed as negative with the CHEKiT ELISA. A comparison of the results with receiver operating characteristic curves indicated that the differences observed between our rELISA and the CHEKiT ELISA are statistically significant. The use of recombinant peptides instead of inactivated antigens could significantly improve the discrimination of positive and negative animals, bringing significant advantages in controlling the import/export of live animals and helping in eradication of this economically detrimental disease.

Absence of Mycoplasma-specific DNA sequence in brain, blood and CSF of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS): a study by PCR and real-time PCR

Mycoplasmas are the smallest of the known self-replicating organisms. They lack cell walls and are associated with numerous diseases in humans and animals. We are exploring the possibility that infection by Mycoplasma may induce the inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that is MS. The presence of specific Mycoplasma species DNA was sought in brain, serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neurological diseases (OND) including inflammatory disorders. The MS samples from patients with active and progressive MS, as well as in remission, a variety of other neurological disease controls, including inflammatory CNS diseases such as meningitis, cryptococcal meningitis and encephalitis and other neurological disorders such as migraine were also examined. Clinical samples were provided by the National Neurological Research Specimen Bank and the Human Brain and Spinal Fluid Resource Centre, Los Angeles. Analysis was carried out by conventional PCR using Mycoplasma-specific primers (McAuliffe et al., 2005) that target the 16S rDNA gene in Mycoplasma species. The Mycoplasma-specific primers could detect 102 Mycoplasma species. In this study, 30 samples of human brain and 57 pairs of serum and CSF and were examined. No Mycoplasma-specific nucleic acid sequence was detected, and the consistent observation of an endogenous gene, human serum albumin (HSA), as a positive control documented the adequacy of the method. Real-time PCR analysis of serum and CSF was done also targeting utilizing the Mycoplasma 16S rDNA gene, and this also demonstrated the lack of Mycoplasma in these samples. The presence of Mycoplasma at extraneural sites in MS patients is now being explored.

Effects of S6-strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum inoculation at ten, twenty-two, or forty-five weeks of age on the blood characteristics of commercial egg-laying hens

In 2 consecutive trials of the current study, the effect of the age of application of S6-strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum (S6MG) inoculation on the blood characteristics of commercial layers housed and maintained under controlled conditions was determined. The ages of inoculation compared were those before lay at 10 wk of age, during onset of lay at 22 wk of age, and during postpeak lay at 45 wk of age. In each trial, hematocrit, plasma protein, and serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and Ca were determined at 20, 24, 32, 43, 47, and 58 wk of age. The data from both trials were pooled then analyzed together, whereas, data from wk 20 (effect of 10-wk S6MG inoculation); data from wk 24, 32, and 43 (effects of 10- and 22-wk S6MG inoculations); and data from wk 47 and 58 (effects of 10-, 22-, and 45-wk S6MG inoculations) were analyzed separately. At wk 20, hematocrit was higher in birds inoculated with S6MG at 10 wk compared with sham-inoculated birds, and across wk 24, 32, and 43, serum Ca was higher in birds inoculated with S6MG at 10 or 22 wk compared with those that were sham-inoculated. Serum Ca level across wk 47 and 58 was higher in birds inoculated with S6MG at 10 wk compared with sham-inoculated controls and birds inoculated with S6MG at 22 wk, with 45-wk S6MG-inoculated birds being intermediate. The response of serum cholesterol level at 47 wk to S6MG inoculation at either 10, 22, or 45 wk compared with controls was nearly opposite to that of the response observed at 58 wk. However, serum triglycerides were depressed only at wk 47 due to the 45-wk S6MG inoculation compared with all other treatments. Variable post-peak alterations in serum Ca and lipids occur in response to the timing of S6MG inoculation in layers housed under controlled conditions.

Effect of chronic FIV infection, and efficacy of marbofloxacin treatment, on Mycoplasma haemofelis infection

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of chronic feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection, and efficacy of marbofloxacin treatment, on Mycoplasma haemofelis infection. Six cats chronically infected with FIV-Glasgow8 (Group X) and six FIV-free cats (Group Y) were infected with M. haemofelis on Day 0 by intravenous blood inoculation. From Day 0 until Day 86 post-infection (pi), blood samples were collected for M. haemofelis and FIV provirus quantitative real-time PCR and haematology. Three of the six cats in each of Groups X and Y were randomly selected to receive marbofloxacin treatment (2 mg/kg PO q24 h) from Day 16 to 43 pi, with the remaining cats being untreated controls with no antibiotic treatment. The M. haemofelis copy numbers and haematological data were compared between Groups X and Y, and between marbofloxacin-treated and control cats using a Mann-Whitney U-test. M. haemofelis infection was associated with development of macrocytic hypochromic anaemia. In some cats, marked variation in M. haemofelis copy number over time (>100,000-fold difference within 48 h in some cats) and/or cycling of copy number was seen. No correlation was found between FIV provirus copy number and M. haemofelis copy number or haematological variables. No significant effect of chronic FIV infection on M. haemofelis copy number kinetics or haematological changes due to M. haemofelis infection was found, other than MCHC (P=0.03). Marbofloxacin treatment was associated with a significant decrease in M. haemofelis copy number (P=0.002), although consistent clearance of infection was not demonstrated. This study reveals the presence of marked fluctuations in M. haemofelis copy number kinetics in vivo and a significant response to marbofloxacin antibiotic treatment.

[The mycoplasma infection rate in children with bronchial asthma]

A total of 167 children with bronchial asthma (BA) have been examined for the mycoplasma infection rate. Among investigated patients 62,8% were infected with one or more mycoplasma species. The prolonged persistence in patient body as well as biological properties of mycoplasmas give grounds to consider these agents as a risk factor in the development of the allergy-infection-borne BA and its relapses.

[Detection of mycoplasma antigens and immune complexes in sera of the children with bronchial asthma]

The study was targeted at revealing Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M.p.) and Mycoplasma hominis (M.h.) antigens in blood samples of children with bronchial asthma (BA),both in a free state and those included in circulating immune complexes (CIC). The mycoplasma antigens of one or both species have been detected in one third out of 62 patients with BA. In this group of patients the frequency of detection of specific antibodies twice exceeded that of mycoplasma antigens. Testing paired blood samples of children with BA (n=26) showed, that at receipt in a hospital and a month after primary examination the mycoplasma antigens were detected in 16 and 12 patients, respectively, the association of M.p. and M.h. antigens being more frequent. Data on distribution of antibodies according to immunoglobulin classes testify that basically two (M, G), or four (M, G, A, E) classes were registered in children, the M class antibodies in high percentage of cases (from 36.6 up to 50.0%)being detected in every term of examination. These data indirectly testify that the antigens can be partly included in the CIC structure. The level of the total CIC content in BA children's blood sera one month after hospitalization twice exceeded the value detected at primary examination. Three months later later this parameter decreased not reaching the control value. The differential analysis of the precipitated CIC within the whole period of examination showed that mycoplasma antigens were present in the CIC structure in 87.4 - 65.0% of cases. The data obtained precondition future studies on the role of mycoplasma and M.p. and M.h. antigens included in the CIC in the pathogenesis of BA.

[The comparison of mycoplasma detection methods in the urogenital tract infection]

Six different methods have been employed to detect M. hominis (Mh) and U. urealyticum (Uu) in clinical samples collected from 67 men. The results obtained by PCR and IF test were approximately equal: 13.6 and 13.44%--Mh and 44.4 and 48.8%--Uu, respectively. Mycoplasmas were detected by cultural method less frequently (9.6%--Mh, 32.2%--Uu). The highest infection rates were obtained in the test for blood antigens (40%--Mh and 63%--Uu). At present a commercial diagnosticum to detect mycoplasma antigents in blood is lacking. Sometimes the results of cultural method are positive, while the PCR results are negative. So the optimal scheme based on both PCR and culture has been proposed.

Mycoplasma haemolamae infection in a 4-day-old cria: support for in utero transmission by use of a polymerase chain reaction assay

Blood smear examination in a 4-day-old alpaca revealed massive erythrocyte parasitism by Mycoplasma haemolamae. Blood collected from both the nonparasitemic dam and the cria were positive for M. haemolamae by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis. These findings suggest in utero transmission of M. haemolamae in camelids, even when the dam is not parasitemic.

Mycoplasma penetrans infections and seroconversion in patients with AIDS: identification of major mycoplasmal antigens targeted by host antibody response

We examined Mycoplasma penetrans-specific antibodies in sera of five male homosexual AIDS patients from whom M. penetrans was isolated during the disease process. No consistent immune reaction pattern could be recognized in Western blot using whole cell proteins. Serum samples obtained prior to M. penetrans isolation reacted with a number of M. penetrans proteins, most likely due to non-specific cross-reactions. Further analysis revealed that patients produced prominent antibody reaction to lipid-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs) of M. penetrans at the time of mycoplasma isolation, which could not be observed for serum samples obtained prior to M. penetrans isolation. The positive antibody reaction was mainly directed against two major LAMPs of M. penetrans with molecular mass of 35 and 38 kDa and produced a distinctive pattern of positive immunoreaction bands. Our observation suggested that, comparing with whole mycoplasmal proteins, LAMPs were more specific target antigens in serological assays for M. penetrans infection.

Phase and size variable surface-exposed proteins in equine genital mycoplasmas

Mycoplasma equigenitalium and Mycoplasma subdolum have been associated with infertility, endometritis, vulvitis and abortions in mares, and with reduced fertility and balanoposthitis in stallions. Despite their role in equine genital disorder, determinants of virulence and pathogenesis as well as factors provoking specific host immune responses have not been identified, so far. To establish the major immunogenic components of Mycoplasma (M.) equigenitalium and M. subdolum, antigen profiles of their type strains as well as 30 clinical isolates were compared by SDS-PAGE and immunoblot analysis using hyperimmune rabbit sera and equine sera from clinical cases. To define the major protein antigens of both mycoplasma species, detergent-phase fractionation with Triton X-114 was performed. Western blot analysis of 30 clinical isolates revealed a high similarity of their overall antigen profile with only slight differences. In contrast, monospecific polyclonal antibodies raised against detergent-phase proteins of the two mycoplasma species identified three prominent proteins (pST17, pST42, and pET45) undergoing variation in expression and size among clinical and clonal isolates.

[Determination of systemic infections due to Mycoplasma in patients with clinically defined amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]

INTRODUCTION

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease of unknown origin which has been linked to chronic infections due to intracellular microorganisms.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to identify species of Mycoplasma in blood samples from patients with clinically defined ALS by means of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method in comparison to healthy control subjects.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We conducted a case-control study involving 75 participants, 20 of whom were patients with clinically defined ALS and 55 healthy controls. Venous blood samples were taken and processed in the Neuroimmunology Laboratory, where they were submitted to the PCR test for Mycoplasma sp.

RESULTS

The patients with ALS were between 35 and 82 years old (mean: 52.5); the ages of the healthy control subjects ranged from 35 to 60 years (mean: 44.1). After performing the PCR for Mycoplasma sp. the following results were obtained: among the patients with ALS, 10 were found to be positive (50%) and 10 were negative (50%), whereas in the control subjects we found six positives (10.91%) and 49 negatives (89.09%); these results were statistically significant (p = 0.001). On calculating the estimated risk, an odds ratio of 8167 (CI 95%: 2.4-27.6) was obtained. This indicates that the risk of suffering from ALS, if the PCR test for Mycoplasma sp. is positive, is 8:1.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong link between suffering from a chronic infection due to Mycoplasma and developing ALS. Intracellular pathogenic agents such as Mycoplasma can play a role in the genesis of neurodegenerative diseases.

Microbiological survey for Mycoplasma spp. in a contagious agalactia endemic area

In this work, we report a microbiological survey for Mycoplasma spp. undertaken between 2001 and 2002 in 28 goat herds in Gran Canaria, Spain, an area where contagious agalactia is endemic. All herds were randomly selected and represented approximately 15.5% of the total goat population of the island. A variable number of milk, articular and auricular swab samples were collected from each flock and cultured in specific mycoplasma culture media. There was a total of 38.5% positive flocks from which 37 mycoplasma isolates were obtained. In contrast with previous data obtained in Spain, our results showed that the large colony variant of M. mycoides subsp. mycoides (Mmm LC) was the most commonly isolated agent associated with contagious agalactia. This species was isolated from 90% of the positive herds and accounted for 54.1% of all isolations. M. agalactiae was isolated from 40% of the positive herds (27% of all isolations) and in six herds M. arginini was isolated (18.7% of all isolations). No M. capricolum or M. putrefaciens strains were isolated. Mycoplasmas were isolated from 21 milk samples, 15 ear canals swabs and one articular sample. The association of several species was reported in several herds. These results are at variance with previous serological studies, which indicated a higher disease prevalence, and suggest that it could be necessary to use detection techniques such PCR to confirm the existence of contagious agalactia in goats.

Development of a monoclonal blocking ELISA for the detection of antibody to Mycoplasma bovis in dairy cattle and comparison to detection by PCR

A monoclonal antibody blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (B-ELISA) was developed to detect antibodies to Mycoplasma bovis in cattle sera. The assay was highly specific and sensitive and there was no cross-reaction detected. This method revealed a high prevalence of antibodies (60%) to M. bovis in dairy cattle in North Queensland. The diagnostic potential of this B-ELISA for the detection of antibody to M. bovis was compared with its detection by PCR. There was a strong positive correlation between PCR and B-ELISA titers. Thus, the B-ELISA appears to be a valuable and reproducible tool in the serodiagnosis of M. bovis infection in cattle.

The use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Mycoplasma hominis antibodies in infertile women serum samples

BACKGROUND

Besides Chlamydiae trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium, Mycoplasma hominis may also cause infertility due to damage of the Fallopian tubes. Therefore serum samples from infertile women were analyzed for antibodies to M. hominis.

METHODS

Sera from 304 infertile women were investigated for seropositivity to M. hominis by immunoblotting and a developed ELISA. Women were classified into groups based on the type of infertility: infertile due to lack of passage in Fallopian tubes (TFI, tubal factor infertility), an infertile male partner (MFI, male factor infertility) and unexplained infertility (UFI, unexplained factor infertility). Three M. hominis isolates were used in the immunoblotting analysis and clear differences in patient immunoprofiles were observed between two isolates. For the ELISA we used a mixture of Triton X-114 extracted membrane proteins from those two M. hominis isolates as antigen.

RESULTS

Ninety-seven sera (32%) were seropositive to M. hominis when tested by the ELISA. There was a significant correlation between TFI and seropositivity to M. hominis (P = 0.0015, OR = 2.21, CI = 1.35-3.61). We compared the seropositivity of 304 patients to M. hominis with the presence of antibodies against two other bacteria Chlamydiae trachomatis and Mycoplasma genitalium and there was no statistical correlation between those bacteria and M. hominis.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that M. hominis may be an independent predictor of TFI.

Persistence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in chickens after treatment with enrofloxacin without development of resistance

The ability of the avian pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum to persist despite fluoroquinolone treatment was investigated in chickens. Groups of specific pathogen free chickens were experimentally infected with M. gallisepticum and treated with enrofloxacin at increasing concentrations up to the therapeutic dose. When M. gallisepticum could no longer be re-isolated from chickens, birds were stressed by inoculation of infectious bronchitis virus or avian pneumovirus. Although M. gallisepticum could not be cultured from tracheal swabs collected on several consecutive sampling days after the end of the enrofloxacin treatments, the infection was not eradicated. Viral infections reactivated the mycoplasma infection. Mycoplasmas were isolated from tracheal rings cultured for several days, suggesting that M. gallisepticum persisted in the trachea despite the enrofloxacin treatment. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of enrofloxacin for most of the re-isolated mycoplasmas was the same as that of the strain with which the birds were inoculated. Furthermore, no mutation could be detected in the fluoroquinolone target genes. These results suggest that M. gallisepticum can persist in chickens without development of resistance despite several treatments with enrofloxacin.

Artifactual hypoglycemia associated with hemotrophic mycoplasma infection in a lamb

BACKGROUND

A 35-day-old male lamb with Mycoplasma ovis infection (previously Eperythrozoon ovis) was evaluated because of severe hypoglycemia (serum glucose 4 mg/dL, Hitachi 704 automated chemistry analyzer) inconsistent with the animal's condition. Whole blood glucose concentration measured with a glucometer was 74 mg/dL.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate this discrepancy through in vitro evaluation of the patient's blood.

METHODS

Blood was incubated alone, with increasing concentrations of plasma, or with equine serum of known glucose concentration for 0, 15, 30, and 60 minutes at room temperature; end-point glucose concentrations were compared with blood from a control sheep handled similarly.

RESULTS

A rapid decline in glucose concentration was observed in heparinized or EDTA anticoagulated whole blood from the infected lamb incubated alone or with the equine serum. Glucose concentrations in incubated samples from a control sheep remained stable. Incubation of increasing concentrations of heparinized blood with autologous plasma resulted in decreased glucose concentrations in patient, but not control, blood. As parasitemia decreased after treatment, serum glucose concentration increased, serum lactate concentration decreased, and in vitro glucose concentration stabilized.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are consistent with parasite-associated in vitro glucose consumption. An increase in the lamb's plasma glucose concentration associated with reduction of parasite load suggested excess glucose consumption also may have occurred in vivo.