Soil biotic and abiotic effects on seedling growth exhibit context-dependent interactions: evidence from a multi-country experiment on Pinus contorta invasion

Distinct foliar fungal communities in Pinus contorta across native and introduced ranges: evidence for context dependency of pathogen release

Inter-continental study systems are crucial for testing ecological hypotheses, such as the widely cited Enemy Release Hypothesis (ERH), which seeks to explain the superior performance of plant species when they are introduced to new regions. Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine), native to North America, has been extensively introduced to Europe and the Southern Hemisphere, making it an ideal tree species for studying invasion hypotheses from a biogeographical perspective. We compared foliar fungal communities, especially pathogens, of P. contorta across two native-introduced region pairs (NIRPs): a northern NIRP (from Canada to Sweden) and a southern NIRP (from the USA to Patagonia), while also examining the differences between source plantations and invasion fronts within Patagonia. P. contorta underwent significant fungal community shifts and experienced pathogen release during its large-scale introduction from North America to Sweden and Patagonia. The fungal richness and relative abundance changes were more pronounced for the southern NIRP pair, where no closely related tree species to P. contorta are present in Patagonia. In Sweden, the presence of the phylogenetically related P. sylvestris and its associated local fungal community appears to play a role in influencing the foliar fungal communities associated with introduced P. contorta. In Patagonia, the incomplete co-invasion of fungal taxa from the USA emerges as a principal driver of the observed variability in fungal community composition and pathogen release following the introduction of P. contorta. In Patagonia, fungal community composition differences between source plantations and invasion fronts provided insufficient evidence that pathogen release occurs at this local scale. Integrating both biogeographical and phylogenetic perspectives, our study suggests that priority effects of local fungi appear to be a dominant community assembly process when introduction is done in a phylogenetically similar community; whereas, co-invasion of fungal communities is the dominant process in phylogenetically distant communities.

Interplay of biotic and abiotic factors shapes tree seedling growth and root-associated microbial communities

Root-associated microbes can alleviate plant abiotic stresses, thus potentially supporting adaptation to a changing climate or to novel environments during range expansion. While climate change is extending plant species fundamental niches northward, the distribution and colonization of mutualists (e.g., arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) and pathogens may constrain plant growth and regeneration. Yet, the degree to which biotic and abiotic factors impact plant performance and associated microbial communities at the edge of their distribution remains unclear. Here, we use root microscopy, coupled with amplicon sequencing, to study bacterial, fungal, and mycorrhizal root-associated microbial communities from sugar maple seedlings distributed across two temperate-to-boreal elevational gradients in southern Québec, Canada. Our findings demonstrate that soil pH, soil Ca, and distance to sugar maple trees are key drivers of root-associated microbial communities, overshadowing the influence of elevation. Interestingly, changes in root fungal community composition mediate an indirect effect of soil pH on seedling growth, a pattern consistent at both sites. Overall, our findings highlight a complex role of biotic and abiotic factors in shaping tree-microbe interactions, which are in turn correlated with seedling growth. These findings have important ramifications for tree range expansion in response to shifting climatic niches.

Symbiont plasticity as a driver of plant success

We discuss which plant species are likely to become winners, that is achieve the highest global abundance, in changing landscapes, and whether plant-associated microbes play a determining role. Reduction and fragmentation of natural habitats in historic landscapes have led to the emergence of patchy, hybrid landscapes, and novel landscapes where anthropogenic ecosystems prevail. In patchy landscapes, species with broad niches are favoured. Plasticity in the degree of association with symbiotic microbes may contribute to broader plant niches and optimization of symbiosis costs and benefits, by downregulating symbiosis when it is unnecessary and upregulating it when it is beneficial. Plasticity can also be expressed as the switch from one type of mutualism to another, for example from nutritive to defensive mutualism with increasing soil fertility and the associated increase in parasite load. Upon dispersal, wide mutualistic partner receptivity is another facet of symbiont plasticity that becomes beneficial, because plants are not limited by the availability of specialist partners when arriving at new locations. Thus, under conditions of global change, symbiont plasticity allows plants to optimize the activity of mutualistic relationships, potentially allowing them to become winners by maximizing geographic occupancy and local abundance.

Genotype diversity enhances invasion resistance of native plants via soil biotic feedbacks

Although native species diversity is frequently reported to enhance invasion resistance, within-species diversity of native plants can also moderate invasions. While the positive diversity-invasion resistance relationship is often attributed to competition, indirect effects mediated through plant-soil feedbacks can also influence the relationship. We manipulated the genotypic diversity of an endemic species, Scirpus mariqueter, and evaluated the effects of abiotic versus biotic feedbacks on the performance of a global invader, Spartina alterniflora. We found that invader performance on live soils decreased non-additively with genotypic diversity of the native plant that trained the soils, but this reversed when soils were sterilized to eliminate feedbacks through soil biota. The influence of soil biota on the feedback was primarily associated with increased levels of microbial biomass and fungal diversity in soils trained by multiple-genotype populations. Our findings highlight the importance of plant-soil feedbacks mediating the positive relationship between genotypic diversity and invasion resistance.

Soil community composition in dynamic stages of semi-natural calcareous grassland

European dry thin-soil calcareous grasslands (alvars) are species-rich semi-natural habitats. Cessation of traditional management, such as mowing and grazing, leads to shrub and tree encroachment and the local extinction of characteristic alvar species. While soil microbes are known to play a critical role in driving vegetation and ecosystem dynamics, more information is needed about their composition and function in grasslands of different dynamic stages. Here we assess the composition of soil fungal, prokaryotic, and plant communities using soil environmental DNA from restored alvar grasslands in Estonia. The study areas included grasslands that had experienced different degrees of woody encroachment prior to restoration (woody plant removal and grazing), as well as unmanaged open grasslands. We found that, in general, different taxonomic groups exhibited correlated patterns of between-community variation. Previous forest sites, which had prior to restoration experienced a high degree of woody encroachment by ectomycorrhizal Scots pine, were compositionally most distinct from managed open grasslands, which had little woody vegetation even prior to restoration. The functional structure of plant and fungal communities varied in ways that were consistent with the representation of mycorrhizal types in the ecosystems prior to restoration. Compositional differences between managed and unmanaged open grasslands reflecting the implementation of grazing without further management interventions were clearer among fungal, and to an extent prokaryotic, communities than among plant communities. While previous studies have shown that during woody encroachment of alvar grassland, plant communities change first and fungal communities follow, our DNA-based results suggest that microbial communities reacted faster than plant communities during the restoration of grazing management in alvar grassland. We conclude that while the plant community responds faster to cessation of management, the fungal community responds faster to restoration of management. This may indicate hysteresis, where the eventual pathway back to the original state (grazed ecosystem) differs from the pathway taken towards the alternative state (abandoned semi-natural grassland ecosystem).

Sympatric soil biota mitigate a warmer-drier climate for Bouteloua gracilis

Climate change is altering temperature and precipitation, resulting in widespread plant mortality and shifts in plant distributions. Plants growing in soil types with low water holding capacity may experience intensified effects of reduced water availability as a result of climate change. Furthermore, complex biotic interactions between plants and soil organisms may mitigate or exacerbate the effects of climate change. This 3-year field experiment observed the performance of Bouteloua gracilis ecotypes that were transplanted across an environmental gradient with either sympatric soil from the seed source location or allopatric soil from the location that plants were transplanted into. We also inoculated plants with either sympatric or allopatric soil biotic communities to test: (1) how changes in climate alone influence plant growth, (2) how soil types interact with climate to influence plant growth, and (3) the role of soil biota in mitigating plant migration to novel environments. As expected, plants moved to cooler-wetter sites exhibited enhanced growth; however, plants moved to warmer-drier sites responded variably depending on the provenance of their soil and inoculum. Soil and inoculum provenance had little influence on the performance of plants moved to cooler-wetter sites, but at warmer-drier sites they were important predictors of plant biomass, seed set, and specific leaf area. Specifically, transplants inoculated with their sympatric soil biota and grown in their sympatric soil were as large as or larger than reference plants grown at the seed source locations; however, individuals inoculated with allopatric soil biota were smaller than reference site individuals at warmer, drier sites. These findings demonstrate complicated plant responses to various aspects of environmental novelty where communities of soil organisms may help ameliorate stress. The belowground microbiome of plants should be considered to predict the responses of vegetation more accurately to climate change.

Advancing the missed mutualist hypothesis, the under-appreciated twin of the enemy release hypothesis

Introduced species often benefit from escaping their enemies when they are transported to a new range, an idea commonly expressed as the enemy release hypothesis. However, species might shed mutualists as well as enemies when they colonize a new range. Loss of mutualists might reduce the success of introduced populations, or even cause failure to establish. We provide the first quantitative synthesis testing this natural but often overlooked parallel of the enemy release hypothesis, which is known as the missed mutualist hypothesis. Meta-analysis showed that plants interact with 1.9 times more mutualist species, and have 2.3 times more interactions with mutualists per unit time in their native range than in their introduced range. Species may mitigate the negative effects of missed mutualists. For instance, selection arising from missed mutualists could cause introduced species to evolve either to facilitate interactions with a new suite of species or to exist without mutualisms. Just as enemy release can allow introduced populations to redirect energy from defence to growth, potentially evolving increased competitive ability, species that shift to strategies without mutualists may be able to reallocate energy from mutualism toward increased competitive ability or seed production. The missed mutualist hypothesis advances understanding of the selective forces and filters that act on plant species in the early stages of introduction and establishment and thus could inform the management of introduced species.