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Satué K, Fazio E, Medica P, Miguel L, Gardón JC. Biochemical and Hematological Indexes of Liver Dysfunction in Horses. J Equine Vet Sci 2023; 126:104294. [PMID: 36958409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2023.104294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
In the present review, the authors, based on the multiple functions performed by the liver, analyze the multiple biochemical and hematological changes as an expression of altered liver function in the horse. The liver performs important metabolic functions related to the synthesis, degradation, and excretion of various substances. Modification of these functions can be evaluated and diagnosed by determining serum concentrations of several serum analytes, including enzymes and other endogenous substances. Hepatocellular enzymes, such as sorbitol dehydrogenase-SDH and glutamate dehydrogenase-GLDH, are released following hepatocellular necrosis. Hepatobiliary enzymes, such as γ-glutamyl transferase-GGT, increase in response to necrosis, cholestasis, and other alterations in bile conducts. Serum concentrations of mainly endogenous and exogenous substances that the liver should synthesize or eliminate, such as proteins (albumin and globulins), bile acids, urea, glucose, total and direct bilirubin, and coagulation factors, and fibrinogen should be included in the liver function test profile. The interpretation of laboratory tests of liver function will allow the diagnosis of functional loss of the organ. Some of the analytes considered provide information on the prognosis of liver disease. This review will provide an accurate and objective interpretation of the common biochemical and hematological tests in use in the diagnosis of equine hepatic disease patients, aiding still further the veterinary activity on the applied equine clinical cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katiuska Satué
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Esterina Fazio
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Veterinary Physiology Unit, Polo Universitario Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| | - Pietro Medica
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Veterinary Physiology Unit, Polo Universitario Annunziata, Messina, Italy
| | - Laura Miguel
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Gardón
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary and Experimental Sciences, Catholic University of Valencia-San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain
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Pathologic Conditions of the Nervous System in Horses. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2022; 38:427-443. [PMID: 35810149 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The variety of neurologic diseases which affect horses makes pathologic examination of the nervous system a complex and lengthy process. An understanding of the common causes of neurologic disease, antemortem neurolocalization, and supplementation of the necropsy examination with ancillary testing will help to diagnose a large number of causes of neurologic disease. A general understanding of neuropathology and collaborative relationship with your local pathologists will aid in the definitive diagnosis of neurologic diseases.
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Jahns H, Callanan JJ, McElroy MC, Sammin DJ, Bassett HF. Age-related and Non-age—related Changes in 100 Surveyed Horse Brains. Vet Pathol 2016; 43:740-50. [PMID: 16966453 DOI: 10.1354/vp.43-5-740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Brains from 100 horses, aged 2-25 years, were systematically examined by histopathology at 46 different neuroanatomical sites. The horses were sourced from a slaughterhouse (group A, n = 57), from a kennel that collected dead animals, and from 2 diagnostic laboratories (group B, n = 43). All horses from group A and 26 horses from group B were examined by a veterinarian in the period before death. None of the horses were known to exhibit clinical signs suggestive of neurologic disease. Among the main changes identified were vacuolation in the neuropil ( n = 73), neurons ( n = 32), white matter ( n = 31), and focal perivascular lymphoid cell infiltrates ( n = 35). Spheroids were frequently seen ( n = 91), and 10 horses each had more than 10 spheroids in the cuneate or gracile nucleus. Statistically significant age-related changes noted included intraneuronal ( n = 97) and glial or extracellular lipofuscin deposition ( n = 41), hemosiderin deposition around blood vessels ( n = 60), and calcium depositions ( n = 24). One horse had low-grade nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis; Alzheimer type II cells were detected in the brains of 2 horses. Hyalinized vessel walls in the cerebellum were observed in 1 horse. It was concluded that some histopathologic changes are a frequent feature in equine brains, which has implications for the pathologists involved in equine neurology and disease surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Jahns
- Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Backweston Campus, Young's Cross, Celbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland.
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Giannitti F, Diab S, Mete A, Stanton JB, Fielding L, Crossley B, Sverlow K, Fish S, Mapes S, Scott L, Pusterla N. Necrotizing Enteritis and Hyperammonemic Encephalopathy Associated With Equine Coronavirus Infection in Equids. Vet Pathol 2015; 52:1148-56. [PMID: 25648965 DOI: 10.1177/0300985814568683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Equine coronavirus (ECoV) is a Betacoronavirus recently associated clinically and epidemiologically with emerging outbreaks of pyrogenic, enteric, and/or neurologic disease in horses in the United States, Japan, and Europe. We describe the pathologic, immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and molecular findings in 2 horses and 1 donkey that succumbed to natural infection with ECoV. One horse and the donkey (case Nos. 1, 3) had severe diffuse necrotizing enteritis with marked villous attenuation, epithelial cell necrosis at the tips of the villi, neutrophilic and fibrinous extravasation into the small intestinal lumen (pseudomembrane formation), as well as crypt necrosis, microthrombosis, and hemorrhage. The other horse (case No. 2) had hyperammonemic encephalopathy with Alzheimer type II astrocytosis throughout the cerebral cortex. ECoV was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in small intestinal tissue, contents, and/or feces, and coronavirus antigen was detected by immunohistochemistry in the small intestine in all cases. Coronavirus-like particles characterized by spherical, moderately electron lucent, enveloped virions with distinct peplomer-like structures projecting from the surface were detected by negatively stained transmission electron microscopy in small intestine in case No. 1, and transmission electron microscopy of fixed small intestinal tissue from the same case revealed similar 85- to 100-nm intracytoplasmic particles located in vacuoles and free in the cytoplasm of unidentified (presumably epithelial) cells. Sequence comparison showed 97.9% to 99.0% sequence identity with the ECoV-NC99 and Tokachi09 strains. All together, these results indicate that ECoV is associated with necrotizing enteritis and hyperammonemic encephalopathy in equids.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Giannitti
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, USA
| | - S Diab
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - A Mete
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - J B Stanton
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology and Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - L Fielding
- Loomis Basin Equine Medical Center, Loomis, CA, USA
| | - B Crossley
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - K Sverlow
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - S Fish
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - S Mapes
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - L Scott
- Idaho Equine Hospital, Nampa, ID, USA
| | - N Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Fielding CL, Higgins JK, Higgins JC, McIntosh S, Scott E, Giannitti F, Mete A, Pusterla N. Disease associated with equine coronavirus infection and high case fatality rate. J Vet Intern Med 2014; 29:307-10. [PMID: 25319406 PMCID: PMC4858071 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine coronavirus (ECoV) is associated with clinical disease in adult horses. Outbreaks are associated with a low case fatality rate and a small number of animals with signs of encephalopathic disease are described. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study is to describe the epidemiological and clinical features of two outbreaks of ECoV infection that were associated with an high case fatality rate. ANIMALS 14 miniature horses and 1 miniature donkey testing fecal positive for ECoV from two related disease outbreaks. METHODS Retrospective study describing the epidemiological findings, clinicopathological findings, and fecal viral load from affected horses. RESULTS In EcoV positive horses, 27% (4/15) of the animals died or were euthanized. Severe hyperammonemia (677 μmol/L, reference range ≤ 60 μmol/L) was identified in one animal with signs of encephalopathic disease that subsequently died. Fecal viral load (ECoV genome equivalents per gram of feces) was significantly higher in the nonsurvivors compared to animals that survived (P = .02). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE Equine coronavirus had a higher case fatality rate in this group of miniature horses than previously reported in other outbreaks of varying breeds. Hyperammonemia could contribute to signs of encephalopathic disease, and the fecal viral load might be of prognostic value in affected horses.
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Unt VE, McSloy A, Kerbyson N, Ivens PAS, Johns I. Gastrointestinal hyperammonaemia in a 35-day-old Warmblood-cross filly. EQUINE VET EDUC 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00285.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Dunkel B, Chaney KP, Dallap-Schaer BL, Pellegrini-Masini A, Mair TS, Boston R. Putative intestinal hyperammonaemia in horses: 36 cases. Equine Vet J 2011; 43:133-40. [PMID: 21592205 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00128.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING THE STUDY Intestinal hyperammonaemia (HA) has been infrequently reported in individual horses; however, there have been no studies describing clinical and laboratory data as well as short- and long-term outcome in a larger number of cases. OBJECTIVES To describe clinical and laboratory data and short- and long-term outcome in a large group of horses with intestinal HA. METHODS Multi-centred, retrospective study; case records of horses with HA were reviewed and any horse with a clinical or post mortem diagnosis of intestinal HA was included. Hyperammonaemia was defined as a blood ammonium (NH(4) (+)) concentration ≥60 µmol/l and horses with a diagnosis of primary hepatic disease were excluded. Relevant data were recorded and, if appropriate, data from survivors were compared to nonsurvivors to identify potential prognostic indicators. RESULTS Thirty-six cases, 26 mature horses and 10 foals with intestinal HA were identified. Case histories included diarrhoea, colic and neurological signs and the most common clinical diagnosis was colitis and/or enteritis. The most common clinical and laboratory abnormalities included tachycardia, increased packed cell volume, hyperlactataemia and hyperglycaemia. Fourteen horses (39%) survived to discharge; NH(4) (+) concentration on admission was the only parameter significantly associated with survival. All surviving horses and foals for which follow-up information was available recovered completely and returned to their intended use without further complications. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE Intestinal HA occurs in mature horses and foals and can be associated with severe clinical and laboratory abnormalities; further studies are required to investigate predisposing factors and delineate possible differences in aetiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Dunkel
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, UK.
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Underwood C, Southwood LL, Walton RM, Johnson AL. Hepatic and metabolic changes in surgical colic patients: a pilot study. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2010; 20:578-86. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2010.00597.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Müller JMV, Schulze M, Herder V, Lautenschläger I, Baumgärtner W, Feige K. Ataxia and weakness as uncommon primary manifestations of hepatic encephalopathy in a 15-year-old trotter gelding. EQUINE VET EDUC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00132.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vanschandevijl K, Van Loon G, Lefère L, Deprez P. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) intoxication as a suspected cause of transient hyperammonaemia and enteral encephalopathy in a pony. EQUINE VET EDUC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00090.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Hughes KJ, McGorum BC, Love S, Dixon PM. Bilateral laryngeal paralysis associated with hepatic dysfunction and hepatic encephalopathy in six ponies and four horses. Vet Rec 2009; 164:142-7. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.164.5.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. J. Hughes
- Division of Companion Animal Sciences; University of Glasgow; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Bearsden Road Glasgow G61 1QH
| | - B. C. McGorum
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies; University of Edinburgh; Easter Bush Veterinary Centre; Easter Bush Roslin Midlothian EH25 9RG
| | - S. Love
- Division of Companion Animal Sciences; University of Glasgow; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Bearsden Road Glasgow G61 1QH
| | - P. M. Dixon
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies; University of Edinburgh; Easter Bush Veterinary Centre; Easter Bush Roslin Midlothian EH25 9RG
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Vanschandevijl K, Gielen I, Nollet H, Vlaminck L, Deprez P, van Bree H. Computed tomography-guided brain biopsy for in vivo diagnosis of a cholesterinic granuloma in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008; 233:950-4. [PMID: 18795858 DOI: 10.2460/javma.233.6.950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
CASE DESCRIPTION An 8-year-old warmblood mare was evaluated following an acute onset of neurologic abnormalities. CLINICAL FINDINGS Computed tomography of the head revealed large masses in both lateral ventricles, and a presumptive diagnosis of cholesterinic granuloma was made. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Freehand biopsy of the intracranial masses was performed under computed tomographic guidance, and histologic examination of biopsy specimens confirmed the diagnosis. No adverse effects associated with the brain biopsy procedure were encountered. Clinical signs resolved, and long-term follow-up did not reveal any recurrence of neurologic deficits. The horse was able to return to its previous level of training. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings suggested that computed tomographic-guided brain biopsy is feasible in horses and can be used to establish a diagnosis in horses with intracranial masses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katleen Vanschandevijl
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Abstract
This chapter describes the normal biochemical processes of intestinal secretion, digestion, and absorption. The digestive system is composed of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, or the alimentary canal, salivary glands, the liver, and the exocrine pancreas. The principal functions of the gastrointestinal tract are to digest and absorb ingested nutrients, and to excrete waste products of digestion. Most nutrients are ingested in a form that is either too complex for absorption or insoluble, and therefore, indigestible or incapable of being digested. Within the GI tract, much of these substances are solubilized and further degraded enzymatically to simple molecules, sufficiently small in size, and in a form that permits absorption across the mucosal epithelium. This chapter explains in detail the mechanisms of salivary secretions, compositions of saliva, and the functions of saliva. The chapter also elaborates properties of bile as well as the synthesis of bile acids. The chapter explores the pathogenesis of the important gastrointestinal diseases of domestic animals, and the biochemical basis for their diagnosis and treatment. The chapter concludes with a discussion on disturbances of gastrointestinal function such as vomition, acute diarrheas, malabsorption, bacterial overgrowth, and ulcerative colitis.
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Schnabel LV, Njaa BL, Gold JR, Meseck EK. Primary Alimentary Lymphoma with Metastasis to the Liver Causing Encephalopathy in a Horse. J Vet Intern Med 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02843.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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Magdesian KG. Nutrition for critical gastrointestinal illness: feeding horses with diarrhea or colic. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2003; 19:617-44. [PMID: 14740760 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2003.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Horses with GI diseases such as colic and diarrhea are often intolerant of adequate enteral nutrition. Nutritional intervention should be an early part of therapeutic management in such cases. Protein and energy malnutrition in critically ill horses can have deleterious effects, including poor wound or incisional healing, reduced immunity, and weight loss. Early enteral or parenteral support should be provided to supply resting DE requirements in the equine ICU.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Gary Magdesian
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, 95616, USA.
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Desrochers AM, Dallap BL, Wilkins PA. Clostridium sordelli Infection as a Suspected Cause of Transient Hyperammonemia in an Adult Horse. J Vet Intern Med 2003. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2003.tb02441.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Taylor JR. Theory of ammonia toxicity as the mechanism of abortion in the mare reproductive loss syndrome. J Equine Vet Sci 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0737-0806(02)70058-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Snook CS, Hyman SS, Del Piero F, Palmer JE, Ostlund EN, Barr BS, Desrochers AM, Reilly LK. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in eight horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001; 218:1576-9. [PMID: 11393367 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.1576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C S Snook
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square 19348, USA
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Hasel KM, Summers BA, De Lahunta A. Encephalopathy with idiopathic hyperammonaemia and Alzheimer type II astrocytes in equidae. Equine Vet J 1999; 31:478-82. [PMID: 10596928 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In 3 mature female horses of varying breeds, episodes of colic and depression for 14 days preceded an encephalopathic disorder with maniacal behaviour, anxiety, profuse sweating and, in one case, terminal opisthotonus. Blood ammonia levels were elevated approximately 10-fold. At necropsy, there were gastrointestinal serosal and mesenteric haemorrhages. Histologically, all 3 cases revealed diffuse Alzheimer type II astrocytes in the cerebral grey matter. Alzheimer type II astrocytes were glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) negative or only weakly positive, weakly S-100 positive, and vimentin negative. In the absence of primary hepatic and/or renal lesions, an increase in intestinal ammonia absorption due to ileus or increased ammonia production by colonic bacteria is hypothesised.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Hasel
- Department of Pathology, New York State College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca 14850, USA
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