Functional understanding of secondary cell wall cellulose synthases in Populus trichocarpa via the Cas9/gRNA-induced gene knockouts

Generation and Functional Characteristics of CRISPR/Cas9-Edited PtrPHOTs Triple-Gene Mutants in Poplar

Phototropins (PHOTs), as blue light receptors, play a pivotal role in plant light signal perception and adaptive regulation, yet their functional characteristics in trees remain poorly understood. In this study, the PHOT gene family was identified in Populus trichocarpa, and it included three members, PtrPHOT1, PtrPHOT2.1, and PtrPHOT2.2, all of which were highly expressed in mature leaves. Using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology, triple-gene mutations in the PtrPHOT1/2.1/2.2 (PtrPHOTs) were generated, providing initial insights into the functions of PHOTs in trees. Compared to the wild type (WT), triple-gene ptrphots mutants displayed curved and wrinkled leaves, reduced leaf area, and delayed phototropic responses, indicating the central role of PHOTs in blue light signal perception. The stomatal aperture recovery rate in mutants was only 40% of that observed in WT, accompanied by significant downregulation of the BLUS1 gene transcription levels, confirming the conservation of the PHOT-BLUS1-H⁺-ATPase signaling axis in stomatal regulation. Transcriptome of triple-gene ptrphots mutants revealed 1413 differentially expressed genes, of which were enriched in auxin response (upregulation of SAUR family genes), jasmonic acid (downregulation of JAZ genes), and light signaling pathways, suggesting that PHOTs could regulate plant adaptability by integrating light signals and hormone homeostasis. Overall, this study achieved the knockouts of three PtrPHOTs family genes, and characteristics of triple-gene ptrphots mutants elucidated the multifunctional roles of PHOTs in leaf development, phototropism, and stomatal movement in poplar. Our work provides a foundation for deciphering light signaling networks and molecular breeding in woody plants.

PtrCWINV3 encoding a cell wall invertase regulates carbon flow to wood in Populus trichocarpa

Cell wall invertase (CWINV) catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose in the apoplastic unloading pathway, with carbon sources provided for sink tissues. However, its role in wood formation remains undetermined. Therefore, transgenic lines overexpressing PtrCWINV3 or with knocked-out PtrCWINV3 expression were generated in Populus trichocarpa. Compared with wild type, the PtrCWINV3-knockout lines showed decreased CWINV activity (by 7.4 %-10.8 %), which resulted in a 1.5 %-1.8 % decrease in cellulose content, a 0.82 %-0.98 % decrease in hemicellulose content, and an increase in lignin content (by 2.9 %-4.7 %). These changes in structural carbohydrate contents were accompanied with anomalies in the late stages of secondary xylem development, characterized by reduced width of the secondary xylem, fewer cell layers in secondary xylem, and thinner fiber cell walls. The lines overexpressing PtrCWINV3 under the control of the DX15 promoter in the developing xylem showed the opposite phenotype. Transcriptome data from the developing xylem indicated that PtrCWINV3 regulated the expression of genes involved in the biosynthesis of cellulose (CesA, EG, and CB), hemicellulose/pectin (UGD, AXS, GATL, UAM, PAE, and GAUT), and starch (GBSS), which suggested its involvement in multiple polysaccharide metabolic pathways. Ultimately, this facilitated the synthesis of structural carbohydrate components such as cellulose and hemicellulose, which promoted the later stages of secondary xylem development. These findings not only demonstrate the significant role of CWINV activity in wood formation, but also highlight an excellent candidate gene for breeding new poplar varieties with high cellulose and low lignin contents.

Comparative proteomic analysis provides insights into wood formation in immature xylem at different ages in Eucalyptus urophylla × Eucalyptus grandis

Introduction

Wood formation is a crucial developmental stage in the life cycle of a woody plant; this process has substantial scientific research implications and practical applications. However, the mechanisms underlying woody plant development, especially the process of wood formation, remain poorly understood. As eucalyptus is one of the fastest growing tree species in the world, understanding the mechanism of wood formation in eucalyptus will greatly promote the development of molecular breeding technology for forest trees.

Results

In this study, we investigated the proteomic profile of immature xylem at four different ages of Eucalyptus urophylla × Eucalyptus grandis (E. urograndis) using iTARQ technology. We identified 5236 proteins and 492 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs). The expression profiles of the DAPs corresponding to coding genes associated with wood formation were assessed using qRT-PCR. From the different expression profiles, it is inferred that the genes encoding kinesin, CDKD3, EXPA13, EXPA2, XTH27, EGases, UGT76E2, LAC, CCoAMT, CesA3, PAL, and CAD may undergo posttranscriptional regulation (PTR). Additionally, the genes encoding EIN2, ETR, MC4-like, and XCP may undergo posttranslational modifications (PTMs).

Conclusions

We investigated changes in wood formation-related proteins at the protein abundance level in the immature xylem of E. urograndis, thereby elucidating potential regulatory mechanisms of key proteins involved in eucalyptus wood formation. This study may provide theoretical guidance for further research on molecular breeding techniques and genetic improvement related to the cultivation of rapidly growing and high-quality trees.

A COBRA family protein, PtrCOB3, contributes to gelatinous layer formation of tension wood fibers in poplar

Angiosperm trees usually develop tension wood (TW) in response to gravitational stimulation. TW comprises abundant gelatinous (G-) fibers with thick G-layers primarily composed of crystalline cellulose. Understanding the pivotal factors governing G-layer formation in TW fiber remains elusive. This study elucidates the role of a Populus trichocarpa COBRA family protein, PtrCOB3, in the G-layer formation of TW fibers. PtrCOB3 expression was upregulated, and its promoter activity was enhanced during TW formation. Comparative analysis with wild-type trees revealed that ptrcob3 mutants, mediated by Cas9/gRNA gene editing, were incapable of producing G-layers within TW fibers and showed severely impaired stem lift. Fluorescence immunolabeling data revealed a dearth of crystalline cellulose in the tertiary cell wall (TCW) of ptrcob3 TW fibers. The role of PtrCOB3 in G-layer formation is contingent upon its native promoter, as evidenced by the comparative phenotypic assessments of pCOB11::PtrCOB3, pCOB3::PtrCOB3, and pCOB3::PtrCOB11 transgenic lines in the ptrcob3 background. Overexpression of PtrCOB3 under the control of its native promoter expedited G-layer formation within TW fibers. We further identified 3 transcription factors that bind to the PtrCOB3 promoter and positively regulate its transcriptional levels. Alongside the primary TCW synthesis genes, these findings enable the construction of a 2-layer transcriptional regulatory network for the G-layer formation of TW fibers. Overall, this study uncovers mechanistic insight into TW formation, whereby a specific COB protein executes the deposition of cellulose, and consequently, G-layer formation within TW fibers.

MeGT2.6 increases cellulose synthesis and active gibberellin content to promote cell enlargement in cassava

Cassava, a pivotal tropical crop, exhibits rapid growth and possesses a substantial biomass. Its stem is rich in cellulose and serves as a crucial carbohydrate storage organ. The height and strength of stems restrict the mechanised operation and propagation of cassava. In this study, the triple helix transcription factor MeGT2.6 was identified through yeast one-hybrid assay using MeCesA1pro as bait, which is critical for cellulose synthesis. Over-expression and loss-of-function lines were generated, and results revealed that MeGT2.6 could promote a significant increase in the plant height, stem diameter, cell size and thickness of SCW of cassava plant. Specifically, MeGT2.6 upregulated the transcription activity of MeGA20ox1 and downregulated the expression level of MeGA2ox1, thereby enhancing the content of active GA3, resulting in a large cell size, high plant height and long stem diameter in cassava. Moreover, MeGT2.6 upregulated the transcription activity of MeCesA1, which promoted the synthesis of cellulose and hemicellulose and produced a thick secondary cell wall. Finally, MeGT2.6 could help supply additional substrates for the synthesis of cellulose and hemicellulose by upregulating the invertase genes (MeNINV1/6). Thus, MeGT2.6 was found to be a multiple regulator; it was involved in GA metabolism and sucrose decomposition and the synthesis of cellulose and hemicellulose.

The transcriptional regulation of a putative hemicellulose gene, PtrPARVUS2 in poplar

The plant cell wall serves as a critical interface between the plant and its environment, offering protection against various stresses and contributing to biomass production. Hemicellulose is one of the major components of the cell wall, and understanding the transcriptional regulation of its production is essential to fully understanding cell wall formation. This study explores the regulatory mechanisms underlying one of the genes involved in hemicellulose biosynthesis, PtrPARVUS2. Six transcription factors (TFs) were identified from a xylem-biased library to negatively regulate PtrPARVUS2 expression. These TFs, belonging to diverse TF families, were confirmed to bind to specific cis-elements in the PtrPARVUS2 promoter region, as validated by Yeast One-Hybrid (Y1H) assays, transient expression analysis, and Chromatin Immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) assays. Furthermore, motif analysis identified putative cis-regulatory elements bound by these TFs, shedding light on the transcriptional regulation of SCW biosynthesis genes. Notably, several TFs targeted genes encoding uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs), crucial enzymes involved in hemicellulose glycosylation. Phylogenetic analysis of UGTs regulated by these TFs highlighted their diverse roles in modulating hemicellulose synthesis. Overall, this study identifies a set of TFs that regulate PARVUS2 in poplar, providing insights into the intricate coordination of TFs and PtrPARVUS2 in SCW formation. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms enhances our ability to engineer plant biomass for tailored applications, including biofuel production and bioproduct development.

Wood of trees: Cellular structure, molecular formation, and genetic engineering

Wood is an invaluable asset to human society due to its renewable nature, making it suitable for both sustainable energy production and material manufacturing. Additionally, wood derived from forest trees plays a crucial role in sequestering a significant portion of the carbon dioxide fixed during photosynthesis by terrestrial plants. Nevertheless, with the expansion of the global population and ongoing industrialization, forest coverage has been substantially decreased, resulting in significant challenges for wood production and supply. Wood production practices have changed away from natural forests toward plantation forests. Thus, understanding the underlying genetic mechanisms of wood formation is the foundation for developing high-quality, fast-growing plantation trees. Breeding ideal forest trees for wood production using genetic technologies has attracted the interest of many. Tremendous studies have been carried out in recent years on the molecular, genetic, and cell-biological mechanisms of wood formation, and considerable progress and findings have been achieved. These studies and findings indicate enormous possibilities and prospects for tree improvement. This review will outline and assess the cellular and molecular mechanisms of wood formation, as well as studies on genetically improving forest trees, and address future development prospects.

Woody plant cell walls: Fundamentals and utilization

Cell walls in plants, particularly forest trees, are the major carbon sink of the terrestrial ecosystem. Chemical and biosynthetic features of plant cell walls were revealed early on, focusing mostly on herbaceous model species. Recent developments in genomics, transcriptomics, epigenomics, transgenesis, and associated analytical techniques are enabling novel insights into formation of woody cell walls. Here, we review multilevel regulation of cell wall biosynthesis in forest tree species. We highlight current approaches to engineering cell walls as potential feedstock for materials and energy and survey reported field tests of such engineered transgenic trees. We outline opportunities and challenges in future research to better understand cell type biogenesis for more efficient wood cell wall modification and utilization for biomaterials or for enhanced carbon capture and storage.

Screening genome-editing knockouts reveals the receptor-like kinase ASX role in regulations of secondary xylem development in Populus

In trees, secondary xylem development is essential for the growth of perennial stem increments. Many signals regulate the process of development, but our knowledge of the molecular components involved in signal transduction is still limited. In this study, we identified Attenuation of Secondary Xylem (ASX) knockouts by screening genome-editing knockouts of xylem-expressed receptor-like kinases (RLKs) in Populus. The ASX role in secondary xylem development in Populus was discovered using biochemical, cellular, and genomic analyses. The ASX knockout plants had abnormal secondary stem growth but had little effect on shoot apical primary growth. ASX and SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR KINASE (SERK)2/4 were co-precipitated in developing xylem. Through their interaction, ASX is phosphorylated by SERK. Transcriptome analysis of developing xylem revealed that ASX deficiency inhibited the transcriptional activity of genes involved in xylem differentiation and secondary cell wall formation. By forming a complex, ASX and SERK may function as a signaling module for signal transduction required in the regulation of secondary xylem development in trees. This study shows that ASX, which encodes a RLKs, is required for secondary xylem development and sheds light on regulatory signals found in tree stem secondary growth.

Open questions in plant cell wall synthesis

Plant cells are surrounded by strong yet flexible polysaccharide-based cell walls that support the cell while also allowing growth by cell expansion. Plant cell wall research has advanced tremendously in recent years. Sequenced genomes of many model and crop plants have facilitated cataloging and characterization of many enzymes involved in cell wall synthesis. Structural information has been generated for several important cell wall synthesizing enzymes. Important tools have been developed including antibodies raised against a variety of cell wall polysaccharides and glycoproteins, collections of enzyme clones and synthetic glycan arrays for characterizing enzymes, herbicides that specifically affect cell wall synthesis, live-cell imaging probes to track cell wall synthesis, and an inducible secondary cell wall synthesis system. Despite these advances, and often because of the new information they provide, many open questions about plant cell wall polysaccharide synthesis persist. This article highlights some of the key questions that remain open, reviews the data supporting different hypotheses that address these questions, and discusses technological developments that may answer these questions in the future.

Meliaceae genomes provide insights into wood development and limonoids biosynthesis

Meliaceae is a useful plant family owing to its high-quality timber and its many limonoids that have pharmacological and biological activities. Although some genomes of Meliaceae species have been reported, many questions regarding their unique family features, namely wood quality and natural products, have not been answered. In this study, we provide the whole-genome sequence of Melia azedarach comprising 237.16 Mb with a contig N50 of 8.07 Mb, and an improved genome sequence of Azadirachta indica comprising 223.66 Mb with a contig N50 of 8.91 Mb. Moreover, genome skimming data, transcriptomes and other published genomes were comprehensively analysed to determine the genes and proteins that produce superior wood and valuable limonoids. Phylogenetic analysis of chloroplast genomes, single-copy gene families and single-nucleotide polymorphisms revealed that Meliaceae should be classified into two subfamilies: Cedreloideae and Melioideae. Although the Meliaceae species did not undergo additional whole-genome duplication events, the secondary wall biosynthetic genes of the woody Cedreloideae species, Toona sinensis, expanded significantly compared to those of A. indica and M. azedarach, especially in downstream transcription factors and cellulose/hemicellulose biosynthesis-related genes. Moreover, expanded special oxidosqualene cyclase catalogues can help diversify Sapindales skeletons, and the clustered genes that regulate terpene chain elongation, cyclization and modification would support their roles in limonoid biosynthesis. The expanded clans of terpene synthase, O-methyltransferase and cytochrome P450, which are mainly derived from tandem duplication, are responsible for the different limonoid classes among the species. These results are beneficial for further investigations of wood development and limonoid biosynthesis.

Cas9/gRNA-Mediated Mutations in PtrFLA40 and PtrFLA45 Reveal Redundant Roles in Modulating Wood Cell Size and SCW Synthesis in Poplar

Fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins (FLAs) play an important role in plant development and adaptation to the environment. However, the roles of FLAs in wood formation remain poorly understood. Here, we identified a total of 50 PtrFLA genes in poplar. They were classified into four groups: A to D, among which group A was the largest group with 28 members clustered into four branches. Most PtrFLAs of group A were dominantly expressed in developing xylem based on microarray and RT-qPCR data. The roles of PtrFLA40 and PtrFLA45 in group A were investigated via the Cas9/gRNA-induced mutation lines. Loss of PtrFLA40 and PtrFLA45 increased stem length and diameter in ptrfla40ptrfla45 double mutants, but not in ptrfla40 or ptrfla45 single mutants. Further, our findings indicated that the ptrfla40ptrfla45 mutants enlarged the cell size of xylem fibers and vessels, suggesting a negative modulation in stem xylem cell size. In addition, wood lignin content in the ptrfla40fla45 mutants was increased by nearly 9%, and the lignin biosynthesis-related genes were significantly up-regulated in the ptrfla40fla45 mutants, in agreement with the increase in wood lignin content. Overall, Cas9/gRNA-mediated mutations in PtrFLA40 and PtrFLA45 reveal redundant roles in modulating wood cell size and secondary cell wall (SCW) synthesis in poplar.

Aspartic proteases modulate programmed cell death and secondary cell wall synthesis during wood formation in poplar

Programmed cell death (PCD) is essential for wood development in trees. However, the determination of crucial factors involved in xylem PCD of wood development is still lacking. Here, two Populus trichocarpa typical aspartic protease (AP) genes, AP17 and AP45, modulate xylem maturation, especially fibre PCD, during wood formation. AP17 and AP45 were dominantly expressed in the fibres of secondary xylem, as suggested by GUS expression in APpro::GUS transgenic plants. Cas9/gRNA-induced AP17 or AP45 mutants delayed secondary xylem fibre PCD, and ap17ap45 double mutants showed more serious defects. Conversely, AP17 overexpression caused premature PCD in secondary xylem fibres, indicating a positive modulation in wood fibre PCD. Loss of AP17 and AP45 did not alter wood fibre wall thickness, whereas the ap17ap45 mutants showed a low lignin content in wood. However, AP17 overexpression led to a significant decrease in wood fibre wall thickness and lignin content, revealing the involvement in secondary cell wall synthesis during wood formation. In addition, the ap17ap45 mutant and AP17 overexpression plants resulted in a significant increase in saccharification yield in wood. Overall, AP17 and AP45 are crucial modulators in xylem maturation during wood development, providing potential candidate genes for engineering lignocellulosic wood for biofuel utilization.

Chromosome-scale genome assembly provides insights into the molecular mechanisms of tissue development of Populus wilsonii

Populus wilsonii is an important species of section Leucoides, and the natural populations mainly grow in southwest China. In this study, a single genotype of wild P. wilsonii was sequenced and assembled at genome size of 477.35 Mb in 19 chromosomes with contig N50 of 16.3 Mb. A total of 38,054 genes were annotated, and 49.95% of the genome was annotated as repetitive elements. Phylogenetic analysis identified that the divergence between P. wilsonii and the ancestor of P. deltoides and P. trichocarpa was 12 (3–23) Mya. 4DTv and Ks distributions supported the occurrence of the salicoid WGD event (~65 Mya). The highly conserved collinearity supports the close evolutionary relationship among these species. Some key enzyme-encoding gene families related to the biosynthesis of lignin and flavonoids were expanded and highly expressed in the stems or leaves, which probably resist the damage of the natural environment. In addition, some key gene families related to cellulose biosynthesis were highly expressed in stems, accounting for the high cellulose content of P. wilsonii variety. Our findings provided deep insights into the genetic evolution of P. wilsonii and will contribute to further biological research and breeding as well as for other poplars in Salicaceae.

A genome assembly for the Chinese poplar tree, Populus wilsonii, provides a unique resource to guide research into poplar development and breeding efforts.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated P-CR domain-specific engineering of CESA4 heterodimerization capacity alters cell wall architecture and improves saccharification efficiency in poplar

Cellulose is the most abundant unique biopolymer in nature with widespread applications in bioenergy and high-value bioproducts. The large transmembrane-localized cellulose synthase (CESA) complexes (CSCs) play a pivotal role in the biosynthesis and orientation of the para-crystalline cellulose microfibrils during secondary cell wall (SCW) deposition. However, the hub CESA subunit with high potential homo/heterodimerization capacity and its functional effects on cell wall architecture, cellulose crystallinity, and saccharification efficiency remains unclear. Here, we reported the highly potent binding site containing four residues of Pro435, Trp436, Pro437, and Gly438 in the plant-conserved region (P-CR) of PalCESA4 subunit, which are involved in the CESA4-CESA8 heterodimerization. The CRISPR/Cas9-knockout mutagenesis in the predicted binding site results in physiological abnormalities, stunt growth, and deficient roots. The homozygous double substitution of W436Q and P437S and heterozygous double deletions of W436 and P437 residues potentially reduced CESA4-binding affinity resulting in normal roots, 1.5-2-fold higher plant growth and cell wall regeneration rates, 1.7-fold thinner cell wall, high hemicellulose content, 37%-67% decrease in cellulose content, high cellulose DP, 25%-37% decrease in cellulose crystallinity, and 50% increase in saccharification efficiency. The heterozygous deletion of W436 increases about 2-fold CESA4 homo/heterodimerization capacity led to the 50% decrease in plant growth and increase in cell walls thickness, cellulose content (33%), cellulose DP (20%), and CrI (8%). Our findings provide a strategy for introducing commercial CRISPR/Cas9-mediated bioengineered poplars with promising cellulose applications. We anticipate our results could create an engineering revolution in bioenergy and cellulose-based nanomaterial technologies.

Screening cellulose synthesis related genes of EgrEXP and EgrHEX in Eucalyptus grandis

Eucalyptus (including Eucalyptus grandis) is an excellent wood forest tree species that provides a large number of plant fiber raw materials for the paper and timber industries. Cellulose, an essential structural component in plant cell walls, is a renewable biomass resource that plays a very important role in nature. There is still a lack of research on the role of gene regulation in cellulose synthesis. To study the genes of cellulose synthesis, the wood chemical indexes of Eucalyptus grandis were analyzed by taking three different parts from the main stem of Eucalyptus grandis as raw materials. The results showed that the cellulose content in the middle of the trunk was significantly higher than that at the chest diameter and at the upper part of the trunk. A total of 296 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained from the three site by transcriptome, and 19 key candidate genes were related to the synthesis of cellulose in Eucalyptus grandis. EgrEXP1 and EgrHEX4 were overexpressed in 84 K poplar, the content of cellulose and lignin in genetically modified plants was significantly higher than that of wild type 84 K poplar. Also, the average plant height and average root count were significantly higher than those of control plants, and the average diameter of the middle and stem bases were significantly larger than those of control plants. In this study, the genes related to cellulose synthesis in Eucalyptus grandis are studied, which serve as a strong foundation for understanding the molecular regulation of cellulose synthesis in plants.

Characterization of hemicellulose during xylogenesis in rare tree species Castanopsis hystrix

Hemicellulose is an important component of the plant cell wall which vary in structure and composition between plant species. The research of hemicellulose structures is primarily focused on fast-growing plants during xylogenesis, with slow-growing and rare trees receiving the least attention. Here, hemicellulose structure of the rare species Castanopsis hystrix during xylogenesis was analyzed. Acetyl methyl glucuronide xylan was the most common type of hemicellulose in C. hystrix, with a unique tetrasaccharide structure at the reducing end. Hemicellulose type, structure, molecular weight, thermal stability, biosynthesis and acetyl substitution content and pattern remained stable during the xylogenesis in C. hystrix, which could be attributed to its slow growth. The stable polymer type, low side chain modification and high acetyl substitution of hemicellulose throughout the stems are among the reasons for the hardness and corrosion resistance properties of C. hystrix wood. Genetic modification can be used to improve these properties.

Progress and challenges in applying CRISPR/Cas techniques to the genome editing of trees

With the advent of the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) system, plant genome editing has entered a new era of robust and precise editing for any genes of interest. The development of various CRISPR/Cas toolkits has enabled new genome editing outcomes that not only target indel mutations but also enable base editing and prime editing. The application of the CRISPR/Cas toolkits has rapidly advanced breeding and crop improvement of economically important species. CRISPR/Cas toolkits have also been applied to a wide variety of tree species, including apple, bamboo, Cannabaceae, cassava, citrus, cacao tree, coffee tree, grapevine, kiwifruit, pear, pomegranate, poplar, ratanjoyt, and rubber tree. The application of editing to these species has resulted in significant discoveries related to critical genes associated with growth, secondary metabolism, and stress and disease resistance. However, most studies on tree species have involved only preliminary optimization of editing techniques, and a more in-depth study of editing techniques for CRISPR/Cas-based editing of tree species has the potential to rapidly accelerate tree breeding and trait improvements. Moreover, tree genome editing still relies mostly on Cas9-based indel mutation and Agrobacterium-mediated stable transformation. Transient transformation for transgene-free genome editing is preferred, but it typically has very low efficiency in tree species, substantially limiting its potential utility. In this work, we summarize the current status of tree genome editing practices using the CRISPR/Cas system and discuss limitations that impede the efficient application of CRISPR/Cas toolkits for tree genome editing, as well as future prospects.

Secondary cell wall patterning-connecting the dots, pits and helices

All plant cells are encased in primary cell walls that determine plant morphology, but also protect the cells against the environment. Certain cells also produce a secondary wall that supports mechanically demanding processes, such as maintaining plant body stature and water transport inside plants. Both these walls are primarily composed of polysaccharides that are arranged in certain patterns to support cell functions. A key requisite for patterned cell walls is the arrangement of cortical microtubules that may direct the delivery of wall polymers and/or cell wall producing enzymes to certain plasma membrane locations. Microtubules also steer the synthesis of cellulose-the load-bearing structure in cell walls-at the plasma membrane. The organization and behaviour of the microtubule array are thus of fundamental importance to cell wall patterns. These aspects are controlled by the coordinated effort of small GTPases that probably coordinate a Turing's reaction-diffusion mechanism to drive microtubule patterns. Here, we give an overview on how wall patterns form in the water-transporting xylem vessels of plants. We discuss systems that have been used to dissect mechanisms that underpin the xylem wall patterns, emphasizing the VND6 and VND7 inducible systems, and outline challenges that lay ahead in this field.

Molecular understanding of wood formation in trees

Trees convert and store the majority of their photosynthetic products in wood which is an essential renewable resource much in demand by human society. Formation of wood follows a process of consecutive cell developmental stages, from vascular cambium proliferation, cell expansion and differentiation, secondary cell wall deposition to programmed cell death, which is controlled by the functionality of complex molecular networks. What are the molecular networks involved in wood formation? How do the molecular networks act in a way to generate wood tissue during tree growth? What are the regulatory modules that lead to the formation of various wood characteristics? The answers to these questions are fundamental to understanding how trees grow, as well as how we can genetically engineer trees with desired properties of wood for human needs. In recent years, a great deal of interest has been invested in the elucidation of wood formation at the molecular level. This review summarizes the current state of understanding of the molecular process that guides wood formation in trees.

Molecular studies of cellulose synthase supercomplex from cotton fiber reveal its unique biochemical properties

Cotton fiber is a highly elongated and thickened single cell that produces large quantities of cellulose, which is synthesized and assembled into cell wall microfibrils by the cellulose synthase complex (CSC). In this study, we report that in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) fibers harvested during secondary cell wall (SCW) synthesis, GhCesA 4, 7, and 8 assembled into heteromers in a previously uncharacterized 36-mer-like cellulose synthase supercomplex (CSS). This super CSC was observed in samples prepared using cotton fiber cells harvested during the SCW synthesis period but not from cotton stem tissue or any samples obtained from Arabidopsis. Knock-out of any of GhCesA 4, 7, and 8 resulted in the disappearance of the CSS and the production of fiber cells with no SCW thickening. Cotton fiber CSS showed significantly higher enzyme activity than samples prepared from knock-out cotton lines. We found that the microfibrils from the SCW of wild-type cotton fibers may contain 72 glucan chains in a bundle, unlike other plant materials studied. GhCesA4, 7, and 8 restored both the dwarf and reduced vascular bundle phenotypes of their orthologous Arabidopsis mutants, potentially by reforming the CSC hexamers. Genetic complementation was not observed when non-orthologous CesA genes were used, indicating that each of the three subunits is indispensable for CSC formation and for full cellulose synthase function. Characterization of cotton CSS will increase our understanding of the regulation of SCW biosynthesis.

Wood Formation Modeling - A Research Review and Future Perspectives

Wood formation has received considerable attention across various research fields as a key process to model. Historical and contemporary models of wood formation from various disciplines have encapsulated hypotheses such as the influence of external (e.g., climatic) or internal (e.g., hormonal) factors on the successive stages of wood cell differentiation. This review covers 17 wood formation models from three different disciplines, the earliest from 1968 and the latest from 2020. The described processes, as well as their external and internal drivers and their level of complexity, are discussed. This work is the first systematic cataloging, characterization, and process-focused review of wood formation models. Remaining open questions concerning wood formation processes are identified, and relate to: (1) the extent of hormonal influence on the final tree ring structure; (2) the mechanism underlying the transition from earlywood to latewood in extratropical regions; and (3) the extent to which carbon plays a role as "active" driver or "passive" substrate for growth. We conclude by arguing that wood formation models remain to be fully exploited, with the potential to contribute to studies concerning individual tree carbon sequestration-storage dynamics and regional to global carbon sequestration dynamics in terrestrial vegetation models.

The DUF288 domain containing proteins GhSTLs participate in cotton fiber cellulose synthesis and impact on fiber elongation

Cotton is one of the most important economic crops in the world, with over 90 % cellulose in the mature fiber. However, the cellulose synthesis mechanism in cotton fibers is poorly understood. Here, we identified four DUF288 domain containing proteins, which we designated GhSTL1-4. These four GhSTL genes are highly expressed in 6 days post anthesis (dpa) and 20 dpa cotton fibers. They are localized to the Golgi apparatus, and can rescue the growth defects in primary cell wall (PCW) and secondary cell wall (SCW) of cellulose synthesis of the Arabidopsis stl1stl2 double mutant at varying degrees. Silencing of GhSTLs resulted in reduced cellulose content and shorter fibers. In addition, split-ubiquitin membrane yeast two-hybrid analysis showed that GhSTL1 and GhSTL4 can interact with PCW-related GhCesA6-1/6-3 and SCW-associated GhCesA7-1/7-2. GhSTL3 can interact with SCW-related GhCesA4-3. These interactions are further confirmed by firefly luciferase complementation imaging assay. Together, we demonstrate that GhSTLs can selectively interact with both the PCW and SCW-associated GhCesAs and impact on cellulose synthesis and fiber development. Our findings provide insights into the mechanism underlying cellulose biosynthesis in cotton fibers, and offer potential candidate genes to coordinate PCW and SCW cellulose synthesis of cotton fibers for developing elite cotton varieties with enhanced fiber quality.

Transcriptional landscape of highly lignified poplar stems at single-cell resolution

BACKGROUND

Plant secondary growth depends on the activity of the vascular cambium, which produces xylem and phloem. Wood derived from xylem is the most abundant form of biomass globally and has played key socio-economic and subsistence roles throughout human history. However, despite intensive study of vascular development, the full diversity of cell types and the gene networks engaged are still poorly understood.

RESULTS

Here, we have applied an optimized protoplast isolation protocol and RNA sequencing to characterize the high-resolution single-cell transcriptional landscape of highly lignified poplar stems. We identify 20 putative cell clusters with a series of novel cluster-specific marker genes and find that these cells are highly heterogeneous based on the transcriptome. Analysis of these marker genes' expression dynamics enables reconstruction of the cell differentiation trajectories involved in phloem and xylem development. We find that different cell clusters exhibit distinct patterns of phytohormone responses and emphasize the use of our data to predict potential gene redundancy and identify candidate genes related to vascular development in trees.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings establish the transcriptional landscape of major cell types of poplar stems at single-cell resolution and provide a valuable resource for investigating basic principles of vascular cell specification and differentiation in trees.