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Leszczyńska J, Szczepankowska AK, Majak I, Mańkowska D, Smolińska B, Ścieszka S, Diowksz A, Cukrowska B, Aleksandrzak-Piekarczyk T. Reducing Immunoreactivity of Gluten Peptides by Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria for Dietary Management of Gluten-Related Diseases. Nutrients 2024; 16:976. [PMID: 38613010 PMCID: PMC11013811 DOI: 10.3390/nu16070976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Immunoreactive gluten peptides that are not digested by peptidases produced by humans can trigger celiac disease, allergy and non-celiac gluten hypersensitivity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of selected probiotic strains to hydrolyze immunoreactive gliadin peptides and to identify peptidase-encoding genes in the genomes of the most efficient strains. Residual gliadin immunoreactivity was measured after one- or two-step hydrolysis using commercial enzymes and bacterial peptidase preparations by G12 and R5 immunoenzymatic assays. Peptidase preparations from Lacticaseibacillus casei LC130, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei LPC100 and Streptococcus thermophilus ST250 strains significantly reduced the immunoreactivity of gliadin peptides, including 33-mer, and this effect was markedly higher when a mixture of these strains was used. In silico genome analyses of L. casei LC130 and L. paracasei LPC100 revealed the presence of genes encoding peptidases with the potential to hydrolyze bonds in proline-rich peptides. This suggests that L. casei LC130, L. paracasei LPC100 and S. thermophilus ST250, especially when used as a mixture, have the ability to hydrolyze immunoreactive gliadin peptides and could be administered to patients on a restricted gluten-free diet to help treat gluten-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Leszczyńska
- Institute of Natural Products and Cosmetics, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Łódź University of Technology, Stefanowskiego 2/22, 90-530 Łódź, Poland; (J.L.); (D.M.); (B.S.)
| | - Agnieszka K. Szczepankowska
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Iwona Majak
- Institute of Technology and Food Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Łódź University of Technology, Stefanowskiego 2/22, 90-530 Łódź, Poland;
| | - Dorota Mańkowska
- Institute of Natural Products and Cosmetics, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Łódź University of Technology, Stefanowskiego 2/22, 90-530 Łódź, Poland; (J.L.); (D.M.); (B.S.)
| | - Beata Smolińska
- Institute of Natural Products and Cosmetics, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Łódź University of Technology, Stefanowskiego 2/22, 90-530 Łódź, Poland; (J.L.); (D.M.); (B.S.)
| | - Sylwia Ścieszka
- Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Łódź University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-530 Łódź, Poland; (S.Ś.); (A.D.)
| | - Anna Diowksz
- Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Łódź University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-530 Łódź, Poland; (S.Ś.); (A.D.)
| | - Bożena Cukrowska
- Immunology Laboratory, Department of Pathomorphology, The Children’s Memorial Health Institute, Dzieci Polskich 20, 04-760 Warsaw, Poland;
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Liu X, den Blaauwen T. NlpI-Prc Proteolytic Complex Mediates Peptidoglycan Synthesis and Degradation via Regulation of Hydrolases and Synthases in Escherichia coli. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16355. [PMID: 38003545 PMCID: PMC10671308 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Balancing peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis and degradation with precision is essential for bacterial growth, yet our comprehension of this intricate process remains limited. The NlpI-Prc proteolytic complex plays a crucial but poorly understood role in the regulation of multiple enzymes involved in PG metabolism. In this paper, through fluorescent D-amino acid 7-hydroxycoumarincarbonylamino-D-alanine (HADA) labeling and immunolabeling assays, we have demonstrated that the NlpI-Prc complex regulates the activity of PG transpeptidases and subcellular localization of PBP3 under certain growth conditions. PBP7 (a PG hydrolase) and MltD (a lytic transglycosylase) were confirmed to be negatively regulated by the NlpI-Prc complex by an in vivo degradation assay. The endopeptidases, MepS, MepM, and MepH, have consistently been demonstrated as redundantly essential "space makers" for nascent PG insertion. However, we observed that the absence of NlpI-Prc complex can alleviate the lethality of the mepS mepM mepH mutant. A function of PG lytic transglycosylases MltA and MltD as "space makers" was proposed through multiple gene deletions. These findings unveil novel roles for NlpI-Prc in the regulation of both PG synthesis and degradation, shedding light on the previously undiscovered function of lytic transglycosylases as "space makers" in PG expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tanneke den Blaauwen
- Bacterial Cell Biology and Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Science, University of Amsterdam, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Li Q, Zhang L, Li Y, Lametsch R. Decolorization of porcine hemoglobin hydrolysates: The role of peptide characteristics and pH values. J Food Sci 2023. [PMID: 37350077 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.16679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
The unpleasant color caused by heme limits the utilization of hemoglobin as a food ingredient. Enzymatic hydrolysis has been used to decolorize hemoglobin, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the decolorization efficiency of porcine hemoglobin using different enzymes and final pH values, and to elucidate their influence on decolorization. Based on higher yields and better decolorization, hemoglobin hydrolysates produced by papain, bromelain, savinase, and protease A were further studied. Compared to hydrolysates by savinase and protease A, a higher proportion of histidine-containing peptides was responsible for better decolorization by papain and bromelain. For all hydrolysates, a moderate reduction in pH to 4.0-5.0 facilitated decolorization of the hydrolysates. Similar peptide profiles of hydrolysates from the same enzyme treatment reflected that pH mainly affected the precipitation of the heme-containing fraction through heme-heme interaction rather than heme-peptide interaction. Overall, this study sheds light on the use of enzymatic hydrolysis to remove the heme group from hemoglobin. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Slaughterhouses produce tons of protein-rich blood each year. Due to the presence of the heme group in hemoglobin, blood has a dark red color and metallic taste, making it generally unacceptable for consumers. This study provided information on the decolorization of porcine hemoglobin by removing the heme fraction, which should facilitate the utilization of decolored hemoglobin hydrolysates as nutritional food ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Li
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Longteng Zhang
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Yan Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - René Lametsch
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
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Griffin ME, Klupt S, Espinosa J, Hang HC. Peptidoglycan NlpC/P60 peptidases in bacterial physiology and host interactions. Cell Chem Biol 2023; 30:436-456. [PMID: 36417916 PMCID: PMC10192474 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial cell wall is composed of a highly crosslinked matrix of glycopeptide polymers known as peptidoglycan that dictates bacterial cell morphology and protects against environmental stresses. Regulation of peptidoglycan turnover is therefore crucial for bacterial survival and growth and is mediated by key protein complexes and enzyme families. Here, we review the prevalence, structure, and activity of NlpC/P60 peptidases, a family of peptidoglycan hydrolases that are crucial for cell wall turnover and division as well as interactions with antibiotics and different hosts. Understanding the molecular functions of NlpC/P60 peptidases should provide important insight into bacterial physiology, their interactions with different kingdoms of life, and the development of new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E Griffin
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Steven Klupt
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Juliel Espinosa
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Microbial Pathogenesis, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Howard C Hang
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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Zhang H, Li X, Wang X, Xu J, Elefant F, Wang J. Cellular response to β-amyloid neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease and implications in new therapeutics. Animal Model Exp Med 2023; 6:3-9. [PMID: 36872303 PMCID: PMC9986234 DOI: 10.1002/ame2.12313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023] Open
Abstract
β-Amyloid (Aβ) is a specific pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Because of its neurotoxicity, AD patients exhibit multiple brain dysfunctions. Disease-modifying therapy (DMT) is the central concept in the development of AD therapeutics today, and most DMT drugs that are currently in clinical trials are anti-Aβ drugs, such as aducanumab and lecanemab. Therefore, understanding Aβ's neurotoxic mechanism is crucial for Aβ-targeted drug development. Despite its total length of only a few dozen amino acids, Aβ is incredibly diverse. In addition to the well-known Aβ1-42 , N-terminally truncated, glutaminyl cyclase (QC) catalyzed, and pyroglutamate-modified Aβ (pEAβ) is also highly amyloidogenic and far more cytotoxic. The extracellular monomeric Aβx-42 (x = 1-11) initiates the aggregation to form fibrils and plaques and causes many abnormal cellular responses through cell membrane receptors and receptor-coupled signal pathways. These signal cascades further influence many cellular metabolism-related processes, such as gene expression, cell cycle, and cell fate, and ultimately cause severe neural cell damage. However, endogenous cellular anti-Aβ defense processes always accompany the Aβ-induced microenvironment alterations. Aβ-cleaving endopeptidases, Aβ-degrading ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), and Aβ-engulfing glial cell immune responses are all essential self-defense mechanisms that we can leverage to develop new drugs. This review discusses some of the most recent advances in understanding Aβ-centric AD mechanisms and suggests prospects for promising anti-Aβ strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haolin Zhang
- Faculty of Environment and LifeBeijing University of TechnologyBeijingChina
| | - Xianghua Li
- Faculty of Environment and LifeBeijing University of TechnologyBeijingChina
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- Faculty of Environment and LifeBeijing University of TechnologyBeijingChina
| | - Jiayu Xu
- Faculty of Environment and LifeBeijing University of TechnologyBeijingChina
| | - Felice Elefant
- Department of BiologyDrexel UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Juan Wang
- Faculty of Environment and LifeBeijing University of TechnologyBeijingChina
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Fan J, Gao A, Zhan C, Jin Y. Degradation of soybean meal proteins by wheat malt endopeptidase and the antioxidant capacity of the enzymolytic products. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1138664. [PMID: 36937341 PMCID: PMC10020175 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1138664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the hydrolysis effect of the endopeptidase from wheat malt on the soybean meal proteins. The results indicated that the endopeptidase broke the peptide bonds of soybean meal proteins and converted the alcohol- and alkali-soluble proteins into water-soluble and salt-soluble proteins. In addition, wheat malt endopeptidase did not break the disulfide bonds between proteins but affected the conformation of disulfide bonds between substrate protein molecules, which were changed from the gauche-gauche-trans (g-g-t) vibrational mode to the trans-gauche-trans (t-g-t) vibrational mode. Wheat malt endopeptidase exhibited the highest enzymatic activity at 2 h of enzymatic digestion, demonstrating the fastest hydrolytic rate of soybean meal proteins. Compared with the samples before enzymatic hydrolysis, the total alcohol- and alkali-soluble proteins were decreased by 11.89% but the water- and salt-soluble proteins were increased by 11.99%, indicating the hydrolytic effect of endopeptidase. The corresponding water-soluble proteins had molecular weights of 66.4-97.2, 29-44.3, and 20.1 kDa, while the salt-soluble proteins had molecular weights of 44.3-66.4, 29-44.3, and 20.1 kDa, respectively. The degree of enzymatic hydrolysis of soybean meal reached the maximum at 8 h. The newly created proteins exhibited significantly antioxidant properties, which were inversely related to the molecular weight. Proteins with molecular weight <3 kDa had the highest antioxidant performance with an antioxidant capacity of 1.72 ± 0.03 mM, hydroxyl radical scavenging rate of 98.04%, and ABTS [2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] radical scavenging capacity of 0.44 ± 0.04 mM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxiao Fan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Aiying Gao
- Food Inspection Department, Institute for Food and Drug Control (Taian Fiber Inspection Institute), Tai'an, China
| | - Chao Zhan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Yuhong Jin
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- *Correspondence: Yuhong Jin
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Terracciano A, De Bernardi ML, Novizio R, De Brasi D, Iolascon A, Della Monica M, Scavuzzo F, Serino D, Novelli A, Piscopo C. A New de novo Mosaic Mutation of PHEX Gene: A Case Report of a Boy with Hypophosphatemic Rickets. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets 2023; 23:1235-1239. [PMID: 36847234 PMCID: PMC10518859 DOI: 10.2174/1871530323666230227142202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND X-linked hypophosphatemia is the most prevalent form of heritable rickets, characterized by an X-linked dominant inheritance pattern. The genetic basis of X-linked hypophosphatemia is a loss-of-function mutation in the PHEX gene (Phosphate regulating gene with Homology to Endopeptidases on the X chromosome), which leads to an enhanced production of phosphaturic hormone FGF23. X-linked hypophosphatemia causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Clinical manifestations are numerous and variable, including slowdown in growth, swing-through gait and progressive tibial bowing, related to skeletal and extraskeletal actions of FGF23. PHEX gene spans over 220 kb and consists of 22 exons. To date, hereditary and sporadic mutations are known (missense, nonsense, deletions and splice site mutations). CASE PRESENTATION Herein, we describe a male patient carrying a novel de novo mosaic nonsense mutation c.2176G>T (p.Glu726Ter) located in exon 22 of PHEX gene. CONCLUSION We highlight this new mutation among possible causative of X-linked hypophosphatemia and suggest that mosaicism of PHEX mutations is not so uncommon and should be excluded in diagnostic workflow of heritable rickets both in male and female patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Terracciano
- Translational Cytogenomics Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Achille Iolascon
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Antonio Novelli
- Translational Cytogenomics Research Unit, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Carmelo Piscopo
- Medical and Laboratory Genetic Unit, Cardarelli Hospital, Naples, Italy
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Kim J, Sohn S, Kim S, Choe ES. Nitric Oxide Linked to mGluR5 Upregulates BDNF Synthesis by Activating MMP2 in the Caudate and Putamen after Challenge Exposure to Nicotine in Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:10950. [PMID: 36142895 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) linked to glutamate receptors in the caudate and putamen (CPu) regulates neuroadaptation after drug exposure. Matrix-metalloproteinase (MMP), a Ca2+-dependent zinc-containing endopeptidase, increases mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) synthesis after drug exposure in the brain. The present study determined that NO synthesis linked to metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) stimulation after challenge exposure to nicotine activates MMP, which upregulates BDNF synthesis in the CPu. Subcutaneous injection of challenge nicotine (1.0 mg/kg) after repeated injections of nicotine (1.0 mg/kg/day) for 14 days and 7 days of nicotine withdrawal increased MMP2 activity and BDNF expression in the CPu of rats. These increases were prevented by the bilateral intra-CPu infusion of the mGluR5 antagonist, MPEP (0.1 nmol/side), the IP3 receptor antagonist, xestospongin C (0.004 nmol/side) or the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and NO inhibitor, Nω-propyl (0.1 nmol/side) prior to the challenge nicotine. Furthermore, bilateral intra-CPu infusion of the MMP2 inhibitor, OA-Hy (1 nmol/side) prevented the challenge nicotine-induced increase in the expression of BDNF. These findings suggest that elevation of NO synthesis linked to mGluR5 potentiates BDNF synthesis via activation of MMP2 after challenge exposure to nicotine in the CPu of rats.
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Meng LH, Ke F, Zhang QY, Zhao Z. Functional Analysis of the Endopeptidase and Holin From Planktothrix agardhii Cyanophage PaV-LD. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:849492. [PMID: 35572663 PMCID: PMC9096620 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.849492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A cyanophage PaV-LD, previously isolated from harmful filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii, was sequenced, and co-expression of its two ORFs in tandem, ORF123 and ORF124, inhibited growth on the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 cells. However, the mechanism of action of ORF123 and ORF124 alone remains to be elucidated. In this study, we aimed to study the individual function of ORF123 or ORF124 from PaV-LD. Our data showed that the ORF123 encoded an endopeptidase, which harbored an M23 family peptidase domain and a transmembrane region. The expression of the endopeptidase in Escherichia coli alone revealed that the protein exhibited remarkable bacteriostatic activity, as evidenced by observation of growth inhibition, membrane damage, and leakage of the intracellular enzyme. Similarly, the holin, a membrane-associated protein encoded by the ORF124, showed weak bacteriostatic activity on E. coli. Moreover, deletion mutations indicated that the transmembrane domains of endopeptidase and holin were indispensable for their bacteriostatic activity. Meanwhile, the bacteriostatic functions of endopeptidase and holin on cyanobacteria cells were confirmed by expressing them in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. Collectively, our study revealed the individual role of endopeptidase or holin and their synergistic bacteriolytic effect, which would contribute to a better understanding of the lytic mechanism of cyanophage PaV-LD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hui Meng
- Department of Marine Biology, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi-Ya Zhang
- Department of Marine Biology, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Department of Marine Biology, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
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Smith TE, Lee M, Person MD, Hesek D, Mobashery S, Moran NA. Horizontal-Acquisition of a Promiscuous Peptidoglycan-Recycling Enzyme Enables Aphids To Influence Symbiont Cell Wall Metabolism. mBio 2021; 12:e0263621. [PMID: 34933456 DOI: 10.1128/mBio.02636-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
During evolution, enzymes can undergo shifts in preferred substrates or in catalytic activities. An intriguing question is how enzyme function changes following horizontal gene transfer, especially for bacterial genes that have moved to animal genomes. Some insects have acquired genes that encode enzymes for the biosynthesis of bacterial cell wall components and that appear to function to support or control their obligate endosymbiotic bacteria. In aphids, the bacterial endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola provides essential amino acids for aphid hosts but lacks most genes for remodeling of the bacterial cell wall. The aphid genome has acquired seven genes with putative functions in cell wall metabolism that are primarily expressed in the aphid cells harboring Buchnera. In analyses of aphid homogenates, we detected peptidoglycan (PGN) muropeptides indicative of the reactions of PGN hydrolases encoded by horizontally acquired aphid genes but not by Buchnera genes. We produced one such host enzyme, ApLdcA, and characterized its activity with both cell wall derived and synthetic PGN. Both ApLdcA and the homologous enzyme in Escherichia coli, which functions as an l,d-carboxypeptidase in the cytoplasmic PGN recycling pathway, exhibit turnover of PGN substrates containing stem pentapeptides and cross-linkages via l,d-endopeptidase activity, consistent with a potential role in cell wall remodeling. Our results suggest that ApLdcA derives its functions from the promiscuous activities of an ancestral LdcA enzyme, whose acquisition by the aphid genome may have enabled hosts to influence Buchnera cell wall metabolism as a means to control symbiont growth and division. IMPORTANCE Most enzymes are capable of performing biologically irrelevant side reactions. During evolution, promiscuous enzyme activities may acquire new biological roles, especially after horizontal gene transfer to new organisms. Pea aphids harbor obligate bacterial symbionts called Buchnera and encode horizontally acquired bacterial genes with putative roles in cell wall metabolism. Though Buchnera lacks cell wall endopeptidase genes, we found evidence of endopeptidase activity among peptidoglycan muropeptides purified from aphids. We characterized a multifunctional, aphid-encoded enzyme, ApLdcA, which displays l,d-endopeptidase activities considered promiscuous for the Escherichia coli homolog, for which these activities do not contribute to its native role in peptidoglycan recycling. These results exemplify the roles of enzyme promiscuity and horizontal gene transfer in enzyme evolution and demonstrate how aphids influence symbiont cell wall metabolism.
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Hong JY, Kim JH, Jin JE, Shin SH, Park KY. Practical Application of Novel Test Methods to Evaluate the Potency of Botulinum Toxin: A Comparison Analysis among Widely Used Products in Korea. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120833. [PMID: 34941671 PMCID: PMC8707463 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The safe and effective dosing of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) requires accurate and reliable methods to measure their potency. Several novel methods have been introduced over the past decade; however, only few studies have compared the potency of BoNT products with that of the LD50 and other alternative assays. Therefore, the objective of this study was to comparatively evaluate widely used BoNT products using various test methods. Four types of BoNTs (prabotulinumtoxin A, onabotulinumtoxin A, neubotulinumtoxin A, and letibotulinumtoxin A) were used in this study. The estimated potency was assessed using the LD50 assay, and the total BoNT type A protein levels were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The in vitro efficacy of the BoNTs was determined using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assays. The results showed differences in the total amount of BoNT protein and the cleavage activity of SNAP-25 within all types of BoNTs. The SPR study seemed to be useful for evaluating the potency by specifically measuring intact 19S neurotoxin, and these results provide new insights for assessing different BoNT products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Yeon Hong
- Department of Dermatology, Chungnam National University Sejong Hospital, Sejong 30099, Korea;
| | - Jong-Hee Kim
- NABOTA Research and Development Team, Daewoong Pharmaceuticals, Seoul 06973, Korea; (J.-H.K.); (J.-E.J.)
| | - Jung-Eun Jin
- NABOTA Research and Development Team, Daewoong Pharmaceuticals, Seoul 06973, Korea; (J.-H.K.); (J.-E.J.)
| | - Sun-Hye Shin
- Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06973, Korea;
| | - Kui-Young Park
- Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06973, Korea;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-6299-1544; Fax: +82-2-6299-1718
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Bease AG, Blackburn EA, Chintoan-Uta C, Webb S, Cassady-Cain RL, Stevens MP. Activity of Lymphostatin, A Lymphocyte Inhibitory Virulence Factor of Pathogenic Escherichia coli, is Dependent on a Cysteine Protease Motif. J Mol Biol 2021; 433:167200. [PMID: 34400181 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
LifA shares a cysteine protease motif with bacterial toxins and secreted effectors. C1480A substituted LifA has reduced inhibitory activity against T cells. LifA is cleaved in T cells and this requires C1480 and endosome acidification.
Lymphostatin (LifA) is a 366 kDa protein expressed by attaching & effacing Escherichia coli. It plays an important role in intestinal colonisation and inhibits the mitogen- and antigen-stimulated proliferation of lymphocytes and the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines. LifA exhibits N-terminal homology with the glycosyltransferase domain of large clostridial toxins (LCTs). A DTD motif within this region is required for lymphostatin activity and binding of the sugar donor uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine. As with LCTs, LifA also contains a cysteine protease motif (C1480, H1581, D1596) that is widely conserved within the YopT-like superfamily of cysteine proteases. By analogy with LCTs, we hypothesised that the CHD motif may be required for intracellular processing of the protein to release the catalytic N-terminal domain after uptake and low pH-stimulated membrane insertion of LifA within endosomes. Here, we created and validated a C1480A substitution mutant in LifA from enteropathogenic E. coli strain E2348/69. The purified protein was structurally near-identical to the wild-type protein. In bovine T lymphocytes treated with wild-type LifA, a putative cleavage product of approximately 140 kDa was detected. Appearance of the putative cleavage product was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine, which inhibit endosome acidification. The cleavage product was not observed in cells treated with the C1480A mutant of LifA. Lymphocyte inhibitory activity of the purified C1480A protein was significantly impaired. The data indicate that an intact cysteine protease motif is required for cleavage of lymphostatin and its activity against T cells.
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Voedts H, Dorchêne D, Lodge A, Vollmer W, Arthur M, Hugonnet JE. Role of endopeptidases in peptidoglycan synthesis mediated by alternative cross-linking enzymes in Escherichia coli. EMBO J 2021; 40:e108126. [PMID: 34382698 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021108126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria resist to the turgor pressure of the cytoplasm through a net-like macromolecule, the peptidoglycan, made of glycan strands connected via peptides cross-linked by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). We recently reported the emergence of β-lactam resistance resulting from a bypass of PBPs by the YcbB L,D-transpeptidase (LdtD), which form chemically distinct 3→3 cross-links compared to 4→3 formed by PBPs. Here we show that peptidoglycan expansion requires controlled hydrolysis of cross-links and identify among eight endopeptidase paralogues the minimum enzyme complements essential for bacterial growth with 4→3 (MepM) and 3→3 (MepM and MepK) cross-links. Purified Mep endopeptidases unexpectedly displayed a 4→3 and 3→3 dual specificity implying recognition of a common motif in the two cross-link types. Uncoupling of the polymerization of glycan chains from the 4→3 cross-linking reaction was found to facilitate the bypass of PBPs by YcbB. These results illustrate the plasticity of the peptidoglycan polymerization machinery in response to the selective pressure of β-lactams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri Voedts
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Dorchêne
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Adam Lodge
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Michel Arthur
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Emmanuel Hugonnet
- Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Université de Paris, Paris, France
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Małecki PH, Mitkowski P, Jagielska E, Trochimiak K, Mesnage S, Sabała I. Structural Characterization of EnpA D,L- Endopeptidase from Enterococcus faecalis Prophage Provides Insights into Substrate Specificity of M23 Peptidases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7136. [PMID: 34281200 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The best-characterized members of the M23 family are glycyl-glycine hydrolases, such as lysostaphin (Lss) from Staphylococcus simulans or LytM from Staphylococcus aureus. Recently, enzymes with broad specificities were reported, such as EnpACD from Enterococcus faecalis, that cleaves D,L peptide bond between the stem peptide and a cross-bridge. Previously, the activity of EnpACD was demonstrated only on isolated peptidoglycan fragments. Herein we report conditions in which EnpACD lyses bacterial cells live with very high efficiency demonstrating great bacteriolytic potential, though limited to a low ionic strength environment. We have solved the structure of the EnpACD H109A inactive variant and analyzed it in the context of related peptidoglycan hydrolases structures to reveal the bases for the specificity determination. All M23 structures share a very conserved β-sheet core which constitutes the rigid bottom of the substrate-binding groove and active site, while variable loops create the walls of the deep and narrow binding cleft. A detailed analysis of the binding groove architecture, specificity of M23 enzymes and D,L peptidases demonstrates that the substrate groove, which is particularly deep and narrow, is accessible preferably for peptides composed of amino acids with short side chains or subsequent L and D-isomers. As a result, the bottom of the groove is involved in interactions with the main chain of the substrate while the side chains are protruding in one plane towards the groove opening. We concluded that the selectivity of the substrates is based on their conformations allowed only for polyglycine chains and alternating chirality of the amino acids.
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Sitanggang AB, Putri JE, Palupi NS, Hatzakis E, Syamsir E, Budijanto S. Enzymatic Preparation of Bioactive Peptides Exhibiting ACE Inhibitory Activity from Soybean and Velvet Bean: A Systematic Review. Molecules 2021; 26:3822. [PMID: 34201554 PMCID: PMC8270263 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26133822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) is a peptidase with a significant role in the regulation of blood pressure. Within this work, a systematic review on the enzymatic preparation of Angiotensin-I-Converting Enzyme inhibitory (ACEi) peptides is presented. The systematic review is conducted by following PRISMA guidelines. Soybeans and velvet beans are known to have high protein contents that make them suitable as sources of parent proteins for the production of ACEi peptides. Endopeptidase is commonly used in the preparation of soybean-based ACEi peptides, whereas for velvet bean, a combination of both endo- and exopeptidase is frequently used. Soybean glycinin is the preferred substrate for the preparation of ACEi peptides. It contains proline as one of its major amino acids, which exhibits a potent significance in inhibiting ACE. The best enzymatic treatments for producing ACEi peptides from soybean are as follows: proteolytic activity by Protease P (Amano-P from Aspergillus sp.), a temperature of 37 °C, a reaction time of 18 h, pH 8.2, and an E/S ratio of 2%. On the other hand, the best enzymatic conditions for producing peptide hydrolysates with high ACEi activity are through sequential hydrolytic activity by the combination of pepsin-pancreatic, an E/S ratio for each enzyme is 10%, the temperature and reaction time for each proteolysis are 37 °C and 0.74 h, respectively, pH for pepsin is 2.0, whereas for pancreatin it is 7.0. As an underutilized pulse, the studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of velvet bean proteins in producing ACEi peptides are limited. Conclusively, the activity of soybean-based ACEi peptides is found to depend on their molecular sizes, the amino acid residues, and positions. Hydrophobic amino acids with nonpolar side chains, positively charged, branched, and cyclic or aromatic residues are generally preferred for ACEi peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azis Boing Sitanggang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kampus IPB Darmaga, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia; (J.E.P.); (N.S.P.); (E.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Jessica Eka Putri
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kampus IPB Darmaga, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia; (J.E.P.); (N.S.P.); (E.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Nurheni Sri Palupi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kampus IPB Darmaga, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia; (J.E.P.); (N.S.P.); (E.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Emmanuel Hatzakis
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, 2015 Fyffe Rd, Columbus, OH 43210, USA;
| | - Elvira Syamsir
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kampus IPB Darmaga, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia; (J.E.P.); (N.S.P.); (E.S.); (S.B.)
| | - Slamet Budijanto
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kampus IPB Darmaga, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia; (J.E.P.); (N.S.P.); (E.S.); (S.B.)
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Murphy SG, Murtha AN, Zhao Z, Alvarez L, Diebold P, Shin JH, VanNieuwenhze MS, Cava F, Dörr T. Class A Penicillin-Binding Protein-Mediated Cell Wall Synthesis Promotes Structural Integrity during Peptidoglycan Endopeptidase Insufficiency in Vibrio cholerae. mBio 2021; 12:e03596-20. [PMID: 33824203 DOI: 10.1128/mBio.03596-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial cell wall is composed primarily of peptidoglycan (PG), a poly-aminosugar that is essential to sustain cell shape, growth, and structural integrity. PG is synthesized by class A/B penicillin-binding proteins (a/bPBPs) and shape, elongation, division, and sporulation (SEDS) proteins like RodA (as part of the Rod system cell elongation machinery) and degraded by "autolytic" enzymes to accommodate growth processes. It is thought that autolysins (particularly endopeptidases [EPs]) are required for PG synthesis and incorporation by creating gaps that are patched and paved by PG synthases, but the exact relationship between autolysins and PG synthesis remains incompletely understood. Here, we have probed the consequences of EP depletion for PG synthesis in the diarrheal pathogen Vibrio cholerae We found that EP depletion resulted in severe morphological and division defects, but these cells continued to increase in mass and aberrantly incorporated new cell wall material. Mass increase proceeded in the presence of Rod system inhibitors, but cells lysed upon inhibition of aPBPs, suggesting that aPBPs are required for structural integrity under these conditions. The Rod system, although not essential for the observed mass increase, remained functional even after prolonged EP depletion. Last, heterologous expression of an EP from Neisseria gonorrhoeae fully complemented growth and morphology of an EP-insufficient V. cholerae, highlighting the possibility that the PG synthases may not necessarily function via direct interaction with EPs. Overall, our findings suggest that during EP insufficiency in V. cholerae, aPBPs become essential for structural integrity while the Rod system is unable to promote proper cell expansion.IMPORTANCE Synthesis and turnover of the bacterial cell wall must be tightly coordinated to avoid structural integrity failure and cell death. Details of this coordination are poorly understood, particularly if and how cell wall turnover enzymes are required for the activity of the different cell wall synthesis machines, the aPBPs and the Rod system. Our results suggest that in Vibrio cholerae, one class of turnover enzymes, the endopeptidases, are necessary for proper cell elongation and division. aPBPs become essential for maintaining structural integrity during EP insufficiency, while the Rod system remains active but contributes little to cell expansion under these conditions. Our results suggest that aPBPs are more versatile than the Rod system in their ability to recognize cell wall gaps formed by autolysins other than the major endopeptidases, adding to our understanding of the coordination between autolysins and cell wall synthases. A detailed understanding of autolysin biology may promote the development of antibiotics that target these essential turnover processes.
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Kailash V, Mendoza L, Moritz RL, Hoopmann MR. SPACEPro: A Software Tool for Analysis of Protein Sample Cleavage for Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Proteome Res 2021; 20:1911-1917. [PMID: 33529024 PMCID: PMC8026743 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of shotgun proteomic analysis is dependent on the reproducibility of the peptide cleavage process during sample preparation. To generate rapid and useful metrics for peptide cleavage efficiency, as in enzymatic or chemical cleavage, SPACEPro was developed to evaluate efficiency and reproducibility of protein cleavage in peptide samples following data-dependent analysis by mass spectrometry. SPACEPro analyzes samples at the peptide-spectrum match (PSM), peptide, and protein levels to provide a comprehensive representation of the overall sample processing to peptides. All output is provided in human-readable text and JSON files that can be further processed to assess the cleavage efficiency on proteins within the sample. SPACEPro provides a snapshot of the protein cleavage efficiency through very minimal effort so that the user is informed of the quality of the sample processing efficiency and can accordingly develop protocols to improve the initial sample preparation for subsequent analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidur Kailash
- Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Luis Mendoza
- Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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Mallick S, Kiran S, Maiti TK, Ghosh AS. PBP4 and PBP5 are involved in regulating exopolysaccharide synthesis during Escherichia coli biofilm formation. Microbiology (Reading) 2021; 167. [PMID: 33539278 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Escherichia coli low-molecular-mass (LMM) Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) help in hydrolysing the peptidoglycan fragments from their cell wall and recycling them back into the growing peptidoglycan matrix, in addition to their reported involvement in biofilm formation. Biofilms are external slime layers of extra-polymeric substances that sessile bacterial cells secrete to form a habitable niche for themselves. Here, we hypothesize the involvement of Escherichia coli LMM PBPs in regulating the nature of exopolysaccharides (EPS) prevailing in its extra-polymeric substances during biofilm formation. Therefore, this study includes the assessment of physiological characteristics of E. coli CS109 LMM PBP deletion mutants to address biofilm formation abilities, viability and surface adhesion. Finally, EPS from parent CS109 and its ΔPBP4 and ΔPBP5 mutants were purified and analysed for sugars present. Deletions of LMM PBP reduced biofilm formation, bacterial adhesion and their viability in biofilms. Deletions also diminished EPS production by ΔPBP4 and ΔPBP5 mutants, purification of which suggested an increased overall negative charge compared with their parent. Also, EPS analyses from both mutants revealed the appearance of an unusual sugar, xylose, that was absent in CS109. Accordingly, the reason for reduced biofilm formation in LMM PBP mutants may be speculated as the subsequent production of xylitol and a hindrance in the standard flow of the pentose phosphate pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathi Mallick
- Present address: National Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Hyderabad, Telangana, PIN-500032, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, PIN-721302, India
| | - Shanti Kiran
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, PIN-721302, India
| | - Tapas Kumar Maiti
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, PIN-721302, India
| | - Anindya S Ghosh
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, PIN-721302, India
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19
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Park SH, Kim YJ, Lee HB, Seok YJ, Lee CR. Genetic Evidence for Distinct Functions of Peptidoglycan Endopeptidases in Escherichia coli. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:565767. [PMID: 33013796 PMCID: PMC7516022 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.565767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Peptidoglycan (PG) is an essential component of the bacterial exoskeleton that plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of cell shape and resistance to cell lysis under high turgor pressures. The synthesis and degradation of PG must be tightly regulated during bacterial cell elongation and division. Unlike enzymes involved in PG synthesis, PG hydrolases show high redundancy in many bacteria including Escherichia coli. In this study, we showed that PG endopeptidases have distinct roles in cell growth and division. Phenotypic analysis of mutants lacking one of seven PG endopeptidases identified a MepM-specific phenotype, salt sensitivity, and a MepS-specific phenotype, EDTA sensitivity. Complementation test in each phenotype showed that the phenotype of the mepM mutant was restored only by MepM, whereas the phenotype of the mepS mutant was restored by MepS or by overexpression of MepH, PbpG, or MepM. These distinct phenotypes depend on both the specific localizations and specific domains of MepM and MepS. Finally, using the identified phenotypes, we revealed that MepM and MepH were genetically associated with both penicillin-binding protein 1a (PBP1a) and PBP1b, whereas MepS and PbpG were genetically associated with only PBP1b. Notably, a defect in PBP1a or PBP1b phenocopied the mepM mutant, suggesting the importance of MepM on PG synthesis. Therefore, our results indicate that each PG endopeptidase plays a distinct role in cell growth and division, depending on its distinct domains and cellular localizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Hyoung Park
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioinformatics, Myongji University, Yongin, South Korea
| | - Yung Jae Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioinformatics, Myongji University, Yongin, South Korea
| | - Han Byeol Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioinformatics, Myongji University, Yongin, South Korea
| | - Yeong-Jae Seok
- Department of Biological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Chang-Ro Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioinformatics, Myongji University, Yongin, South Korea
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20
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Wei G, Helmerhorst EJ, Darwish G, Blumenkranz G, Schuppan D. Gluten Degrading Enzymes for Treatment of Celiac Disease. Nutrients 2020; 12:E2095. [PMID: 32679754 DOI: 10.3390/nu12072095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Celiac disease (CeD) affects about 1% of most world populations. It presents a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from minor symptoms to mild or severe malabsorption, and it may be associated with a wide variety of autoimmune diseases. CeD is triggered and maintained by the ingestion of gluten proteins from wheat and related grains. Gluten peptides that resist gastrointestinal digestion are antigenically presented to gluten specific T cells in the intestinal mucosa via HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8, the necessary genetic predisposition for CeD. To date, there is no effective or approved treatment for CeD other than a strict adherence to a gluten-free diet, which is difficult to maintain in professional or social environments. Moreover, many patients with CeD have active disease despite diet adherence due to a high sensitivity to traces of gluten. Therefore, safe pharmacological treatments that complement the gluten-free diet are urgently needed. Oral enzyme therapy, employing gluten-degrading enzymes, is a promising therapeutic approach. A prerequisite is that such enzymes are active under gastro-duodenal conditions, quickly neutralize the T cell activating gluten peptides and are safe for human consumption. Several enzymes including prolyl endopeptidases, cysteine proteases and subtilisins can cleave the human digestion-resistant gluten peptides in vitro and in vivo. Examples are several prolyl endopeptidases from bacterial sources, subtilisins from Rothia bacteria that are natural oral colonizers and synthetic enzymes with optimized gluten-degrading activities. Without exception, these enzymes must cleave the otherwise unusual glutamine and proline-rich domains characteristic of antigenic gluten peptides. Moreover, they should be stable and active in both the acidic environment of the stomach and under near neutral pH in the duodenum. This review focuses on those enzymes that have been characterized and evaluated for the treatment of CeD, discussing their origin and activities, their clinical evaluation and challenges for therapeutic application. Novel developments include strategies like enteric coating and genetic modification to increase enzyme stability in the digestive tract.
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21
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Banzhaf M, Yau HC, Verheul J, Lodge A, Kritikos G, Mateus A, Cordier B, Hov AK, Stein F, Wartel M, Pazos M, Solovyova AS, Breukink E, van Teeffelen S, Savitski MM, den Blaauwen T, Typas A, Vollmer W. Outer membrane lipoprotein NlpI scaffolds peptidoglycan hydrolases within multi-enzyme complexes in Escherichia coli. EMBO J 2020; 39:e102246. [PMID: 32009249 PMCID: PMC7049810 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2019102246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptidoglycan (PG) sacculus provides bacteria with the mechanical strength to maintain cell shape and resist osmotic stress. Enlargement of the mesh‐like sacculus requires the combined activity of peptidoglycan synthases and hydrolases. In Escherichia coli, the activity of two PG synthases is driven by lipoproteins anchored in the outer membrane (OM). However, the regulation of PG hydrolases is less well understood, with only regulators for PG amidases having been described. Here, we identify the OM lipoprotein NlpI as a general adaptor protein for PG hydrolases. NlpI binds to different classes of hydrolases and can specifically form complexes with various PG endopeptidases. In addition, NlpI seems to contribute both to PG elongation and division biosynthetic complexes based on its localization and genetic interactions. Consistent with such a role, we reconstitute PG multi‐enzyme complexes containing NlpI, the PG synthesis regulator LpoA, its cognate bifunctional synthase, PBP1A, and different endopeptidases. Our results indicate that peptidoglycan regulators and adaptors are part of PG biosynthetic multi‐enzyme complexes, regulating and potentially coordinating the spatiotemporal action of PG synthases and hydrolases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Banzhaf
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hamish Cl Yau
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Jolanda Verheul
- Bacterial Cell Biology & Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Adam Lodge
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - George Kritikos
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - André Mateus
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Baptiste Cordier
- Microbial Morphogenesis and Growth Lab, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ann Kristin Hov
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Frank Stein
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Morgane Wartel
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Manuel Pazos
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | | | - Eefjan Breukink
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Mikhail M Savitski
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany.,European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Structural & Computational Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tanneke den Blaauwen
- Bacterial Cell Biology & Physiology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Athanasios Typas
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany.,European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Structural & Computational Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
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22
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Goblirsch BR, Pryor EE, Wiener MC. The tripartite architecture of the eukaryotic integral membrane protein zinc metalloprotease Ste24. Proteins 2019; 88:604-615. [PMID: 31644822 PMCID: PMC7168092 DOI: 10.1002/prot.25841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Ste24 enzymes, a family of eukaryotic integral membrane proteins, are zinc metalloproteases (ZMPs) originally characterized as “CAAX proteases” targeting prenylated substrates, including a‐factor mating pheromone in yeast and prelamin A in humans. Recently, Ste24 was shown to also cleave nonprenylated substrates. Reduced activity of the human ortholog, HsSte24, is linked to multiple disease states (laminopathies), including progerias and lipid disorders. Ste24 possesses a unique “α‐barrel” structure consisting of seven transmembrane (TM) α‐helices encircling a large intramembranous cavity (~14 000 Å3). The catalytic zinc, coordinated via a HExxH…E/H motif characteristic of gluzincin ZMPs, is positioned at one of the cavity's bases. The interrelationship between Ste24 as a gluzincin, a long‐studied class of soluble ZMPs, and as a novel cavity‐containing integral membrane protein protease has been minimally explored to date. Informed by homology to well‐characterized soluble, gluzincin ZMPs, we develop a model of Ste24 that provides a conceptual framework for this enzyme family, suitable for development and interpretation of structure/function studies. The model consists of an interfacial, zinc‐containing “ZMP Core” module surrounded by a “ZMP Accessory” module, both capped by a TM helical “α‐barrel” module of as yet unknown function. Multiple sequence alignment of 58 Ste24 orthologs revealed 38 absolutely conserved residues, apportioned unequally among the ZMP Core (18), ZMP Accessory (13), and α‐barrel (7) modules. This Tripartite Architecture representation of Ste24 provides a unified image of this enzyme family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon R Goblirsch
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Edward E Pryor
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Michael C Wiener
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
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Swift SM, Etobayeva IV, Reid KP, Waters JJ, Oakley BB, Donovan DM, Nelson DC. Characterization of LysBC17, a Lytic Endopeptidase from Bacillus cereus. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:E155. [PMID: 31546935 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8030155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus cereus, a Gram-positive bacterium, is an agent of food poisoning. B. cereus is closely related to Bacillus anthracis, a deadly pathogen for humans, and Bacillus thuringenesis, an insect pathogen. Due to the growing prevalence of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, alternative antimicrobials are needed. One such alternative is peptidoglycan hydrolase enzymes, which can lyse Gram-positive bacteria when exposed externally. A bioinformatic search for bacteriolytic enzymes led to the discovery of a gene encoding an endolysin-like endopeptidase, LysBC17, which was then cloned from the genome of B. cereus strain Bc17. This gene is also present in the B. cereus ATCC 14579 genome. The gene for LysBC17 encodes a protein of 281 amino acids. Recombinant LysBC17 was expressed and purified from E. coli. Optimal lytic activity against B. cereus occurred between pH 7.0 and 8.0, and in the absence of NaCl. The LysBC17 enzyme had lytic activity against strains of B. cereus, B. anthracis, and other Bacillus species.
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Tokarzewicz A, Romanowicz L, Sankiewicz A, Hermanowicz A, Sobolewski K, Gorodkiewicz E. A New Analytical Method for Determination of Cathepsin L Based on the Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging Biosensor. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092166. [PMID: 31052424 PMCID: PMC6539348 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop a new method for a determination of the cathepsin L—biosensor based on the Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging technique. The cathepsin L is an endopeptidase, which degrades proteins and plays an important role in various processes occurring in the human body. The detection technique, Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging, is an optical, label-free technique, which can be used for quantitative determination of the different proteins. In order to bind the enzyme, the cathepsin L inhibitor—RKLLW-NH2 was used. The validation process showed that parameters: precision, accuracy, and selectivity of the method were acceptable. The analytically useful range of the standard curve was 0.50 ng/mL—15.00 ng/mL. The detection and quantification limit of method was 1.67 pg/mL and 5.07 pg/mL, respectively. The usefulness of the developed method was confirmed by the determination of the cathepsin L concentration in the blood plasma of some healthy persons and in the blood plasma of patients. The obtained results were compared with the results obtained by the ELISA. It was found that the correlation between these two methods was very strong, what suggest that the developed method can be used as the competitive method to the ELISA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Tokarzewicz
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, A. Mickiewicza 2C, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Lech Romanowicz
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, A. Mickiewicza 2C, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Anna Sankiewicz
- Department of Electrochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Ciolkowskiego 1K, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Adam Hermanowicz
- Department of Pediatric Surgery and Urology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 17, 15-274 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Krzysztof Sobolewski
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, A. Mickiewicza 2C, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Ewa Gorodkiewicz
- Department of Electrochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Ciolkowskiego 1K, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland.
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Schaub RE, Perez-Medina KM, Hackett KT, Garcia DL, Dillard JP. Neisseria gonorrhoeae PBP3 and PBP4 Facilitate NOD1 Agonist Peptidoglycan Fragment Release and Survival in Stationary Phase. Infect Immun 2019; 87:e00833-18. [PMID: 30510100 DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00833-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Neisseria gonorrhoeae releases peptidoglycan fragments during growth, and these molecules induce an inflammatory response in the human host. The proinflammatory molecules include peptidoglycan monomers, peptidoglycan dimers, and free peptides. These molecules can be released by the actions of lytic transglycosylases or an amidase. However, >40% of the gonococcal cell wall is cross-linked, where the peptide stem on one peptidoglycan strand is linked to the peptide stem on a neighboring strand, suggesting that endopeptidases may be required for the release of many peptidoglycan fragments. Therefore, we characterized mutants with individual or combined mutations in genes for the low-molecular-mass penicillin-binding proteins PBP3 and PBP4. Mutations in either dacB, encoding PBP3, or pbpG, encoding PBP4, did not significantly reduce the release of peptidoglycan monomers or free peptides. A mutation in dacB caused the appearance of a larger-sized peptidoglycan monomer, the pentapeptide monomer, and an increased release of peptidoglycan dimers, suggesting the involvement of this enzyme in both the removal of C-terminal d-Ala residues from stem peptides and the cleavage of cross-linked peptidoglycan. Mutation of both dacB and pbpG eliminated the release of tripeptide-containing peptidoglycan fragments concomitantly with the appearance of pentapeptide and dipeptide peptidoglycan fragments and higher-molecular-weight peptidoglycan dimers. In accord with the loss of tripeptide peptidoglycan fragments, the level of human NOD1 activation by the dacB pbpG mutants was significantly lower than that by the wild type. We conclude that PBP3 and PBP4 overlap in function for cross-link cleavage and that these endopeptidases act in the normal release of peptidoglycan fragments during growth.
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Kim JS, Daum MA, Jin YS, Miller MJ. Yeast Derived LysA2 Can Control Bacterial Contamination in Ethanol Fermentation. Viruses 2018; 10:v10060281. [PMID: 29795003 PMCID: PMC6024572 DOI: 10.3390/v10060281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Contamination of fuel-ethanol fermentations continues to be a significant problem for the corn and sugarcane-based ethanol industries. In particular, members of the Lactobacillaceae family are the primary bacteria of concern. Currently, antibiotics and acid washing are two major means of controlling contaminants. However, antibiotic use could lead to increased antibiotic resistance, and the acid wash step stresses the fermenting yeast and has limited effectiveness. Bacteriophage endolysins such as LysA2 are lytic enzymes with the potential to contribute as antimicrobials to the fuel ethanol industries. Our goal was to evaluate the potential of yeast-derived LysA2 as a means of controlling Lactobacillaceae contamination. LysA2 intracellularly produced by Pichia pastoris showed activity comparable to Escherichia coli produced LysA2. Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) with the A4α peptidoglycan chemotype (L-Lys-D-Asp crosslinkage) were the most sensitive to LysA2, though a few from that chemotype were insensitive. Pichia-expressed LysA2, both secreted and intracellularly produced, successfully improved ethanol productivity and yields in glucose (YPD60) and sucrose-based (sugarcane juice) ethanol fermentations in the presence of a LysA2 susceptible LAB contaminant. LysA2 secreting Sacharomyces cerevisiae did not notably improve production in sugarcane juice, but it did control bacterial contamination during fermentation in YPD60. Secretion of LysA2 by the fermenting yeast, or adding it in purified form, are promising alternative tools to control LAB contamination during ethanol fermentation. Endolysins with much broader lytic spectrums than LysA2 could supplement or replace the currently used antibiotics or the acidic wash.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Seob Kim
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, 905 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 W. Gregory Dr., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
| | - M Angela Daum
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, 905 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 W. Gregory Dr., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
| | - Yong-Su Jin
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, 905 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 W. Gregory Dr., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
| | - Michael J Miller
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, 905 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1206 W. Gregory Dr., Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
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Brouwer S, Cork AJ, Ong CY, Barnett TC, West NP, McIver KS, Walker MJ. Endopeptidase PepO Regulates the SpeB Cysteine Protease and Is Essential for the Virulence of Invasive M1T1 Streptococcus pyogenes. J Bacteriol 2018; 200:e00654-17. [PMID: 29378883 DOI: 10.1128/JB.00654-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus [GAS]) causes a wide range of human infections. The pathogenesis of GAS infections is dependent on the temporal expression of numerous secreted and surface-associated virulence factors that interact with host proteins. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB) is one of the most extensively studied toxins produced by GAS, and the coordinate growth phase-dependent regulation of speB expression is linked to disease severity phenotypes. Here, we identified the endopeptidase PepO as a novel growth phase-dependent regulator of SpeB in the invasive GAS M1 serotype strain 5448. By using transcriptomics followed by quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR and Western blot analyses, we demonstrate through targeted mutagenesis that PepO influences growth phase-dependent induction of speB gene expression. Compared to wild-type and complemented mutant strains, we demonstrate that the 5448ΔpepO mutant strain is more susceptible to killing by human neutrophils and is attenuated in virulence in a murine model of invasive GAS infection. Our results expand the complex regulatory network that is operating in GAS to control SpeB production and suggest that PepO is a virulence requirement during GAS M1T1 strain 5448 infections.IMPORTANCE Despite the continuing susceptibility of S. pyogenes to penicillin, this bacterial pathogen remains a leading infectious cause of global morbidity and mortality. A particular subclone of the M1 serotype (M1T1) has persisted globally for decades as the most frequently isolated serotype from patients with invasive and noninvasive diseases in Western countries. One of the key GAS pathogenicity factors is the potent broad-spectrum cysteine protease SpeB. Although there has been extensive research interest on the regulatory mechanisms that control speB gene expression, its genetic regulation is not fully understood. Here, we identify the endopeptidase PepO as a new regulator of speB gene expression in the globally disseminated M1T1 clone and as being essential for virulence.
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Mullen L, Boerrigter K, Ferriero N, Rosalsky J, Barrett AVB, Murray PJ, Steen AD. Potential Activities of Freshwater Exo- and Endo-Acting Extracellular Peptidases in East Tennessee and the Pocono Mountains. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:368. [PMID: 29559961 PMCID: PMC5845674 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins constitute a particularly bioavailable subset of organic carbon and nitrogen in aquatic environments but must be hydrolyzed by extracellular enzymes prior to being metabolized by microorganisms. Activities of extracellular peptidases (protein-degrading enzymes) have frequently been assayed in freshwater systems, but such studies have been limited to substrates for a single enzyme [leucyl aminopeptidase (Leu-AP)] out of more than 300 biochemically recognized peptidases. Here, we report kinetic measurements of extracellular hydrolysis of five substrates in 28 freshwater bodies in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area in the Pocono Mountains (PA, United States) and near Knoxville (TN, United States), between 2013 and 2016. The assays putatively test for four aminopeptidases (arginyl aminopeptidase, glyclyl aminopeptidase, Leu-AP, and pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase), which cleave N-terminal amino acids from proteins, and trypsin, an endopeptidase, which cleaves proteins mid-chain. Aminopeptidase and the trypsin-like activity were observed in all water bodies, indicating that a diverse set of peptidases is typical in freshwater. However, ratios of peptidase activities were variable among sites: aminopeptidases dominated at some sites and trypsin-like activity at others. At a given site, the ratios remained fairly consistent over time, indicating that they are driven by ecological factors. Studies in which only Leu-AP activity is measured may underestimate the total peptidolytic capacity of an environment, due to the variable contribution of endopeptidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Mullen
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | | | - Kim Boerrigter
- Malcolm X Shabazz High School, Newark, NJ, United States.,Harvard College, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | | | - Jeff Rosalsky
- Pocono Environmental Education Center, Dingmans Ferry, PA, United States
| | - Abigail van Buren Barrett
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | | | - Andrew D Steen
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States
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Kasperkiewicz P, Poreba M, Groborz K, Drag M. Emerging challenges in the design of selective substrates, inhibitors and activity-based probes for indistinguishable proteases. FEBS J 2017; 284:1518-1539. [PMID: 28052575 PMCID: PMC7164106 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Proteases are enzymes that hydrolyze the peptide bond of peptide substrates and proteins. Despite significant progress in recent years, one of the greatest challenges in the design and testing of substrates, inhibitors and activity‐based probes for proteolytic enzymes is achieving specificity toward only one enzyme. This specificity is particularly important if the enzyme is present with other enzymes with a similar catalytic mechanism and substrate specificity but completely different functionality. The cross‐reactivity of substrates, inhibitors and activity‐based probes with other enzymes can significantly impair or even prevent investigations of a target protease. In this review, we describe important concepts and the latest challenges, focusing mainly on peptide‐based substrate specificity techniques used to distinguish individual enzymes within major protease families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Kasperkiewicz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
| | - Marcin Poreba
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Groborz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
| | - Marcin Drag
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
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Aspevik T, Egede-Nissen H, Oterhals Ĺ. A Systematic Approach to the Comparison of Cost Efficiency of Endopeptidases for the Hydrolysis of Atlantic Salmon ( Salmo salar) By-Products. Food Technol Biotechnol 2016; 54:421-431. [PMID: 28115899 DOI: 10.17113/ftb.54.04.16.4553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The hydrolytic and cost efficiencies of five endopeptidases (Alcalase 2.4L, Corolase 7089, Neutrase 0.8L, Promod 671L and Protex 7L) to hydrolyze Atlantic salmon by-products were compared at standardized activity levels based on a casein assay. The substrate was characterized prior to the hydrolytic experiments (pH=6.5, t=50 °C) to obtain substrate--specific constants for nitrogen to protein mass (in g) ratio, i.e. conversion factor fN=5.23 and total amount of peptide bonds (htot)=9.3 mmol per g of protein. At low enzyme activity to substrate ratio, all enzymes were equally efficient in hydrolyzing the substrate. At highest enzyme activity to substrate ratio, Protex 7L, Alcalase 2.4L and Promod 671L gave higher degree of hydrolysis (DH=14.2-14.6%) than Corolase 7089 (13.2%) and Neutrase 0.8L (11.6%) after 120 min of hydrolysis. No differences were observed in protein recovery (yield of solubilized protein) relative to DH. Determination of DH was followed by the pH-STAT and o-phthaldialdehyde methods. Based on pH-STAT data, response surface regression models were established based on the combined effects of hydrolysis time and enzyme activity to substrate ratio on DH and protein recovery. The modelling approach was combined with enzyme cost to identify the most cost-efficient enzyme (Protex 7L).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tone Aspevik
- Nofima, Kjerreidviken 16, N-5141 Fyllingsdalen, Norway
| | | | - Ĺge Oterhals
- Nofima, Kjerreidviken 16, N-5141 Fyllingsdalen, Norway
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Simon S, Fiebig U, Liu Y, Tierney R, Dano J, Worbs S, Endermann T, Nevers MC, Volland H, Sesardic D, Dorner MB. Recommended Immunological Strategies to Screen for Botulinum Neurotoxin-Containing Samples. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:5011-34. [PMID: 26703727 PMCID: PMC4690110 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7124860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) cause the life-threatening neurological illness botulism in humans and animals and are divided into seven serotypes (BoNT/A–G), of which serotypes A, B, E, and F cause the disease in humans. BoNTs are classified as “category A” bioterrorism threat agents and are relevant in the context of the Biological Weapons Convention. An international proficiency test (PT) was conducted to evaluate detection, quantification and discrimination capabilities of 23 expert laboratories from the health, food and security areas. Here we describe three immunological strategies that proved to be successful for the detection and quantification of BoNT/A, B, and E considering the restricted sample volume (1 mL) distributed. To analyze the samples qualitatively and quantitatively, the first strategy was based on sensitive immunoenzymatic and immunochromatographic assays for fast qualitative and quantitative analyses. In the second approach, a bead-based suspension array was used for screening followed by conventional ELISA for quantification. In the third approach, an ELISA plate format assay was used for serotype specific immunodetection of BoNT-cleaved substrates, detecting the activity of the light chain, rather than the toxin protein. The results provide guidance for further steps in quality assurance and highlight problems to address in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Simon
- CEA Saclay, Institute of Biology and Technologies of Saclay, Laboratory for Immunoanalytical Researches, Gif-sur-Yvette 91191 cedex, France.
| | - Uwe Fiebig
- Biological Toxins, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Seestrasse 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Yvonne Liu
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a Centre of Medicines & Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - Rob Tierney
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a Centre of Medicines & Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - Julie Dano
- CEA Saclay, Institute of Biology and Technologies of Saclay, Laboratory for Immunoanalytical Researches, Gif-sur-Yvette 91191 cedex, France.
| | - Sylvia Worbs
- Biological Toxins, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Seestrasse 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Tanja Endermann
- Biological Toxins, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Seestrasse 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Marie-Claire Nevers
- CEA Saclay, Institute of Biology and Technologies of Saclay, Laboratory for Immunoanalytical Researches, Gif-sur-Yvette 91191 cedex, France.
| | - Hervé Volland
- CEA Saclay, Institute of Biology and Technologies of Saclay, Laboratory for Immunoanalytical Researches, Gif-sur-Yvette 91191 cedex, France.
| | - Dorothea Sesardic
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, a Centre of Medicines & Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - Martin B Dorner
- Biological Toxins, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Seestrasse 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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Murphy TF, Kirkham C, Jones MM, Sethi S, Kong Y, Pettigrew MM. Expression of IgA Proteases by Haemophilus influenzae in the Respiratory Tract of Adults With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. J Infect Dis 2015; 212:1798-805. [PMID: 25995193 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immunoglobulin (Ig)A proteases of Haemophilus influenzae are highly specific endopeptidases that cleave the hinge region of human IgA1 and also mediate invasion and trafficking in human respiratory epithelial cells, facilitating persistence of H. influenzae. Little is known about the expression of IgA proteases in clinical settings of H. influenzae infection. METHODS We identified and characterized IgA protease genes in H. influenzae and studied their expression and proteolytic specificity, in vitro and in vivo in 169 independent strains of H. influenzae collected longitudinally over 10 years from adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. RESULTS The H. influenzae pangenome has 2 alleles of IgA protease genes; all strains have igaA, and 40% of strains have igaB. Each allele has 2 variants with differing proteolytic specificities for human IgA1. A total of 88% of 169 strains express IgA protease activity. Expression of the 4 forms of IgA protease varies among strains. Based on the presence of IgA1 fragments in sputum samples, each of the different forms of IgA protease is selectively expressed in the human airways during infection. CONCLUSIONS Four variants of IgA proteases are variably expressed by H. influenzae during infection of the human airways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy F Murphy
- Division of Infectious Diseases Department of Microbiology and Immunology Clinical and Translational Research Center, University at Buffalo, State University of New York
| | - Charmaine Kirkham
- Division of Infectious Diseases Clinical and Translational Research Center, University at Buffalo, State University of New York
| | - Megan M Jones
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology Clinical and Translational Research Center, University at Buffalo, State University of New York
| | - Sanjay Sethi
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine Veterans Affairs Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, New York
| | - Yong Kong
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, W.M. Keck Biotechnology Resource Laboratory
| | - Melinda M Pettigrew
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
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Wilson BA, Cruz-Diaz N, Marshall AC, Pirro NT, Su Y, Gwathmey TM, Rose JC, Chappell MC. An angiotensin-(1-7) peptidase in the kidney cortex, proximal tubules, and human HK-2 epithelial cells that is distinct from insulin-degrading enzyme. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2015; 308:F594-601. [PMID: 25568136 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00609.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiotensin 1-7 [ANG-(1-7)] is expressed within the kidney and exhibits renoprotective actions that antagonize the inflammatory, fibrotic, and pro-oxidant effects of ANG II. We previously identified an peptidase that preferentially metabolized ANG-(1-7) to ANG-(1-4) in the brain medulla and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of sheep (Marshall AC, Pirro NT, Rose JC, Diz DI, Chappell MC. J Neurochem 130: 313-323, 2014); thus the present study established the expression of the peptidase in the kidney. Utilizing a sensitive HPLC-based approach, we demonstrate a peptidase activity that hydrolyzed ANG-(1-7) to ANG-(1-4) in the sheep cortex, isolated tubules, and human HK-2 renal epithelial cells. The peptidase was markedly sensitive to the metallopeptidase inhibitor JMV-390; human HK-2 cells expressed subnanomolar sensitivity (IC50 = 0.5 nM) and the highest specific activity (123 ± 5 fmol·min(-1)·mg(-1)) compared with the tubules (96 ± 12 fmol·min(-1)·mg(-1)) and cortex (107 ± 9 fmol·min(-1)·mg(-1)). The peptidase was purified 41-fold from HK-2 cells; the activity was sensitive to JMV-390, the chelator o-phenanthroline, and the mercury-containing compound p-chloromercuribenzoic acid (PCMB), but not to selective inhibitors against neprilysin, neurolysin and thimet oligopeptidase. Both ANG-(1-7) and its endogenous analog [Ala(1)]-ANG-(1-7) (alamandine) were preferentially hydrolyzed by the peptidase compared with ANG II, [Asp(1)]-ANG II, ANG I, and ANG-(1-12). Although the ANG-(1-7) peptidase and insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) share similar inhibitor characteristics of a metallothiolendopeptidase, we demonstrate marked differences in substrate specificity, which suggest these peptidases are distinct. We conclude that an ANG-(1-7) peptidase is expressed within the renal proximal tubule and may play a potential role in the renal renin-angiotensin system to regulate ANG-(1-7) tone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan A Wilson
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Center, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina; and
| | - Nildris Cruz-Diaz
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Center, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina; and
| | - Allyson C Marshall
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Center, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina; and
| | - Nancy T Pirro
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Center, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina; and
| | - Yixin Su
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina
| | - TanYa M Gwathmey
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Center, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina; and
| | - James C Rose
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina
| | - Mark C Chappell
- Hypertension and Vascular Research Center, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Cartolina; and
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Nonaka M, Shoji M, Kadowaki T, Sato K, Yukitake H, Naito M, Nakayama K. Analysis of a Lys-specific serine endopeptidase secreted via the type IX secretion system in Porphyromonas gingivalis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2014; 354:60-8. [PMID: 24655155 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Revised: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis, a significant causative agent of adult periodontitis, possesses a novel secretion system called the type IX secretion system (T9SS). A number of virulence factors, such as Arg-gingipain (Rgp), are translocated onto the cell surface and into the extracellular milieu via the T9SS. In this study, we found that the PGN_1416 90- to 120-kDa diffuse protein bands were located in the outer membrane fraction and that the presence of the bands was dependent on genes involved in the T9SS and the formation of anionic lipopolysaccharide (A-LPS). These data strongly suggest that the PGN_1416 protein is secreted by the T9SS and anchored onto the cell surface by binding to A-LPS. Enzymatic analysis using outer membrane fractions suggested that the PGN_1416 protein has a Lys-specific serine endopeptidase activity and that its activation requires processing by Rgp. Homologues of the gene encoding PGN_1416, which is referred to as pepK, were found in bacteria belonging to the phyla Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria, whereas homologues encoding the C-terminal domain, which is essential for T9SS-mediated secretion, and the catalytic domain were only observed in bacteria belonging to the Bacteroidetes phylum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minako Nonaka
- Division of Microbiology and Oral Infection, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
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Wang R, Liu S, Wang J, Dong Q, Xu L, Rui Q. Purification, characterization and identification of a senescence related serine protease in dark-induced senescent wheat leaves. Phytochemistry 2013; 95:118-126. [PMID: 23910959 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 12/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Senescence-related proteases play important roles in leaf senescence by regulating protein degradation and nutrient recycling. A 98.9kDa senescence-related protease EP3 in wheat leaves was purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation, Q-Sepharose fast flow anion exchange chromatography and gel slicing after gel electrophoresis. Due to its relatively high thermal stability, its protease activity did not decrease after incubation at 40°C for 1-h. EP3 protease was suggested to be a metal-dependent serine protease, because its activity was inhibited by serine protease inhibitors PMSF and AEBSF and metal related protease inhibitor EGTA. It was identified as a subtilisin-like serine protease of the S8A family based on data from both mass spectrometry and the cloned cDNA sequence. Therefore, these data suggest that a serine protease of the S8A subfamily with specific biochemical properties is involved in senescence-associated protein degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renxian Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
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Mizanur RM, Gorbet J, Swaminathan S, Ahmed SA. Inhibition of catalytic activities of botulinum neurotoxin light chains of serotypes A, B and E by acetate, sulfate and calcium. Int J Biochem Mol Biol 2012; 3:313-321. [PMID: 23097747 PMCID: PMC3476790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The catalytic domain, known as light chain (Lc), of the most poisonous botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), possesses endoprotease activity that triggers the ultimate poisonous effect to animals and humans. X-ray crystallographic structure of Lc of several BoNT serotypes has identified at least four small ligands at or near the respective active sites. They are sulfate ions in LcA, LcB, and LcE; an acetate ion in LcA; a calcium ion in LcB; and a potassium ion in LcD. Roles of these ligands on the structure and function of the proteins are not known. We have investigated the roles of sulfate, acetate, and calcium on the catalytic activities of LcA, LcB, and LcE using 17-35-residue synthetic peptide substrates. All three ligands inhibited all Lc activities. For LcA and LcB, the order of inhibition effectiveness was calcium>sulfate>acetate. The inhibition effectiveness expressed as IC(50), did not correlate with the occurrence or proximity of the ions to the active site. Moreover, addition of acetate or sulfate to LcA did not affect the near-UV circular dichroism spectra, tryptophan, and tyrosine fluorescence spectra, and mid points of thermal denaturation of LcA. Our results suggest that acetate, sulfate, and calcium nonspecifically interact with BoNT Lc, and their occurrence in the crystal structures could have been due to opportunistic binding to complementary pockets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahman M Mizanur
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Integrated Toxicology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases Fort Detrick, Maryland 21702
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Salameh MA, Soares AS, Hockla A, Radisky DC, Radisky ES. The P(2)' residue is a key determinant of mesotrypsin specificity: engineering a high-affinity inhibitor with anticancer activity. Biochem J 2011; 440:95-105. [PMID: 21806544 DOI: 10.1042/BJ20110788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
PRSS3/mesotrypsin is an atypical isoform of trypsin, the up-regulation of which has been implicated in promoting tumour progression. Mesotrypsin inhibitors could potentially provide valuable research tools and novel therapeutics, but small-molecule trypsin inhibitors have low affinity and little selectivity, whereas protein trypsin inhibitors bind poorly and are rapidly degraded by mesotrypsin. In the present study, we use mutagenesis of a mesotrypsin substrate, APPI (amyloid precursor protein Kunitz protease inhibitor domain), and of a poor mesotrypsin inhibitor, BPTI (bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor), to dissect mesotrypsin specificity at the key P(2)' position. We find that bulky and charged residues strongly disfavour binding, whereas acidic residues facilitate catalysis. Crystal structures of mesotrypsin complexes with BPTI variants provide structural insights into mesotrypsin specificity and inhibition. Through optimization of the P(1) and P(2)' residues of BPTI, we generate a stable high-affinity mesotrypsin inhibitor with an equilibrium binding constant K(i) of 5.9 nM, a >2000-fold improvement in affinity over native BPTI. Using this engineered inhibitor, we demonstrate the efficacy of pharmacological inhibition of mesotrypsin in assays of breast cancer cell malignant growth and pancreatic cancer cell invasion. Although further improvements in inhibitor selectivity will be important before clinical potential can be realized, the results of the present study support the feasibility of engineering protein protease inhibitors of mesotrypsin and highlight their therapeutic potential.
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Abstract
Sensitive and rapid detection of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), the most poisonous substances known to date, is essential for studies of medical applications of BoNTs and detection of poisoned food, as well as for response to potential bioterrorist threats. Currently, the most common method of BoNT detection is the mouse bioassay. While this assay is sensitive, it is slow, quite expensive, has limited throughput and requires sacrificing animals. Herein, we discuss and compare recently developed alternative in vitro detection methods and assess their ability to supplement or replace the mouse bioassay in the analysis of complex matrix samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Čapek
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA;
| | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry and Worm Institute for Research and Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +1-858-784-2522; Fax: +1-858-784-2590
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Čapek P, Dickerson TJ. Sensing the deadliest toxin: technologies for botulinum neurotoxin detection. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:24-53. [PMID: 22069545 PMCID: PMC3206617 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensitive and rapid detection of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), the most poisonous substances known to date, is essential for studies of medical applications of BoNTs and detection of poisoned food, as well as for response to potential bioterrorist threats. Currently, the most common method of BoNT detection is the mouse bioassay. While this assay is sensitive, it is slow, quite expensive, has limited throughput and requires sacrificing animals. Herein, we discuss and compare recently developed alternative in vitro detection methods and assess their ability to supplement or replace the mouse bioassay in the analysis of complex matrix samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Čapek
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA;
| | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry and Worm Institute for Research and Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Barbara G, De Giorgio R, Stanghellini V, Corinaldesi R, Cremon C, Gerard N, Gerard C, Grady EF, Bunnett NW, Blennerhassett PA, Collins SM. Neutral endopeptidase (EC 3.4.24.11) downregulates the onset of intestinal inflammation in the nematode infected mouse. Gut 2003; 52:1457-64. [PMID: 12970139 PMCID: PMC1773836 DOI: 10.1136/gut.52.10.1457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Substance P (SP) release from sensory nerves induces neurogenic inflammation. Neutral endopeptidase (NEP) degrades SP, thereby limiting its proinflammatory effects. Intestinal inflammation following Trichinella spiralis infection markedly downregulates NEP, resulting in diminished SP degradation, with unknown functional consequences. We hypothesised that diminished expression of NEP would exacerbate T spiralis induced enteritis. METHODS NEP knockout (NEP-/-) and wild-type (NEP+/+) mice were infected with T spiralis and studied at 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours post infection (PI). Tissue inflammation was quantified by computerised cell counting and myeloperoxidase activity (MPO). The leucocyte adhesion molecule, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and SP were assessed by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Before infection, the lack of NEP was not associated with changes in mucosal cellularity or MPO activity. Twelve hours PI, NEP-/- mice showed a 2.5-fold increase in MPO activity at a time when values in NEP+/+ mice were still within normal limits. MPO activity and cellularity peaked at 24 hours PI. This was accompanied by increased staining for both ICAM-1 and SP in NEP-/- mice. Infusion of rhNEP to NEP-/- mice significantly reduced MPO activity 24 hours PI. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that NEP downregulates the early onset of nematode intestinal inflammation and that increased bioavailability of SP and overexpression of ICAM-1 in NEP-/- mice likely play a role in the earlier onset of intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Barbara
- Intestinal Disease Research Program and Gastrointestinal Division, Health Sciences Center, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Marr RA, Rockenstein E, Mukherjee A, Kindy MS, Hersh LB, Gage FH, Verma IM, Masliah E. Neprilysin gene transfer reduces human amyloid pathology in transgenic mice. J Neurosci 2003; 23:1992-6. [PMID: 12657655 PMCID: PMC6742010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The degenerative process of Alzheimer's disease is linked to a shift in the balance between amyloid-beta (Abeta) production, clearance, and degradation. Neprilysin has recently been implicated as a major extracellular Abeta degrading enzyme in the brain. However, there has been no direct demonstration that neprilysin antagonizes the deposition of amyloid-beta in vivo. To address this issue, a lentiviral vector expressing human neprilysin (Lenti-Nep) was tested in transgenic mouse models of amyloidosis. We show that unilateral intracerebral injection of Lenti-Nep reduced amyloid-beta deposits by half relative to the untreated side. Furthermore, Lenti-Nep ameliorated neurodegenerative alterations in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of these transgenic mice. These data further support a role for neprilysin in regulating cerebral amyloid deposition and suggest that gene transfer approaches might have potential for the development of alternative therapies for Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Marr
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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Detheux M, Ständker L, Vakili J, Münch J, Forssmann U, Adermann K, Pöhlmann S, Vassart G, Kirchhoff F, Parmentier M, Forssmann WG. Natural proteolytic processing of hemofiltrate CC chemokine 1 generates a potent CC chemokine receptor (CCR)1 and CCR5 agonist with anti-HIV properties. J Exp Med 2000; 192:1501-8. [PMID: 11085751 PMCID: PMC2193185 DOI: 10.1084/jem.192.10.1501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemofiltrate CC chemokine (HCC)-1 is a recently described human chemokine that is constitutively expressed in numerous tissues and is present at high concentrations in normal plasma. Using a cell line expressing CC chemokine receptor (CCR)5 as a bioassay, we isolated from human hemofiltrate an HCC-1 variant lacking the first eight amino acids. HCC-1[9-74] was a potent agonist of CCR1, CCR3, and CCR5 and promoted calcium flux and chemotaxis of T lymphoblasts, monocytes, and eosinophils. It also blocked entry of HIV-1 strains using CCR5 as coreceptor. Limited tryptic digestion of HCC-1 generated the active variant. Conditioned media from several tumor cell lines activated HCC-1 with a high efficiency, and this activity could be inhibited by serine protease inhibitors. Our results indicate that HCC-1 represents a nonfunctional precursor that can be rapidly converted to the active chemokine by proteolytic processing. This process represents an additional mechanism by which tumor cells might generate chemoattractant molecules and recruit inflammatory cells. It might also affect HIV-1 replication in infected individuals and play an important role in AIDS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Detheux
- Euroscreen S.A., B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
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Shintani Y, Nishimura J, Niiro N, Hirano K, Nakano H, Kanaide H. Mechanisms underlying the neurokinin A-induced contraction of the pregnant rat myometrium. Br J Pharmacol 2000; 130:1165-73. [PMID: 10882403 PMCID: PMC1572167 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0703410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/1999] [Revised: 03/10/2000] [Accepted: 04/03/2000] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
1. Using fura-PE3 fluorimetry and alpha-toxin permeabilization, the characteristics of the contractile responses to neurokinin A (NKA) were determined in the pregnant rat myometrium. 2. NKA induced contractions in rat myometrium in a concentration-dependent manner. There were no significant differences in the maximum contractions and EC(50) values between the pregnant and non-pregnant myometrium, however, the contraction of only the former was greatly enhanced in the presence of phosphoramidon (PPAD), an endopeptidase inhibitor. 3. In the pregnant myometrium, NKA induced sustained increases in [Ca(2+)](i) and tension in normal physiological saline solution, while only small transient increases in [Ca(2+)](i) and tension were observed in Ca(2+)-free solution. 4. Both diltiazem (10 microM) and SK-F 96365 (10 microM) significantly inhibited the NKA-induced elevations of [Ca(2+)](i) and tension. The effects were additive when these drugs were used together. 5. NKA induced a significant leftward shift of the [Ca(2+)](i)-tension curve obtained by changing the external Ca(2+) (0 - 2.5 mM) during depolarization with high K(+) solution. This Ca(2+)-sensitizing effect by NKA was also observed in the alpha-toxin permeabilized myometrium. 5. These results indicated that in the pregnant rat myometrium: (1) the responsiveness to NKA increased, although it was masked by the increase in the endopeptidase activity; (2) NKA induced contractions of the myometrium by increasing both [Ca(2+)](i) and the myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity and (3) The NKA-induced [Ca(2+)](i) elevation was partly due to the intracellular Ca(2+) release and mainly due to the Ca(2+) influx, which was thought to be through both voltage dependent calcium channels and non-specification channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinobu Shintani
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Junji Nishimura
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Naohisa Niiro
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Katsuya Hirano
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Hitoo Nakano
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Hideo Kanaide
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
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Li H, Wang H, Schegg KM, Schooley DA. Metabolism of an insect diuretic hormone by Malpighian tubules studied by liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:13463-8. [PMID: 9391048 PMCID: PMC28328 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.25.13463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/1997] [Accepted: 10/02/1997] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The larger of two diuretic hormones of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, (Mas-DH) is a peptide of 41 residues. It is one of a family of seven currently known insect diuretic hormones that are similar to the corticotropin-releasing factor-urotensin-sauvagine family of peptides. We investigated the possible inactivation of Mas-DH by incubating it in vitro with larval Malpighian tubules (Mt), the target organ of the hormone. The medium was analyzed, and degradation products were identified, using on-line microbore reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (RPLC-ESI-MS). This sensitive technique allows identification of metabolites of Mas-DH (present at an initial level of approximately 1 microM). An accurate Mr value for a metabolite is usually sufficient for unambiguous identification. Mas-DH is cleaved by Mt proteases initially at L29-R30 and R30-A31 under our assay conditions; some Mas-DH is also oxidized, apparently at M2 and M11. The proteolysis can be inhibited by 5 mM EDTA, suggesting that divalent metals are needed for peptide cleavage. The oxidation of the hormone can be inhibited by catalase or 1 mM methionine, indicating that H2O2 or related reactive oxygen species are responsible for the oxidative degradation observed. RPLC-ESI-MS is shown here to be an elegant and efficient method for studying peptide hormone metabolism resulting from unknown proteases and pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Li
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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Saleh TM, Kombian SB, Zidichouski JA, Pittman QJ. Peptidergic modulation of synaptic transmission in the parabrachial nucleus in vitro: importance of degradative enzymes in regulating synaptic efficacy. J Neurosci 1996; 16:6046-55. [PMID: 8815887 PMCID: PMC6579171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This study examined the effects of substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) on synaptic transmission in a pontine slice containing the parabrachial nucleus (PBN). Stimulation of the ventral, external lateral portion of the PBN elicited glutamate-mediated EPSCs in cells recorded using the nystatin perforated-patch recording technique in the external lateral, external medial, and central lateral subnuclei of the PBN. Bath application of SP or CGRP dose-dependently and reversibly attenuated the evoked EPSC. The attenuation of the EPSC induced by both of these peptides was not accompanied by changes in input resistance of PBN cells over a wide voltage range, nor did these peptides alter the inward current induced by a brief bath application of AMPA. The combined application of subthreshold concentrations of these peptides revealed a synergistic interaction in reducing the evoked EPSC. The substance P neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist CGP49823 completely and reversibly blocked both the SP- and the CGRP-induced attenuation of the EPSC. However, the rat CGRP receptor antagonist human-CGRP8-37 did not block the actions of CGRP or SP on the EPSC. Using a metabolically stable analog of SP, SP (5-11), or an endopeptidase inhibitor, phosphoramidon, we were able to demonstrate that CGRP enhances the SP effect by inhibiting an SP endopeptidase. Application of phosphoramidon also revealed an endogenous SP "tone" apparently made effective by blockade of the endopeptidase. These results suggest that SP (and CGRP indirectly through an inhibition of the SP endopeptidase) acts on presynaptic NK-1 receptors to cause an inhibition of excitatory transmission in the PBN. These results indicate an important role of endopeptidases in regulating synaptic modulation by peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Saleh
- Neuroscience Research Group, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Scott MP, Jung R, Muntz K, Nielsen NC. A protease responsible for post-translational cleavage of a conserved Asn-Gly linkage in glycinin, the major seed storage protein of soybean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992; 89:658-62. [PMID: 1731337 PMCID: PMC48298 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.89.2.658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The assembly of 11S globulin seed storage proteins in plants is regulated in part by the activity of a protease that cleaves between asparagine and glycine residues. Post-translational cleavage of subunit precursors into acidic and basic polypeptides is associated with the ability of subunits in trimers to aggregate into hexamers in vitro. An activity is present in extracts from immature soybean seeds that specifically cleaves immature 11S seed storage proteins of soybean and Vicia faba into the polypeptides of the mature proteins. Sequence microanalysis has been used to demonstrate that proglycinin and prolegumin are cut at the legitimate site when proteins synthesized in vitro are used as substrates. A single amino acid change in the cleavage site renders the substrate uncleavable. The protease responsible for this activity also hydrolyzes a synthetic octapeptide whose sequence reproduces four amino acids on either side of the glycinin subunit G4 cleavage site. This assay permitted the purification and characterization of the protease. It is a glycosylated enzyme with an acidic pH optimum and a molecular mass of about 45 kDa in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Scott
- U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
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47
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Endo N, Takeda Y, Kishida K, Kato Y, Saito M, Umemoto N, Hara T. Target-selective cytotoxicity of methotrexate conjugated with monoclonal anti-MM46 antibody. Cancer Immunol Immunother 1987; 25:1-6. [PMID: 3496155 PMCID: PMC11038641 DOI: 10.1007/bf00199293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/1986] [Accepted: 03/09/1987] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In studies on antitumor antibody-cytotoxic drug conjugates as potential tumor-selective cytotoxic agents, methotrexate (MTX) was conjugated via its active ester derivative with a murine monoclonal antibody (aMM46) to a mouse mammary tumor antigen (MM antigen) on syngeneic, ascitic C3H/He mouse mammary tumor MM46 cells. The conjugate retained full antibody activity, as assayed by complement-dependent cytolysis. The target-selective cytotoxicity of aMM46-MTX was verified by the observations that this conjugate showed greater cytotoxicity than the corresponding normal mouse immunoglobulin (nIg) conjugate to MM46 cells, neither aMM46 nor nIg being cytotoxic, and that it showed less cytotoxicity to MM antigen negative mouse mammary tumor MM48 cells than to MM46 cells, its cytotoxicity to MM48 cells being similar to that of the nIg conjugate. From the results of assays of cell binding and uptake of 131I-labeled aMM46 and aMM46-3H-MTX, aMM46 and aMM46-MTX were internalized after their binding to MM46 cell surface antigen. Leupeptin, an inhibitor of the lysosomal endopeptidase cathepsin, decreased the cytotoxicity of aMM46-MTX, supporting the involvement of lysosomal degradation of the conjugate in its action.
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