Outbreak of ragwort (Senecio jacobea) poisoning in horses

Do Poisonous Plants in Pastures Communicate Their Toxicity? Meta-Study and Evaluation of Poisoning Cases in Central Europe

One of the possible roles of secondary plant metabolites, including toxins, is facilitating plant-animal communication. Lethal cases of pasture poisoning show that the message is not always successfully conveyed. As the focus of poisoning lies in the clinical aspects, the external circumstances of pasture poisoning are widely unknown. To document poisoning conditions in cattle, sheep, goats, and horses on pastures and to compile a checklist of plants involved in either poisoning or co-existence (zero poisoning), published case reports were evaluated as primary sources. The number of affected animal individuals was estimated within abundance classes from 0 to more than 100. The checklist of poisonous plants comprised 52 taxa. Of these, 13 taxa were deemed safe (no reference was found indicating poisoning), 11 taxa were associated with evidence-based zero poisoning (positive list), and 28 taxa were associated with poisoning (negative list). Nine plant taxa caused poisoning in more than 100 animal individuals. Zero poisoning accounted for 40% and poisoning accounted for 60% of a total of 85 cases. Poisoning was most often associated with a limited choice of feed (24.7%), followed by overgrazing (12.9%), seasonally scarce feed (10.6%), and co-ingestion of grass (4.7%). Hunger interferes with plant-animal co-existence, while zero poisoning improves it. In conclusion, poisonous plants in pastures may communicate their toxicity if the animals have enough alternative feed plants. An individual animal might utterly perceive the communication of toxicity by the plant species but be forced to ignore the message owing to a limited choice of feed options.

Association between forage mycotoxins and liver disease in horses

Background

Outbreaks of liver disease in horses are common but the etiology of most remains unknown. Forage mycotoxins have been suspected to be a cause.

Objectives

To examine the association between outbreaks of liver disease and the presence of mycotoxins in forage stored on the same premises.

Animals

Premises were identified where ≥4 horses were contemporaneously affected by liver disease, and a control group was formed from premises where ≥4 horses had been examined and found to have no evidence of liver disease.

Methods

Forage was collected from 29 case and 12 control premises. The forage was analyzed for mycotoxin content using a liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry method, targeting 54 mycotoxins. The presence and distribution of mycotoxins between case and control samples was compared.

Results

Mycotoxins were found in 23/29 (79%) case samples and 10/12 (83%) control samples (P > .99; relative risk, 0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.64‐1.75). Median (interquartile range [IQR]) total mycotoxin concentration was similar in case and control samples (85.8 μg/kg [1.6‐268] vs. 315 μg/kg [6.3‐860]; P = .16). Ten mycotoxins were found exclusively in case premises comprising fumonisin B1, 15‐acetyldeoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, aflatoxins B1 and G1, methylergonovine, nivalenol, verruculogen, and wortmannin. The median (IQR) concentration of fumonisin B1 was significantly higher in case versus control samples (0 μg/kg [0‐81.7] vs. 0 μg/kg [0‐0]; P = .04).

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Several mycotoxins with known hepatotoxic potential were found, alone or in combination, exclusively at case premises, consistent with the hypothesis that forage‐associated mycotoxicosis may be a cause of outbreaks of liver disease in horses in the United Kingdom.

Grazing Ecology of Sheep and Its Impact on Vegetation and Animal Health on Pastures Dominated by Common Ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.)-Part 2: Animal Health

Common ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.) naturally occurs on species-rich grasslands. Containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), it endangers livestock health through contaminated feed. Although in vitro studies showed a detoxification capacity of PA in sheep, few field data are available on the ability of grazing sheep to cope with ragwort. During two grazing seasons on a ragwort-rich pasture, we studied: (1) To what extent do sheep voluntarily ingest ragwort and (2) What impact their grazing behavior has on animal health. Ragwort intake was monitored by counting missing plant parts and calculating their weight. From 70 sheep, seven were slaughtered at the beginning and in six-week intervals at the end of each grazing period to monitor blood parameters and liver tissue. Sheep continuously preferred ragwort. The daily intake was above the currently assumed lethal dose, varying between 0.2-4.9 kg per sheep. Clinical, hematologic, and blood biochemistry parameters mostly remained within the reference limits. Initially elevated liver copper content declined over time. The liver of all 70 animals displayed slight to moderate hepatitis, fibrosis, and proliferation of the bile ducts, but no morphological signs of liver cirrhosis. Sheep preferred and tolerated ragwort, making their grazing an option to control ragwort from both an animal health and nature conservation perspective.

Grazing Ecology of Sheep and Its Impact on Vegetation and Animal Health in Pastures Dominated by Common Ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.)-Part 1: Vegetation

Species-rich pastures naturally contain potentially toxic plants such as common ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.), whose pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) impose a risk, mainly for cattle and horses. Although in vitro studies showed detoxification capacity of PA in sheep, few field data are available to ascertain whether grazing sheep can both tolerate and reduce ragwort. In a two-year study in a ragwort-rich pasture with a stocking density of 12 sheep/hectare, we documented (1) the extent of voluntarily ingested ragwort, (2) the correlation of nutritional parameters and feeding behavior, and (3) the impact of grazing on the yield proportion and number of flowers of dominant plants. Every six weeks the vegetation underwent a botanical survey and a chemical analysis. Sheep continuously ingested ragwort between 1.2 and 4.9 kg (2020) and 1.0 and 2.2 kg (2021) per individual per day without any impact on animal health. The more biomass ragwort produced, the more it contained sugar (r = 0.59-0.74), and the more sheep ingested it (r = 0.94-0.95). Other herbs increased their yield proportion from 23.3 to 36.5%, while that of ragwort decreased from 26.3 to 18.8% (2020/2021), doubling its flowers. Sheep preferred and tolerated ragwort, making their grazing an option to control ragwort from both an animal health and a nature conservation perspective.

Hematological and Serum Biochemical Changes and Their Prognostic Value in Horses Spontaneously Poisoned by Crotalaria spectabilis

Determining the prognosis of poisoning by plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids is usually challenging. This study aimed to identify important prognostic parameters that can determine the severity of spontaneous poisoning by Crotalaria spectabilis in horses. Blood samples from 42 horses spontaneously poisoned by oats contaminated with C. spectabilis seeds were evaluated. Complete blood counts (CBC) and serum biochemical tests [urea, creatinine, total protein, albumin, total and direct bilirubin concentrations, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), and creatine kinase (CK) activities] were performed. Horses were followed up for 12 months to determine the long-term survival rate; after 12 months, they were divided into two groups: survivors (n = 30) and non-survivors (n = 12). Horses spontaneously poisoned with C. spectabilis had higher levels of urea, globulin, bilirubin (total, direct, and indirect), AST, GGT, and CK than the reference values. Non-survivor horses showed significantly higher (p < 0.05) values of hemoglobin, GGT, and direct bilirubin than the survivor horses. Horses with serum GGT activity higher than 95 U/l had 14.0 times the risk of death compared to animals showing activities equal to or lower than this value, whereas horses with serum direct bilirubin concentration higher than 0.6 mg/dl (10.26 μmol/L) had 5.78 times the risk of death compared to the others. In summary, serum GGT activity and direct bilirubin concentration may be useful prognostic indicators for assessing the severity of C. spectabilis-poisoned horses.

Horses' rejection behaviour towards the presence of Senecio jacobaea L. in hay

BACKGROUND

Senecio jacobaea contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids that can induce severe hepatic intoxication in horses, either acute when ingested in high amounts or chronic when consumed over a long period. The aim of this study was to determine horses' rejection behaviour towards the presence of Senecio jacobaea in hay when fed ad libitum. We hypothesized that adult horses can sort Senecio jacobaea out of the contaminated hay when hay is fed ad libitum. Six warmblood geldings with a mean (±SD) age of 15 ± 2 years were included. In a randomized study, Senecio jacobaea contaminated hay (5% or 10% contamination level) was provided at several timepoints over the day for 1 hour to six. Hay was provided ad libitum for the rest of the day. The horses' rejection behaviour towards Senecio jacobaea was observed. If a horse ingested two Senecio jacobaea plants twice at different timepoints, then the horse was excluded from the experiment.

RESULTS

Two out of six horses had to be excluded from the study after three out of 12 observation periods due to repeated Senecio jacobaea intake. Two other horses had to be excluded after nine and 11 out of 12 observation periods. Only two horses were able to sort out the various amounts (5 and 10% contamination level) of Senecio jacobaea during the whole experiment.

CONCLUSIONS

Horses' intake of Senecio jacobaea cannot be avoided despite being fed with hay ad libitum. Due to the risk of chronic intoxication by pyrrolizidine alkaloids intake, feeding Senecio jacobaea contaminated hay must be avoided, and pastures with Senecio jacobaea growth are considered inappropriate for feed production.

Pulmonary and hepatic lesions caused by the dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid-producing plants Crotalaria juncea and Crotalaria retusa in donkeys

The effects and susceptibility of donkeys to Crotalaria juncea and Crotalaria retusa poisoning were determined at high and low doses. Seeds of C. juncea containing 0.074% of dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids (DHPAs) (isohemijunceines 0.05%, trichodesmine 0.016%, and junceine 0.008%) were administered to three donkeys at 0.3, 0.6 and 1 g/kg body weight (g/kg) daily for 365 days. No clinical signs were observed and, on liver and lung biopsies, the only lesion was a mild liver megalocytosis in the donkeys ingesting 0.6 and 1 g/kg/day. Two other donkeys that received daily doses of 3 and 5 g seed/kg showed initial respiratory signs 70 and 40 days after the start of the administration, respectively. The donkeys were euthanized following severe respiratory signs and the main lung lesions were proliferation of Clara cells and interstitial fibrosis. Three donkeys ingested seeds of C. retusa containing 5.99% of monocrotaline at daily doses of 0.025, 0.05 and 0.1 g/kg for 365 days. No clinical signs were observed and, on liver and lung biopsies, the only lesion was moderate liver megalocytosis in each of the three donkeys. One donkey that received a single dose of 5 g/kg of C. retusa seeds and another that received 1 g/kg daily for 7 days both showed severe clinical signs and died with diffuse centrilobular liver necrosis. No lung lesions were observed. Another donkey that received a single dose of 2.5 g/kg of C. retusa seeds showed no clinical signs. The hepatic and pneumotoxic effects observed are consistent with an etiology involving DHPAs. Furthermore, the occurrence of lung or liver lesions correlates with the type of DHPAs contained in the seeds. Similarly as has been reported for horses, the data herein suggest that in donkeys some DHPAs are metabolized in the liver causing liver disease, whereas others are metabolized in the lung by Clara cells causing lung disease.

Loss of pyrrolizidine alkaloids on decomposition of ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) as measured by LC-TOF-MS

The decomposition of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids in ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) on storage in waste bags has been evaluated by a new time-of-flight mass spectrometric detection method. The method makes progress in meeting the clear need for modern analytical methods for pyrrolizidine alkaloids and for studies into factors affecting the stability of the toxins in the uprooted plant, which might still be accessible to animals. The experiments demonstrated a rapid decomposition of the toxins in ragwort stored in bags, from 340 mg/kg to less than 40 mg/kg in four weeks and virtually complete loss after 10 weeks. The information obtained can guide effective ragwort removal procedures to safeguard grazing animals.

Intoxicação experimental por Senecio brasiliensis (Asteraceae) em eqüinos

As partes aéreas dessecadas de Senecio brasiliensis (Spreng.) colhidas em estágio de brotação foram administradas a 14 eqüinos de raça mista, com idades de 4-22 anos e pesos de 230-475 kg. Um eqüino de 15 anos, que não recebeu a planta, serviu de controle. Pequenas quantidades da planta eram misturadas à ração oferecida aos eqüinos; quantidades maiores eram moídas, misturadas em água e administradas por sonda nasogástrica. Biópsias hepáticas foram periodicamente realizadas em 11 eqüinos. Nove eqüinos morreram com sinais ou lesões da intoxicação após receberem quantidades da planta correspondente a 0,87%, 1,5% (administrações únicas), 1,74% (duas administrações semanais), 3.0% (três administrações diárias), 7.42% (17 administrações semanais), 8.9% (284 administrações diárias), 9.66% (82 administrações diárias) e 9,30% (43 administrações semanais) de seus pesos corporais. Dois eqüinos que receberam quantidades da planta correspondentes a 15,0% (30 e 60 administrações diárias) de seus pesos corporais morreram durante o experimento por causas não relacionadas à intoxicação. Três eqüinos que receberam quantidades da planta correspondentes a 0,5% e 1.0% (administrações únicas), 15.0% (240 administrações diárias) de seus pesos corporais e o eqüino controle sobreviveram sem apresentar sinais clínicos. A doença clínica induzida pela planta teve uma evolução de 1-30 dias e foi caracterizada por anorexia, icterícia, e sinais neurológicos de encefalopatia hepática. Perda de peso foi observada nos casos de evolução clínica mais longa. Os achados de necropsia incluíam acentuação do padrão lobular na superfície natural e de corte dos fígados ou eram firmes e vermelho-escuros. Hemorragias disseminadas eram freqüentes, mas mais conspícuas no tecido subcutâneo, superfícies serosa e mucosa do trato gastrintestinal. Edema era observado na submucosa do trato gastrintestinal e nas cavidades orgânicas. Microscopicamente, o fígado dos eqüinos que ingeriram quantidades maiores da planta por períodos relativamente curtos mostrava necrose coagulativa e hemorragia com cuja distribuição variava de centrolobular a massiva. Hepatomegalocitose moderada ou acentuada e fibrose discreta a moderada foi observada em 4 eqüinos que ingeriram pequenas quantidades da planta por períodos mais prolongados. Colestase e hemossiderose foram observadas no fígado de 8 eqüinos, agregados de neutrófilos no de 6, e pseudo-inclusões acidofílicas intranucleares ocorreram nos hepatócitos do fígado de 3 eqüinos. Alterações sugestivas de encefalopatia hepática foram observadas no encéfalo de 6 eqüinos. A lesão mais precoce observada nas biópsias hepáticas foi vacuolização dos núcleos de hepatócitos seguida por perda de hepatócitos por apoptose, hepatomegalocitose, infiltração por neutrófilos e necrose centrolobular. Ocasionalmente, observavam-se pseudo-inclusões acidofílicas intranu-cleares nos hepatócitos e, em casos mais crônicos, leve fibrose. Não foram observadas alterações nas biópsias hepáticas dos 4 eqüinos que receberam a planta e que sobreviveram, nem nas biópsias hepáticas dos 2 eqüinos que morreram de causas não relacionas à intoxicação. O eqüino controle não apresentou sinais clínicos.

Intoxicação por Crotalaria retusa (Fabaceae) em Eqüídeos no semi-árido da Paraíba

De 2000 a 2003 oito casos de intoxicação por Crotalaria retusa L. foram observados em eqüinos em 8 fazendas na região semi-árida da Paraíba e do Ceará. C. retusa foi encontrada no pasto em todas as propriedades. Os principais sinais clínicos foram característicos de encefalopatia hepática, com apatia ou hiperexcitabilidade, pressão da cabeça, andar compulsivo ou em círculo e, ocasionalmente, galope descontrolado e violento. Decréscimo nos reflexos dos nervos craniais, ataxia e fraqueza foram também observados. Outros sinais clínicos foram anorexia, perda de peso, fotossensibilização e icterícia. O curso clínico variou de 4 a 40 dias, mas muitos cavalos tinham um histórico prévio de perda de peso. À necropsia os fígados eram duros, com superfície irregular e áreas brancas misturadas com áreas vermelho-escuras e com aumento no padrão lobular. Icterícia moderada, ascite, hidropericárdio e hidrotorax foram também observados. Edema e moderada congestão foram observadas nos pulmões. As lesões histológicas do fígado foram caracterizadas por fibrose, principalmente periportal, megalocitose e proliferação de células dos ductos biliares. Áreas multifocais de hemorragias centrolobulares ou mediozonais foram também observadas. Necrose hemorrágica centrolobular estava presente em dois eqüinos. Foram observados astrócitos Alzheimer tipo II, isolados ou em grupos principalmente no núcleo caudato e córtex em 4 eqüinos. A intoxicação foi produzida experimentalmente em 1 eqüino e 3 asininos. O eqüino adulto, recebeu diariamente, 100 g de sementes de C. retusa e morreu aos 52 dias após o início do experimento. C. retusa inteira, seca foi misturada com capim e dada a 3 asininos adultos em doses diárias de 10 g/kg, 5 g/kg e 2,5 g/kg respectivamente. O asinino tratado com 5 g/kg morreu aos 48 dias após o início do experimento e os outros dois foram sacrificados aos 120 dias. Os sinais clínicos e a patologia foram similares aos observados nos casos espontâneos, alguns astrócitos Alzheimer tipo II foram observados somente no asinino que morreu após 48 dias do inicio da ingestão. A concentração de monocrotalina na planta inteira administrada aos asininos foi 0,5%.

Mortality supposedly due to intoxication by pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Heliotropium indicum in a horse population in Costa Rica: a case report

This article describes a case of massive mortality among horses which was probably due to intoxication by pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Heliotropium indicum. Over 4 years more than 75% of a population of about 110 horses on a farm in Costa Rica died after showing nervous neurological symptoms. Two clinical manifestations were encountered, an acute and a chronic one, both with a fatal outcome. Pathological findings in 2 horses coincided with those reported in the literature for intoxication by pyrrolizidine alkaloids and were not specific for VEE. However Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) was the main differential diagnosis and could not completely be excluded because this disease was endemic in the region and VEE titres were found to be high. Taxonomic and toxicological investigations implicated Heliotropium indicum as the most probable principal cause of the intoxication.

Senecio spp. POISONING OF HORSES IN SOUTHERN BRAZIL

Cases of seneciosis in horses occurring in four farms in the state of Santa Catarina and in another in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, are reported. S. brasiliensis or S. oxyphyllus or both were detected in four of the five properties. Five horses (one on each property) were necropsied, and tissues for histopathological examination were collected from four horses. Neurological signs, such as depression, ataxia, aimeless walking, circling, head pressing, faulty prehension of food, dysphagia and blindness were consistently observed. Other signs included inappetence, loss of weight, colic, subcutaneous edema, icterus and photodermatitis. At necropsy the livers were firmer and darker than normal and had accentuation of lobular pattern. Edema of the mesentery and ascites were observed in one horse. Main histopathological changes consisted of hepatic chiefly periportal fibrosis, hepatomegalocytosis and biliary hyperplasia. Marked cholestasis and morphological evidence of hepatic encephalopathy were seen respectively in the liver and brain of one of the horses.

Clinical and pathological studies in horses with hepatic disease

In horses with hepatic necrosis, lipidosis, neoplasia and cirrhosis, progression of the disease was studied by serial measurements of total serum bile acid concentrations and of plasma glutamate dehydrogenase (GD) and gamma glutamyl transferase (gamma GT) and by liver biopsy. Plasma ammonia concentrations were significantly elevated compared to clinically normal horses, but such changes were not always accompanied by a decline in plasma urea concentration. A fall in plasma glucose concentration carried a guarded prognosis. These were all invaluable aids in early diagnosis and throughout the disease course. The study suggests that other factors, such as hypokalaemia, alkalosis, short chain volatile fatty acids, false and true neurotransmitters, may be important in the pathogenesis of hepatic coma in the horse.

Serum protein concentrations in horses with severe liver disease: a retrospective study and review of the literature

The present retrospective study was undertaken to determine the frequency of hypoproteinemia and hypoalbuminemia in horses with natural occurring severe liver disease. The study represents a review of case records and laboratory data of 84 horses presented with acute or chronic liver disease to the University of California Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital between 1973 and 1991. Forty horses (48%) had serum protein concentrations above the maximum reference value (7.7 g/dL). The increase in serum protein concentration was associated with hyperglobulinemia (P = .00005, R2 = .80). Only 13% (11/84) of the horses had serum albumin concentrations below the minimum reference range (2.5 g/dL), and hypoproteinemia was found in only 1 of these horses. Of these, 18% (9/51) of the horses with chronic liver disease and 6% (2/33) of the horses with acute liver disease had albumin concentrations below the minimum reference value. Globulin concentrations in 64% of the horses (54/84) were above the maximum reference value (4.0 g/dL). The present study indicates that hypoproteinemia and hypoalbuminemia are not common features in horses with severe liver disease.