Identification of a cell-wall peptidase (NlpC/P60) from Nocardia seriolae which induces apoptosis in fathead minnow cells

The Forkhead Box Gene, MaSep1, Negatively Regulates UV- and Thermo-Tolerances and Is Required for Microcycle Conidiation in Metarhizium acridum

Insect pathogenic fungi have shown great potential in agricultural pest control. Conidiation is crucial for the survival of filamentous fungi, and dispersal occurs through two methods: normal conidiation, where conidia differentiate from mycelium, and microcycle conidiation, which involves conidial budding. The conidiation process is related to cell separation. The forkhead box gene Sep1 in Schizosaccharomyces pombe plays a crucial role in cell separation. Nevertheless, the function of Sep1 has not been clarified in filamentous fungi. Here, MaSep1, the homolog of Sep1 in Metarhizium acridum, was identified and subjected to functional analysis. The findings revealed that conidial germination of the MaSep1-deletion strain (ΔMaSep1) was accelerated and the time for 50% germination rate of conidial was shortened by 1 h, while the conidial production of ΔMaSep1 was considerably reduced. The resistances to heat shock and UV-B irradiation of ΔMaSep1 were enhanced, and the expression of some genes involved in DNA damage repair and heat shock response was significantly increased in ΔMaSep1. The disruption of MaSep1 had no effect on the virulence of M. acridum. Interestingly, ΔMaSep1 conducted the normal conidiation on the microcycle conidiation medium, SYA. Furthermore, 127 DEGs were identified by RNA-Seq between the wild-type and ΔMaSep1 strains during microcycle conidiation, proving that MaSep1 mediated the conidiation pattern shift by governing some genes associated with conidiation, cell division, and cell wall formation.

Identification and characterization of STAT family in silver pomfret (Pampus argenteus) involved in different exogenous stresses

Members of the Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) family function pivotally as transcriptional activators integral to the modulation of inflammatory responses. The aquaculture of silver pomfret is frequently compromised by the imposition of exogenous stressors, which include thermal fluctuations, notably low-temperatures, diminished oxygen levels, and the onslaught of bacterial pathogens. Notwithstanding the critical impact of these stressors, the scientific literature presents a notable gap in our understanding of the STAT pathway's role in the silver pomfret's adaptive response mechanisms. To address this lacuna, we identified stat genes in the silver pomfret-denominated as Pastat1, Pastat2, Pastat3, Pastat4, and Pastat5-through a thorough and systematic bioinformatics analysis. Further scrutiny of the gene configurations and constituent motifs has elucidated that STAT proteins possess analogous structural frameworks and exhibit significant evolutionary preservation. Subsequently, the expression patterns of five stat genes were verified by RT-qPCR in twelve different tissues and four growth periods in healthy fish, showing that the expression of Pastat genes was temporally and spatially specific, with most of the stat genes expressed at higher levels in the spleen, following muscle, gill, and liver. Transcriptomic analysis of exposure to exogenous stressors, specifically formaldehyde and low-temperature conditions, elucidated that Pastat1 and Pastat2 genes exhibited a heightened sensitivity to these environmental challenges. RT-qPCR assays demonstrated a marked alteration in the expression profiles of jak1 and Pastat gene suites in PaS upon prolonged bacterial infection subsequent to these exogenous insults. Moreover, the gene expression of the downstream effectors involved in innate immunity and apoptosis displayed marked deviations. This study additionally elucidated the Pastat gene family's role in modulating the innate immune response and apoptotic regulation within the silver pomfret during exogenous stressors and subsequent pathogenic incursions.

Disruption of a kasB homolog gene (kasB) causes attenuation of cell invasion and virulence of Nocardia seriolae

Nocardia seriolae is the primary aetiological agent of nocardiosis in fish, which causes mass mortality in freshwater and marine fish. β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase (KAS) is one of the essential enzymes in the synthesis of mycolic acids (MASs) in Mycobacterium spp. and has been chosen as the target for therapeutic intervention in mycobacterial diseases. In the present study, a kasB homologue gene (kasB) was identified in the genome of N. seriolae, and the gene-deficient mutant (ΔkasB) was generated based on a clinical isolate, XSYC-Ns. Compared to the wild-type (WT) strain, the ΔkasB showed a measurably growth defect in vitro but retained the acid-fastness in acid-fast staining. Observation of the cell ultrastructure showed some alterations in the cell wall of the ΔkasB strain. Compared to its original strain, the cell wall lipid layer seemed sparser, and a wider electron-transparent zone was observed in the cell wall of ΔkasB strain. Moreover, the ΔkasB strain showed impaired ability of cell invasion as well as intracellular survival in the cell line originating from the head-kidney of the large yellow croaker (LYC-hK), compared to its original strain. In addition, the deficiency of ΔkasB significantly attenuated the virulence of N. seriolae in largemouth bass. The present study suggested that the ΔkasB gene might be involved in the synthesis of extracellular cell-wall lipids in N. seriolae and play a crucial role in its pathogenicity.

Peptidoglycan NlpC/P60 peptidases in bacterial physiology and host interactions

The bacterial cell wall is composed of a highly crosslinked matrix of glycopeptide polymers known as peptidoglycan that dictates bacterial cell morphology and protects against environmental stresses. Regulation of peptidoglycan turnover is therefore crucial for bacterial survival and growth and is mediated by key protein complexes and enzyme families. Here, we review the prevalence, structure, and activity of NlpC/P60 peptidases, a family of peptidoglycan hydrolases that are crucial for cell wall turnover and division as well as interactions with antibiotics and different hosts. Understanding the molecular functions of NlpC/P60 peptidases should provide important insight into bacterial physiology, their interactions with different kingdoms of life, and the development of new therapeutic approaches.

The study of single‐cell dynamics contributes to the evaluation of food‐derived antioxidant capacity

Exploring potential food‐derived bioactive substances that relieve oxidative stress is considered an important goal for antioxidant research. We first used the long‐pair electron index and orbital fingerprint to predict the molecular interactions in a range of polyphenols and polypeptides. We found Rutin and peptide PW5 had the highest LPE index values. Subsequently, by D‐galactose (D‐gal)‐induced oxidative NIH3T3 cell model, we proved both Rutin and PW5 could effectively protect cells against D‐gal‐induced damage, through enhancement in cell proliferation and reduction in β‐galactosidase activity. Although Rutin displayed better performance than PW5 in the oxidative stress model, we confirmed Rutin stimulated obvious changes in the morphology and motility of normal NIH3T3 cells based on the real‐time dynamic images. Taken together, combined computational and typical model experiment methods, proved useful in efficiently screening food‐derived antioxidants. Moreover, the analytical results of cell morphology and movement may provide novel insights for the safety evaluation of antioxidants.

Characterization of snakehead (Channa argus) interleukin-21: Involvement in immune defense against two pathogenic bacteria, in leukocyte proliferation, and in activation of JAK-STAT signaling pathway

Interleukin-21 (IL-21), a crucial immune regulatory molecule, belongs to the common γ-chain family of type I cytokines, and exerts pleiotropic effects on multiple immune cell types in mammals. However, the characteristics and functions of fish IL-21 remain unclear. To further investigate the molecular mechanism of IL-21 in teleosts, we first cloned and identified the IL-21 gene (designated shIL-21) of the snakehead (Channa argus). The full-length open reading frame of shIL-21 is 438 bp in length, and encodes a predicted protein of 145 amino acid residues. A sequence analysis showed that shIL-21 has the typical structural characteristics of other IL-21 proteins, containing four α-helices and four conserved cysteine residues. In a phylogenetic analysis, shIL-21 clustered within a subgroup of IL-21 proteins from other teleost species and shared its closest evolutionary relationship with that of Lates calcarifer. The expression analysis showed that shIL-21 was ubiquitously expressed in all the healthy snakehead tissues tested, albeit at different levels. After infection with Nocardia seriolae or Aeromonas schubertii, the relative expression of shIL-21 was mainly upregulated in the head kidney and spleen in vivo. Similarly, after stimulation with the three pathogen analogues lipoteichoic acid, lipopolysaccharides, and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid, the expression of shIL-21 was also induced in head kidney leukocytes in vitro. A recombinant shIL-21 protein was expressed and purified, and promoted the proliferation of head kidney leukocytes, induced the expression of genes encoding critical signaling molecules in the Janus kinase (JAK) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway, including JAK1, JAK3, STAT1, and STAT3, and induced the expression of endogenous shIL-21 and genes encoding several key proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-1β). Taken together, these preliminary findings suggest that shIL-21 is involved in the immune defense against bacterial infection, in leukocyte proliferation, and in the activation of the JAK-STAT pathway. They thus extend the functional studies of IL-21 in teleosts.

Function and Characterization of an Alanine Dehydrogenase Homolog From Nocardia seriolae

Fish nocardiosis is a chronic, systemic, granulomatous disease in aquaculture. Nocardia seriolae has been reported to be one of the main pathogenic bacteria of fish nocardiosis. There are few studies on the associated virulence factors and pathogenesis of N. seriolae. Alanine dehydrogenase (ALD), which may be a secreted protein, was discovered by analysis using bioinformatics methods throughout the whole genomic sequence of N. seriolae. Nevertheless, the roles of ALD and its homologs in the pathogenesis of N. seriolae are not demonstrated. In this study, the function of N. seriolae ALD (NsALD) was preliminarily investigated by gene cloning, host cell subcellular localization, secreted protein identification, and cell apoptosis detection. Identification of the extracellular products of N. seriolae via mass spectrometry (MS) analysis revealed that NsALD is a secreted protein. In addition, subcellular localization of NsALD-GFP recombinant protein in fathead minnow (FHM) cells showed that the strong green fluorescence co-localized with the mitochondria. Moreover, apoptosis assays demonstrated that the overexpression of NsALD induces apoptosis in FHM cells. This study may lay the foundation for further exploration of the function of NsALD and facilitate further understanding of the pathogenic mechanism and the associated virulence factors of N. seriolae.

MEKK3 in hybrid snakehead (Channa maculate ♀ ×Channa argus ♂): Molecular characterization and immune response to infection with Nocardia seriolae and Aeromonas schubertii

Mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase kinase 3 (MEKK3) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that acts as a key regulator and is widely involved in various innate and acquired immune signaling pathways. In this study, we first cloned the complete open reading frame (ORF) of the MEKK3 gene (named CcMEKK3) in a hybrid snakehead (Channa maculate ♀ × Channa argus ♂). The full-length ORF of CcMEKK3 is 1851 bp, and encodes a putative protein of 616 amino acids containing a serine/threonine kinase catalytic (S-TKc) domain and a Phox and Bem1p (PB1) domain. A sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree analysis showed that CcMEKK3 is highly conserved relative to the MEKK3 proteins of other teleost species. CcMEKK3 was constitutively expressed in all the healthy hybrid snakehead tissues tested, with greatest expression in the immune tissues, such as the head kidney and spleen. The expression of CcMEKK3 was usually upregulated in the head kidney, spleen, and liver at different time points after infection with Nocardia seriolae or Aeromonas schubertii. Similarly, the dynamic expression levels of CcMEKK3 in head kidney leukocytes after stimulation revealed that CcMEKK3 was induced by LTA, LPS, and poly(I:C). In the subcellular localization analysis, CcMEKK3 was evenly distributed in the cytoplasm of HEK293T cells, and its overexpression significantly promoted the activities of NF-κB and AP-1. These results suggest that CcMEKK3 is involved in the immune defense against these two pathogens, and plays a crucial role in activating the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Structural Modeling of Cell Wall Peptidase CwpFM (EntFM) Reveals Distinct Intrinsically Disordered Extensions Specific to Pathogenic Bacillus cereus Strains

The emergence of B. cereus as an opportunistic food-borne pathogen has intensified the need to distinguish strains of public health concern. The heterogeneity of the diseases associated with B. cereus infections emphasizes the versatility of these bacteria strains to colonize their host. Nevertheless, the molecular basis of these differences remains unclear. Several toxins are involved in virulence, particularly in gastrointestinal disorders, but there are currently no biological markers able to differentiate pathogenic from harmless strains. We have previously shown that CwpFM is a cell wall peptidase involved in B. cereus virulence. Here, we report a sequence/structure/function characterization of 39 CwpFM sequences, chosen from a collection of B. cereus with diverse virulence phenotypes, from harmless to highly pathogenic strains. CwpFM is homology-modeled in silico as an exported papain-like endopeptidase, with an N-terminal end composed of three successive bacterial Src Homology 3 domains (SH3b_1–3) likely to control protein–protein interactions in signaling pathways, and a C-terminal end that contains a catalytic NLPC_P60 domain primed to form a competent active site. We confirmed in vitro that CwpFM is an endopeptidase with a moderate peptidoglycan hydrolase activity. Remarkably, CwpFMs from pathogenic strains harbor a specific stretch of twenty residues intrinsically disordered, inserted between the SH3b₃ and the catalytic NLPC_P60 domain. This strongly suggests this linker as a marker of differentiation between B. cereus strains. We believe that our findings improve our understanding of the pathogenicity of B. cereus while advancing both clinical diagnosis and food safety.