Preparation, pharmacokinetics and tumour-suppressive activity of berberine liposomes

Surface-modified liposomal in-situ nasal gel enhances brain targeting of berberine hydrochloride for Alzheimer's therapy: optimization and in vivo studies

This work aimed to formulate surface-modified berberine hydrochloride (BER)-loaded liposomes containing in-situ nasal gel for bran targeting. The liposomes were prepared by ethanol-injection method and optimized following a 32 full-factorial design. Size, morphology, zeta potential, ex-vivo permeation, and in-vitro release were estimated. The surface of optimized liposome was modified with ascorbic acid. The size of surface-modified liposomes was bigger (191.4 nm) than the unmodified liposomes (171 nm). Surface-modified liposomes were embedded in in-situ gel using poloxamer and Carbopol 934P. Liposomal in-situ gel showed higher permeation (71.94%) in contrast to the plain gel (46.64%). In-vivo pharmacokinetic examination of payload from liposomal in-situ gel displayed higher concentration in brain (Cmax of 93.50 ng/mL). The liposomal in-situ nasal gel had a higher drug targeting efficiency (138.43%) and a higher drug targeting potential (27.77%) confirming improved brain targeting. In male Wistar rats, the pharmacodynamic parameters (path length and escape latency) were evaluated with trimethyl tin-induced neurodegeneration. Animals treated with BER-loaded in-situ gel significantly decreased escape latency and path length in comparison to the control group. Histopathological assessment showed that the formulated gel was safe for intranasal administration. The developed formulation has the potential to effectively enhance the efficacy of BER in Alzheimer's disease management.

Research progress on pharmacological effects and bioavailability of berberine

Berberine (BBR), a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid obtained from natural medicines such as coptidis rhizoma, has a wide range of pharmacological activities such as protecting the nervous system, protecting the cardiovascular system, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antitumor, antibacterial, and antidiarrheal. However, factors such as poor solubility, low permeability, P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux, and hepatic-intestinal metabolism result in BBR having a low bioavailability (< 1%), which restricts its application in clinical settings. Therefore, improving its bioavailability is a prerequisite for its clinical applications. This review summarizes the various pharmacological effects of BBR and analyzes the main reasons for its poor bioavailability. It introduces methods to improve the bioavailability of BBR through the use of absorption enhancers and P-gp inhibitors, structural modification of BBR, and preparation of BBR salts and cocrystals as well as the development of new formulations and focuses on the bioavailability study of the new formulations of BBR. The research of BBR was also prospected in order to provide reference for the further research of BBR.

Berberine-Loaded PVCL-PVA-PEG Self-Assembled Micelles for the Treatment of Liver Fibrosis

Background

Liver fibrosis is a necessary pathological process in many chronic liver diseases. Studies have shown that the progression of chronic liver disease can be slowed by rational intervention in hepatic fibrosis. Berberine (BBR), a natural extract of Phellodendron amurense, inhibits the development of liver fibrosis through several mechanisms. However, the clinical application of BBR is limited due to its low solubility. Drug delivery systems have been developed to improve the solubility of hydrophobic drugs and increase their efficacy in treating the liver fibrosis.

Methods

In this study, a biocompatible nanomicelle was constructed by thin-film dispersion method using polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol graft copolymer (PVCL-PVA-PEG) as a carrier to encapsulate BBR (PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs) to improve the solubility of BBR and reduce the systemic side effects. The ability to inhibit HSC-T6 cell activation of PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs was evaluated in vitro. The anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs were investigated in vivo.

Results

PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs have a uniform spherical shape with a mean particle size of 60.04 ± 0.027 nm and a potential of 1.49 ± 0.32 mV. It had an encapsulation efficiency of 98.52% ± 0.70 and drug loading content of 6.16% ± 0.04. Compared to free BBR, PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs significantly inhibited HSC-T6 cell activation and TGF-β1-induced HSC-T6 cell migration in vitro. In vivo biodistribution experiments showed significantly improved hepatic distribution of PVCL-PVA-PEG/DiD-MCs compared to free DiD, suggesting that PVCL-PVA-PEG micelles enhance the ability of BBR to enter the liver and improve therapeutic efficacy. After treatment, PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs significantly improved fibrotic liver structure and reduced collagen deposition in comparison to the CCl4-treated group; the treatment outcome was more effective than that of the free BBR group.

Conclusion

Our results demonstrate the advantages of encapsulating BBR in PVCL-PVA-PEG micelles and highlight the potential of PVCL-PVA-PEG/BBR-MCs as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

An Updated Insight into Phytomolecules and Novel Approaches used in the Management of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a widespread condition that kills more women from cancer-related causes than any other type of cancer globally. Women who have estrogen-dependent, initial metastatic breast cancer frequently receive treatment with surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. They may also get more specialized treatments like tamoxifen or aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole or letrozole). The World Health Organisation reported in 2012 that by 2030, breast cancer will be more common worldwide. There are several phytochemicals, such as isoflavones, coumestans, lignans, and prenylflavonoides. Isoflavones have been shown in studies to prevent the spread of breast cancer and to trigger apoptosis. Targeting BCs in metastatic breast cancer may be made possible by combining well-formulated phytochemicals in nanoparticles or other novel drug delivery agents with currently accepted endocrine and/or conventional chemotherapies. Cell signaling, regulation of cell cycles, oxidative stress action, and inflammation could be positively impacted by phytoconstituents. They have the ability to alter non-coding RNAs, to prevent the proliferation and regeneration of cancer cells. The availability of novel approaches helps in disease targeting, safety, effectiveness and efficacy. The current literature helps to know the available drugs i.e. phytoconstituents or novel drug delivery like nanoparticle, microsphere, micelles, liposomes and neosomes. The literature has been taken from PubMed, Google Scholar, SciFinder, or other internet sites.

Berberine: An inspiring resource for the treatment of colorectal diseases

Colorectal cancer is a prevalent malignant tumor with a complex and diverse pathogenesis. In recent years, natural products have shown promising application prospects as sources of anticancer drugs. BBR, a class of benzoquinoline alkaloids extracted from various plants, is widely used in disease treatments owing to its pharmacological activities, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-angiogenesis properties. Research has demonstrated that BBR exerts an anti-Salmonella and -Escherichia coli infection effect, attenuating inflammatory reactions by inhibiting harmful bacteria. During the stage of colorectal precancerous lesions, BBR inhibits the activity of cell cyclin by regulating the PI3K/AKT, MAPK, and Wnt signaling pathways, thereby decelerating the cell cycle progression of polyp or adenoma cells. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of BBR on colorectal cancer primarily occurs through the regulation of the cancer cell cycle, anti-angiogenesis, gut microbiota, and antioxidant pathways. The specific involved pathways include the MPK/ERK, NF-kB, and EGFR signaling pathways, encompassing the regulation of Bcl-2 family proteins, vascular endothelial growth factor, and superoxide dismutase. This study reviews and summarizes, for the first time, the specific mechanisms of action of BBR in the carcinogenesis process of colorectal cancer, providing novel insights for its clinical application in intestinal diseases.

Liposome-Encapsulated Berberine Alleviates Liver Injury in Type 2 Diabetes via Promoting AMPK/mTOR-Mediated Autophagy and Reducing ER Stress: Morphometric and Immunohistochemical Scoring

In the advanced stages of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), diabetic liver damage is a common complication that can devastate a patient's quality of life. The present study investigated the ability of liposomal berberine (Lip-BBR) to aid in ameliorating hepatic damage and steatosis, insulin homeostasis, and regulating lipid metabolism in type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and the possible pathways by which it does so. Liver tissue microarchitectures and immunohistochemical staining were applied during the study. The rats were divided into a control non-diabetic group and four diabetic groups, which are the T2DM, T2DM-Lip-BBR (10 mg/kg b.wt), T2DM-Vildagliptin (Vild) (10 mg/kg b.wt), and T2DM-BBR-Vild (10 mg/kg b.wt + Vild (5 mg/kg b.wt) groups. The findings demonstrated that Lip-BBR treatment could restore liver tissue microarchitectures, reduce steatosis and liver function, and regulate lipid metabolism. Moreover, Lip-BBR treatment promoted autophagy via the activation of LC3-II and Bclin-1 proteins and activated the AMPK/mTOR pathway in the liver tissue of T2DM rats. Lip-BBR also activated the GLP-1 expression, which stimulated insulin biosynthesis. It decreased the endoplasmic reticulum stress by limiting the CHOP, JNK expression, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Collectively, Lip-BBR ameliorated diabetic liver injury in a T2DM rat model with its promotion activity of AMPK/mTOR-mediated autophagy and limiting ER stress.

Low molecular weight fucoidan modified nanoliposomes for the targeted delivery of the anti-inflammation natural product berberine

The inflammatory response is the basis of many diseases, such as atherosclerosis and ulcerative colitis. Inhibiting inflammatory response is the key to treating these diseases. Berberine hydrochloride (BBR), a natural product, has shown effective inflammation inhibitory activity. However, its distribution throughout the body results in a variety of serious side effects. Currently, there is a lack of targeted delivery systems for BBR to inflammatory sites. In view of the fact that the recruitment of inflammatory cells by activated vascular endothelial cells is a key step in inflammation development. Here, we design a system that can specifically deliver berberine to activated vascular endothelial cells. Low molecular weight fucoidan (LMWF), which can specifically bind to P-selectin, was coupled to PEGylated liposomes (LMWF-Lip), and BBR is encapsulated into LMWF-Lip (LMWF-Lip/BBR). In vitro, LMWF-Lip significantly increases the uptake by activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Injection of LMWF-Lip into the tail vein of rats can effectively accumulate in the swollen part of the foot, where it is internalized by the characteristics of activated vascular endothelial cells. LMWF-Lip/BBR can effectively inhibit the expression of P-selectin in activated vascular endothelial cells, and reduce the degree of foot edema and inflammatory response. In addition, compared with free BBR, the toxicity of BBR in LMWF-Lip/BBR to main organs was significantly reduced. These results suggest that wrapping BBR in LMWF-Lip can improve efficacy and reduce its systemic toxicity as a potential treatment for various diseases caused by inflammatory responses.

Efficient Delivery of Gemcitabine by Estrogen Receptor-Targeted PEGylated Liposome and Its Anti-Lung Cancer Activity In Vivo and In Vitro

Lung cancer is one of the main causes of cancer-related deaths. At present, the main treatment method for lung cancer is chemotherapy. Gemcitabine (GEM) is widely applied in lung cancer treatment, but its lack of targeting ability and serious side effects limit its application. In recent years, nanocarriers have become the focus of research to solve the above problems. Here, we prepared estrone (ES)-modified GEM-loaded PEGylated liposomes (ES-SSL-GEM) for enhanced delivery by identifying the overexpressed estrogen receptor (ER) on lung cancer A549 cells. We studied the characterization, stability, release behavior, cytotoxicity, targeting ability, endocytosis mechanism, and antitumor ability to prove the therapeutic effect of ES-SSL-GEM. The results showed that ES-SSL-GEM presented a uniform particle size of 131.20 ± 0.62 nm, a good stability, and a slowly released behavior. Moreover, ES-SSL-GEM enhanced tumor-targeting ability, and the endocytosis mechanism studies confirmed that the ER-mediated endocytosis had the most crucial effect. Furthermore, ES-SSL-GEM had the best inhibitory effect on A549 cell proliferation and significantly suppressed the tumor growth in vivo. These results suggest that ES-SSL-GEM is a promising agent for treating lung cancer.

Berberine inhibits tumour growth in vivo and in vitro through suppressing the lincROR-Wnt/β-catenin regulatory axis in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Berberine, a non-prescription medicine clinically applied for diarrhoea and gastroenteritis. Recent studies have demonstrated that it possesses anti-tumour properties in colorectal cancer, but the exact molecular mechanism remains obscure.

OBJECTIVES

To elucidate the underly molecular mechanisms of berberine in colorectal cancer from a perspective of epigenetics, and tried to explore the role of lincROR-Wnt/β-catenin molecular axis in the berberine induced the anti-tumour activity in colorectal cancer.

METHODS

The effects of berberine on cell growth, cell cycle and apoptosis were examined in CRC cells. The in vivo effect of berberine on tumour growth was investigated using a xenograft mice model. Moreover, lincROR and Wnt/β-catenin signalling were detected by luciferase activity, qRT-PCR and western blotting assays.

KEY FINDINGS

Berberine suppressed cell growth in vitro via inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in CRC cell, and inhibited tumourigenesis in vivo. LincROR was significantly down-regulated by berberine, inducing the inactivation of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signalling, meanwhile, the overexpression of lincROR partially reversed the suppressive effects on tumour growth and Wnt/β-catenin signalling induced by berberine.

CONCLUSIONS

Berberine inhibits tumour growth partially via regulating the lincROR-Wnt/β-catenin regulatory axis, which provides a strategy for the design of anti-tumour drugs for CRC patients after our advanced validation.

Natural Compounds as Integrative Therapy for Liver Protection against Inflammatory and Carcinogenic Mechanisms: From Induction to Molecular Biology Advancement

The liver is exposed to several harmful substances that bear the potential to cause excessive liver damage ranging from hepatitis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease to extreme cases of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver ailments have been effectively treated from very old times with Chinese medicinal herbal formulations and later also applied by controlled trials in Japan. However, these traditional practices have been hardly well characterized in the past till in the last decades when more qualified studies have been carried out. Modern advances have given rise to specific molecular targets which are specifically good candidates for affecting the intricate mechanisms that play a role at the molecular level. These therapeutic regimens that mainly affect the progression of the disease by inhibiting the gene expression levels or by blocking essential molecular pathways or releasing cytokines may prove to play a vital role in minimizing the tissue damage. This review, therefore, tries to throw light upon the variation in the therapies for the treatment of benign and malignant liver disease from ancient times to the current date. Nonetheless, clinical research exploring the effectiveness of herbal medicines in the treatment of benign chronic liver diseases as well as prevention and treatment of HCC is still warranted.

Lactoferrin modification of berberine nanoliposomes enhances the neuroprotective effects in a mouse model of Alzheimer′s disease

Previous studies have shown that berberine has neuroprotective effects against Alzheimer’s disease, including antagonizing tau phosphorylation, and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity and neural cell apoptosis. However, its low bioavailability and adverse reactions with conventional administration limit its clinical application. In this study, we prepared berberine nanoliposomes using liposomes characterized by low toxicity, high entrapment efficiency, and biodegradability, and modified them with lactoferrin. Lactoferrin-modified berberine nanoliposomes had uniform particle size and high entrapment efficiency. We used the lactoferrin-modified berberine nanoliposomes to treat a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease established by injection of amyloid-beta 1–42 into the lateral ventricle. Lactoferrin-modified berberine nanoliposomes inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity and apoptosis in the hippocampus, reduced tau over-phosphorylation in the cerebral cortex, and improved mouse behavior. These findings suggest that modification with lactoferrin can enhance the neuroprotective effects of berberine nanoliposomes in Alzheimer’s disease.

Modification of taxifolin particles with an enteric coating material promotes repair of acute liver injury in mice through modulation of inflammation and autophagy signaling pathway

PURPOSE

Taxifolin (TAX) is a flavanol compound with hepatoprotective effect, but its application is severely limited by its poor water solubility and low oral bioavailability. Therefore, it is important to urgently find a method to improve the oral bioavailability of TAX.

METHODS

In this study, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate modified taxifolin liposomes (HPMCAS-TAX-Lips) were prepared by a thin-film dispersion method, and a series of physicochemical properties of the liposomes were studied. The cumulative in vitro release rates of free TAX, taxifolin liposomes (TAX-Lips), and HPMCAS-TAX-Lips in the simulated gastrointestinal fluid were measured by in vitro release experiments, and the effect of HPMCAS-TAX-Lips on the human hepatoellular carcinomas (HepG2) cells was detected by MTT assay. Finally, the hepatoprotective mechanism of HPMCAS-TAX-Lips was explored through in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

The results showed that the particle size of HPMCAS-TAX-Lips was 100.44 ± 2.85 nm, the zeta potential was - 51.13 ± 0.57 mV, the PDI was 0.170 ± 0.088, and the EE was 87.9 ± 3.73%. The in vitro release results showed that the cumulative release rates of TAX-Lips and HPMCAS-TAX-Lips in simulated gastric fluid for 24 h were 92.60 ± 5.31% and 66.91 ± 1.20%, respectively. The cumulative release rates in simulated intestinal fluid for 24 h were 72.61 ± 4.38% and 53.94 ± 3.2%, respectively. The results of cytotoxicity experiments proved that HPMCAS-TAX-Lips had a significant inhibitory effect on HepG2 cells. In vivo experiments further showed that HPMCAS-TAX-Lips significantly improved the survival rate of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/D-galactosamine (D-GalN)-induced acute liver injury mice and exerted hepatoprotective effects by regulating the expression of autophagy proteins and inhibiting the activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

This study proved the significant hepatoprotective effect of HMPCAS-TAX-Lips and provided a new idea for the application of TAX.

Novel Drug Delivery Systems as an Emerging Platform for Stomach Cancer Therapy

Cancer has long been regarded as one of the world's most fatal diseases, claiming the lives of countless individuals each year. Stomach cancer is a prevalent cancer that has recently reached a high number of fatalities. It continues to be one of the most fatal cancer forms, requiring immediate attention due to its low overall survival rate. Early detection and appropriate therapy are, perhaps, of the most difficult challenges in the fight against stomach cancer. We focused on positive tactics for stomach cancer therapy in this paper, and we went over the most current advancements and progressions of nanotechnology-based systems in modern drug delivery and therapies in great detail. Recent therapeutic tactics used in nanotechnology-based delivery of drugs aim to improve cellular absorption, pharmacokinetics, and anticancer drug efficacy, allowing for more precise targeting of specific agents for effective stomach cancer treatment. The current review also provides information on ongoing research aimed at improving the curative effectiveness of existing anti-stomach cancer medicines. All these crucial matters discussed under one overarching title will be extremely useful to readers who are working on developing multi-functional nano-constructs for improved diagnosis and treatment of stomach cancer.

Design and characterization of gambogic acid-loaded mixed micelles system for enhanced oral bioavailability

The aim of this study was to develop a gambogic acid-loaded mixed micelles (GA-M) system, using Kolliphor HS15 and lecithin, for enhancement of oral bioavailability. GA-M was prepared using the thin film hydration method, and particle size and zeta potential indexes were used to determine the optimized formulation was optimized with taking particle size, zeta potential as indexes. The optimal GA-M system had a mean particle size in the nanometer range (87.22 ± 0.68 nm) and zeta potential greater than 20 mV in magnitude (-21.63 ± 1.69 mV) at a 1:1 proportion of HS15: lecithin. Additionally, the carriers had a high entrapment efficiency (98.32 ± 3.52%) and drug loading (4.68 ± 0.17%). Furthermore, the in vitro GA release characteristics followed first-order kinetics, suggesting that release of the molecule was achieved both by medium diffusion and structural erosion. Transport elucidation in Caco-2 cells demonstrated that the efflux ratio of encapsulated GA was dramatically decreased from 1.42 to 0.76, and pharmacokinetic studies showed that the oral bioavailability of GA-M was 2.3 times higher than that of free GA, indicating that HS15/lecithin mixed micelles could promote absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Overall, these results present a micelle system suitable for oral delivery, with increased solubility and oral bioavailability of GA.

Estrone-Conjugated PEGylated Liposome Co-Loaded Paclitaxel and Carboplatin Improve Anti-Tumor Efficacy in Ovarian Cancer and Reduce Acute Toxicity of Chemo-Drugs

Purpose

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy. The combination of paclitaxel (PTX) and carboplatin (CBP) is the first-line remedy for clinical ovarian cancer. However, due to the limitations of adverse reaction and lacking of targeting ability, the chemotherapy of ovarian cancer is still poorly effective. Here, a novel estrone (ES)-conjugated PEGylated liposome co-loaded PTX and CBP (ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP) was designed for overcoming the above disadvantages.

Methods

ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP was prepared by film hydration method and could recognize estrogen receptor (ER) over-expressing on the surface of SKOV-3 cells. The characterizations, stability and in vitro release of ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP were studied. In vitro cellular uptake and its mechanism were observed by fluorescence microscope. In vivo targeting effect in tumor-bearing mice was determined. Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution were studied in ICR mice. In vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo anti-tumor efficacy were evaluated on SKOV-3 cells and tumor-bearing mice, respectively. Finally, the acute toxicity in ICR mice was explored for assessing the preliminary safety of ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP.

Results

Our results showed that ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP was spherical shape without aggregation. ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP exhibited the optimum targeting effect on uptake in vitro and in vivo. The pharmacokinetics demonstrated ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP had improved the pharmacokinetic behavior. In vitro cytotoxicity showed that ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP maximally inhibited SKOV-3 cell proliferation and its IC₅₀ values was 1.6 times lower than that of non-ES conjugated liposomes at 72 h. The in vivo anti-tumor efficacy study demonstrated that ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP could lead strong SKOV-3 tumor growth suppression with a tumor volume inhibitory rate of 81.8%. Meanwhile, acute toxicity studies confirmed that ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP significantly reduced the toxicity of the chemo drugs.

Conclusion

ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP was successfully prepared with an optimal physicochemical and ER targeting property. The data of pharmacokinetics, anti-tumor efficacy and safety study indicated that ES-PEG-Lip-PTX/CBP could become a promising therapeutic formulation for human ovarian cancer in the future clinic.

Polyvinylpyrrolidone-Modified Taxifolin Liposomes Promote Liver Repair by Modulating Autophagy to Inhibit Activation of the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Taxifolin (TAX) is a hepatoprotective flavanol compound, which is severely limited by poor solubility and low bioavailability. Liposomes (Lips) are used as well-recognized drug carrier systems that improve the water solubility and bioavailability of drugs, but are easily damaged by gastric juice after oral administration, resulting in the release of drugs in the gastric juice. Therefore, it is important to find materials that modify liposomes and avoid the destruction of the liposomal phospholipid bilayer structure by the gastrointestinal environment. Taxifolin liposomes (TAX-Lips) were modified by polyvinylpyrrolidone-k30 (PVP-TAX-Lips) and manufactured using a thin-film hydration technique. Particle size (109.27 ± 0.50 nm), zeta potential (−51.12 ± 3.79 mV), polydispersity coefficient (PDI) (0.189 ± 0.007), and EE (84.7 ± 0.2%) of PVP-TAX-Lips were studied. In addition, the results of in vitro release experiments indicated that the cumulative release rates of TAX-Lips and PVP-TAX-Lips were 89.73 ± 5.18% and 65.66 ± 4.86% in the simulated gastric fluid after 24 h, respectively, while the cumulative release rates were 68.20 ± 4.98% and 55.66 ± 3.92% in the simulated intestinal fluid after 24 h, respectively. Moreover, PVP-TAX-Lips were able to reverse lipopolysaccharide and D-galactosamine (LPS/D-GalN)-induced acute liver injury (ALI) by inducing autophagy to inhibit the expression levels of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway and inflammatory factors, which suggested that PVP-TAX-Lips played an important role in the prevention of ALI and also provided a promising drug delivery system for the application of TAX.

Cholesterol Microdomain Enhances the Biofilm Eradication of Antibiotic Liposomes

Resistance and tolerance of biofilms to antibiotics is the greatest challenge in the treatment of bacterial infections. Therefore, developing an effective strategy against biofilms is a top priority. Liposomes are widely used as antibiotic drug carriers; however, common liposomes lack affinity for biofilms. Herein, biofilm-targeted antibiotic liposomes are created by simply adjusting their cholesterol content. The tailored liposomes exhibit significantly enhanced bacterial inhibition and biofilm eradication effects that are positively correlated with the cholesterol content of liposomes. The experiments further demonstrate that this enhanced effect can be ascribed to the effective drug release through the pores, which are formed by the combination of cholesterol microdomains in liposomal lipid bilayers with membrane-damaged toxins in biofilms. Consequently, liposome encapsulation with a high cholesterol concentration improves noticeably the pharmacodynamics and biocompatibility of antibiotics after pulmonary administration. This work may provide a new direction for the development of antibiofilm formulations that can be widely used for the treatment of infections caused by bacterial biofilms.

Enhancing Anticancer Potency of a 13-Substituted Berberine Derivative with Cationic Liposomes

Cationic liposomal formulations of the telomeric G-quadruplex stabilizing ligand, 13-(2-naphthylmethoxy)berberine bromide (1), have been developed with the purpose of delivering 1 into the nucleus of cancer cells for potential telomere targeting. Berberine derivative 1 was encapsulated in various cationic lipids 2-4 by the thin film evaporation method; these lipids are cationic after amine protonation. The most appropriate liposomal berberine formulation was that of 1 and the cholesterol derived cationic lipid 4 in a weight ratio of 1:20 with 76.5% encapsulation efficiency of 1. Cellular uptake studies in the HeLa and HT-29 cancer cells line showed that the liposomal berberine derivative uptake in the cells was higher and more stable than for berberine derivative 1 alone while free 1 was completely decomposed in the cells within 60 min exposure to the cells. Anticancer activity of the liposomal berberine derivative 1 based on 4 was greater than that for the free berberine derivative 1 in the MCF-7, HeLa and HT-29 cell line by 2.3-, 4.9- and 5.3-fold, respectively, and also, interestingly, superior to the anticancer drug doxorubicin against the HT29 cancer cell line.

Apoptosis Induction, a Sharp Edge of Berberine to Exert Anti-Cancer Effects, Focus on Breast, Lung, and Liver Cancer

Cancer is the leading cause of death and one of the greatest barriers to increased life expectancy worldwide. Currently, chemotherapy with synthetic drugs remains one of the predominant ways for cancer treatment, which may lead to drug resistance and normal organ damage. Increasing researches have suggested that apoptosis, a type of programmed cell death, is a promising way for cancer therapy. Furthermore, natural products are important sources for finding new drugs with high availability, low cost and low toxicity. As a well-known isoquinoline alkaloid, accumulating evidence has revealed that berberine (BBR) exerts potential pro-apoptotic effects on multiple cancers, including breast, lung, liver, gastric, colorectal, pancreatic, and ovarian cancers. The related potential signal pathways are AMP-activated protein kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and protein kinase B pathways. In this review, we provide a timely and comprehensive summary of the detailed molecular mechanisms of BBR in treating three types of cancer (breast, lung and liver cancer) by inducing apoptosis. Furthermore, we also discuss the existing challenges and strategies to improve BBR’s bioavailability. Hopefully, this review provides valuable information for the comprehension of BBR in treating three types of cancer and highlight the pro-apoptotic effects of BBR, which would be beneficial for the further development of this natural compound as an effective clinical drug for treating cancers.

Complexation with aromatic dicarboxylic acids expands the solid-state landscape of berberine

Two novel salt cocrystals of berberine chloride (BCl) with 4-aminobenzoic acid (BCl-4ABA) and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (BCl-4HBA) and one new berberine salt with 2,6-dihydroxybenzoic acid (B)⁺(26DHBA)^- were prepared and characterized. The chloride anions form N-H···Cl^- hydrogen bonds in BCl-4ABA and O-H···Cl^- hydrogen bonds in BCl-4HBA. In (B)⁺(26DHBA)^-, the ionic interactions between 26DHBA^- and quaternary ammonium cation of berberine contribute to a stronger crystal lattice and a higher melting point. All three new crystal forms exhibit a lower hygroscopicity at 25 ℃ than BCl, which is the crystal form used in the commercial tablets. Compared to BCl, the dissolution rates of BCl-4ABA and BCl-4HBA in water are higher but that of (B)⁺(26DHBA)^- is lower. Among the three crystal forms, the form with a higher melting point also exhibits a lower dissolution rate, which is explained by the stronger intermolecular interactions in these crystals.

A review of the berberine natural polysaccharide nanostructures as potential anticancer and antibacterial agents

Despite the promising medicinal properties, berberine (BBR), due to its relatively poor solubility in plasma, low bio-stability and limited bioavailability is not used broadly in clinical stages. Due to these drawbacks, drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nanoscale natural polysaccharides, are applied to address these concerns. Natural polymers are biodegradable, non-immunogenic, biocompatible, and non-toxic agents that are capable of trapping large amounts of hydrophobic compounds in relatively small volumes. The use of nanoscale natural polysaccharide improves the stability and pharmacokinetics of the small molecules and, consequently, increases the therapeutic effects and reduces the side effects of the small molecules. Therefore, this paper presents an overview of the different methods used for increasing the BBR solubility and bioavailability. Afterwards, the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic of BBR nanostructures were discussed followed by the introduction of natural polysaccharides of plant (cyclodextrines, glucomannan), the shells of crustaceans (chitosan), and the cell wall of brown marine algae (alginate)-based origins used to improve the dissolution rate of poorly soluble BBR and their anticancer and antibacterial properties. Finally, the anticancer and antibacterial mechanisms of free BBR and BBR nanostructures were surveyed. In conclusion, this review may pave the way for providing some useful data in the development of BBR-based platforms for clinical applications.

Receptor-Mediated Targeted Delivery of Surface-ModifiedNanomedicine in Breast Cancer: Recent Update and Challenges

Breast cancer therapeutic intervention continues to be ambiguous owing to the lack of strategies for targeted transport and receptor-mediated uptake of drugs by cancer cells. In addition to this, sporadic tumor microenvironment, prominent restrictions with conventional chemotherapy, and multidrug-resistant mechanisms of breast cancer cells possess a big challenge to even otherwise optimal and efficacious breast cancer treatment strategies. Surface-modified nanomedicines can expedite the cellular uptake and delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticulate constructs through binding with specific receptors overexpressed aberrantly on the tumor cell. The present review elucidates the interesting yet challenging concept of targeted delivery approaches by exploiting different types of nanoparticulate systems with multiple targeting ligands to target overexpressed receptors of breast cancer cells. The therapeutic efficacy of these novel approaches in preclinical models is also comprehensively discussed in this review. It is concluded from critical analysis of related literature that insight into the translational gap between laboratories and clinical settings would provide the possible future directions to plug the loopholes in the process of development of these receptor-targeted nanomedicines for the treatment of breast cancer.

Pulmonary delivery of cationic liposomal hydroxycamptothecin and 5-aminolevulinic acid for chemo-sonodynamic therapy of metastatic lung cancer

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) has been tried for cancer treatment; however, sonosensitizers are usually administered by injection, leading to low distribution in the tumor tissue and compromised therapeutic effect, even serious side effect. Here, we combined cationic liposomal hydroxycamptothecin (CLH) and 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) via intratracheal (i.t.) administration for the chemo-sonodynamic (Chemo-SDT) therapy of metastatic lung cancer. CLH was prepared from HCPT and the lipid mixture of soybean lecithin/cholesterol/octadecylamine with a film method. The optimal pre-incubation time of 5-ALA with tumor cells before ultrasound exposure was 4 h, for sake of sonosensitizer accumulation, i.e., protoporphyrin IX, the metabolite of 5-ALA. In vitro studies showed the higher cytotoxicity of Chemo-SDT compared to the other treatments, including i.t. CLH, intravenous (i.v.) CLH, and SDT alone. The combination of pulmonary delivery and Chemo-SDT showed the highest anticancer effect among the treatments on the metastatic lung tumor-bearing mice, which was judged according to the tumor appearance and pathological sections. The major anticancer mechanism of Chemo-SDT included the improved apoptosis of cancer cells and the enhanced production of reactive oxygen species, and more importantly, the synergy of chemotherapy and SDT. Pulmonary delivery of chemotherapeutics and sonosensitizers is a promising strategy for the treatment of lung cancer.

Perspectives and controversies regarding the use of natural products for the treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer‐related mortality both in men and women and accounts for 18.4% of all cancer‐related deaths. Although advanced therapy methods have been developed, the prognosis of lung cancer patients remains extremely poor. Over the past few decades, clinicians and researchers have found that chemical compounds extracted from natural products may be useful for treating lung cancer. Drug formulations derived from natural compounds, such as paclitaxel, doxorubicin, and camptothecin, have been successfully used as chemotherapeutics for lung cancer. In recent years, hundreds of new natural compounds that can be used to treat lung cancer have been found through basic and sub‐clinical research. However, there has not been a corresponding increase in the number of drugs that have been used in a clinical setting. The probable reasons may include low solubility, limited absorption, unfavorable metabolism, and severe side effects. In this review, we present a summary of the natural compounds that have been proven to be effective for the treatment of lung cancer, as well as an understanding of the mechanisms underlying their pharmacological effects. We have also highlighted current controversies and have attempted to provide solutions for the clinical translation of these compounds.

Mixed Micelles with Galactose Ligands for the Oral Delivery of Berberine to Enhance Its Bioavailability and Hypoglycemic Effects

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become an epidemic disorder that is an escalating public health risk. Currently, DM treatment is highly challenging due to temporary medical relief rather than a permanent cure. This article reports a ligand-anchored mixed micellar system formed by phospholipids and N -oleoyl-D-galactosamine aiming to enhance the oral bioavailability and hypoglycemic effects of berberine, an antidiabetic agent with poor absorption. Berberine-loaded mixed micelles (BBMMs) were prepared through a solvent diffusion technique. The resulting BB-MMs were characterized by particle size, potential, morphology, entrapment efficiency (EE) and in vitro release. The oral pharmacokinetics and hypoglycemic efficacy of BB-MMs were evaluated in rats and compared with a berberine suspension. As a result, BB-MMs prepared with the preferable formulation had a particle size of approximately 100 nm with an EE of over 85%. BB-MMs exhibited sustained drug release owing to the entrapment in the micelles. After oral administration, BB-MMs ameliorated the pharmacokinetic profile of berberine and significantly enhanced its oral bioavailability (317.17% relative to the suspension). The pharmacological effect (PE) of BB-MMs was approximately 3.44 times greater than that of the suspension. In addition, in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion and cellular testing results illustrated that BB-MMs had good intestinal permeability and cellular uptake. Our findings demonstrate that the oral bioavailability and hypoglycemic effects of berberine could be largely enhanced by encapsulation into mixed micelles with a galactose moiety. Thus, galactosylated micelles may be promising for developing berberine nanomedicines to fight DM.

Autologous erythrocytes delivery of berberine hydrochloride with long-acting effect for hypolipidemia treatment

Discovery of novel pharmacological effects of berberine hydrochloride (BH) has made its clinical application valuable. However, further development and applications of BH are hampered by its short half-life and the side effects associated with its intravenous (iv) injection. To improve the hypolipidemia efficacy and reduce side effects, we encapsulated BH into biocompatible red blood cells (RBCs) to explore its sustained-release effect by hypotonic pre-swelling method. From in vitro evaluation, BH loaded RBCs (BH-RBCs) presented similar morphology and osmotic fragility to native RBCs (NRBCs). After the loading process, the BH-RBCs maintained around 69% of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity of NRBCs and phosphatidylserine externalization value of BH-RBCs was about 26.1 ± 2.9%. The survival test showed that the loaded cells could circulate in plasma for over 9 d. For in vivo evaluation, a series of tests including pharmacokinetics study and hypolipidemic effect were carried out to examine the long-acting effect of BH-RBCs. The results showed that the release of BH in the loaded cells could last for about 5 d and the hypolipidemic effect can still be observed on 5 d after injection. BH-loaded autologous erythrocytes seem to be a promising sustained releasing delivery system with long hypolipidemic effect.

Berberine-Loaded Liposomes for the Treatment of Leishmania infantum-Infected BALB/c Mice

Berberine (BER)—an anti-inflammatory quaternary isoquinoline alkaloid extracted from plants—has been reported to have a variety of biologic properties, including antileishmanial activity. This work addresses the preparation of BER-loaded liposomes with the aim to prevent its rapid liver metabolism and improve the drug selective delivery to the infected organs in visceral leishmaniasis (VL). BER liposomes (LP-BER) displayed a mean size of 120 nm, negative Z-potential of −38 mV and loaded 6 nmol/μmol lipid. In vitro, the loading of BER in liposomes enhanced its selectivity index more than 7-fold by decreasing its cytotoxicity to macrophages. In mice, LP-BER enhanced drug accumulation in the liver and the spleen. Consequently, the liposomal delivery of the drug reduced parasite burden in the liver and spleen by three and one logarithms (99.2 and 93.5%), whereas the free drug only decreased the infection in the liver by 1-log. The organ drug concentrations—far from IC₅₀ values— indicate that BER immunomodulatory activity or drug metabolites also contribute to the efficacy. Although LP-BER decreased 10-fold—an extremely rapid clearance of the free drug in mice—the value remains very high. Moreover, LP-BER reduced plasma triglycerides levels.

Anticancer activities of phytoconstituents and their liposomal targeting strategies against tumor cells and the microenvironment

Various bioactive ingredients have been extracted from Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) that affect tumor progression and metastasis. To further understand the mechanisms of CHMs in cancer therapy, this article summarizes the effects of five categories of CHMs and their active ingredients on tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. Despite their treatment potential, the undesirable physicochemical properties (poor permeability, instability, high hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, toxicity) and unwanted pharmacokinetic profiles (short half-life in blood and low bioavailability) restrict clinical studies of CHMs. Therefore, development of liposomes through relevant surface modifying techniques to achieve targeted CHM delivery for cancer cells, i.e., extracellular and intracellular targets and targets in tumor microenvironment or vasculature, have been reviewed. Current challenges of liposomal targeting of these phytoconstituents and future perspective of CHM applications are discussed to provide an informative reference for interested readers.

Nano-Co-Delivery of Berberine and Anticancer Drug Using PLGA Nanoparticles: Exploration of Better Anticancer Activity and In Vivo Kinetics

PURPOSE

Combinatorial approach can be beneficial for cancer treatment with better patient recovery. Co-delivery of natural and synthetic anticancer drug not only valuable to achieve better anticancer effectivity but also to ascertain toxicity. This study was aimed to co-deliver berberine (natural origin) and doxorubicin (synthetic origin) utilizing conjugation/encapsulation strategy through poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles.

METHODS

Doxorubicin was efficiently conjugated to PLGA via carbodiimide chemistry and the PLGA-doxorubicin conjugate (PDC) was used for encapsulation of berberine (PDBNP).

RESULTS

Significant anti-proliferative against MDA-MB-231 and T47D breast cancer cell lines were observed with IC₅₀ of 1.94 ± 0.22 and 1.02 ± 0.36 μM, which was significantly better than both the bio-actives (p < 0.05). The ROS study revealed that the PDBNP portrayed the slight increase in the reactive oxygen species (ROS) pattern in MDA-MB-231 cell line in a dose-dependent manner, while in T47D cells, no significant change in ROS was seen. PDBNP exhibits significant alteration (depolarization) in mitochondrial membrane permeability and arrest of cell cycle progression at sub G1 phase while the Annexin V/PI assay followed by confocal microscopy resulted into cell death mode to be because of necrosis against MDA-MB-231 cells. In vivo studies in Sprague Dawley rats revealed almost 14-fold increase in half life and a significant increase in plasma drug concentration.

CONCLUSION

The overall approach of PLGA based co-delivery of doxorubicin and berberine witnessed synergetic effect and reduced toxicity as evidenced by preliminary toxicity studies.

Ratiometric delivery of doxorubicin and berberine by liposome enables superior therapeutic index than DoxilⓇ

Although the appearance of Doxil alleviated the cardiotoxicity of DOX, the progression-free survival of patients was not prolonged compared with traditional medication regimens, and side effects such as hand-foot syndrome has occurred. In order to solve this dilemma, we have designed a novel co-delivery strategy to construct a co-loaded liposome of berberine (BER) and doxorubicin (DOX), which was called LipoBeDo. The optimal synergistic ratio of the two drugs was screened by cell cytotoxicity experiments in vitro, and the optimal attenuation ratio was further determined by in vivo cardiac H&E staining pathological sections. The optimal combination treatment caused a robust increase in apoptotic cells of 4T1, as compared to drug alone treatment. The prepared co-loaded liposome, LipoBeDo, had high encapsulation efficiency and good stability. The nanoliposome carrier controlled the biological fate of the drugs and maintained a pre-defined optimal ratio in vivo. The LipoBeDo significantly inhibited tumor growth in 4T1 murine mammary carcinoma model compared with Doxil (P < 0.05), and completely overcame the myocardial rupture toxicity caused by Doxil in mice. Our co-loaded liposome delivery platform technology provided a new direction for the clinical treatment of triple-negative breast cancer and the safe application of DOX.

Preparation and Characterization of Erythrocyte Membrane-Camouflaged Berberine Hydrochloride-Loaded Gelatin Nanoparticles

The discovery of a new pharmacological application of berberine hydrochloride (BH) made it more clinically valuable. However, the further development of BH was hampered by its short half-life and side effects after intravenous injection. To overcome these problems, a novel BH delivery system was developed using natural red blood cell membrane-camouflaged BH-loaded gelatin nanoparticles (RBGPs) to reduce the toxicity associated with injections and achieve sustained release. The size of the RBGPs was 260.3 ± 4.1 nm, with an obvious core⁻shell structure, and the membrane proteins of the RBGPs were mostly retained. The RBGP system showed significant immune-evading capabilities and little cytotoxicity to human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293T cells and LO2 cells. Finally, RBGPs improved the sustained releasing effect of BH significantly. When the cumulative release time reached 120 h, the cumulative release rate of RBGPs was 78.42%. In brief, RBGPs hold the potential to achieve long circulation and sustained-release of BH, avoid side effects caused by high plasma concentration in common injection formulations, and broaden the clinical applications of BH.

Anticancer Efficacy of the Combination of Berberine and PEGylated Liposomal Doxorubicin in Meth A Sarcoma-Bearing Mice

Berberine, the main isoquinoline alkaloid obtained from traditional plants, e.g., Berberis, Coptis, Coscinium spps., etc., is known to exhibit anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo. In this study, the anticancer potential of berberine combined with PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (polyethylene glycol (PEG)-lip-DOX) was investigated. At first, the effect of berberine on endothelial cells was examined in vitro by use of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs): Berberine inhibited HUVEC growth with an IC₅₀ at 24 h of about 144 µg/mL and that at 72 h of about 29 µg/mL. In contrast, less than 50 µg/mL berberine inhibited the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression to some extent after a 24-h incubation, suggesting that berberine suppressed angiogenic action under the condition of little cytotoxicity. Next, the in vivo anticancer activity of the combination of berberine (intraperitoneally (i.p.)) and PEG-lip-DOX (intravenously (i.v.)) was examined in Meth A sarcoma-transplanted BALB/c mice. The results showed that either berberine or PEG-lip-DOX exhibited antiproliferative activity against Meth A cells. Moreover, treatment with the combination of berberine and PEG-lip-DOX suppressed the tumor growth more strongly than that with berberine or PEG-lip-DOX alone. Based on these findings, the combination cancer chemotherapy with berberine and PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin may be beneficial for the treatment of cancer.