1
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Smithers ET, Luo J, Dyson RJ. A continuum mechanics model of the plant cell wall reveals interplay between enzyme action and cell wall structure. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2024; 47:1. [PMID: 38183519 PMCID: PMC10771620 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-023-00396-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Plant cell growth is regulated through manipulation of the cell wall network, which consists of oriented cellulose microfibrils embedded within a ground matrix incorporating pectin and hemicellulose components. There remain many unknowns as to how this manipulation occurs. Experiments have shown that cellulose reorients in cell walls as the cell expands, while recent data suggest that growth is controlled by distinct collections of hemicellulose called biomechanical hotspots, which join the cellulose molecule together. The enzymes expansin and Cel12A have both been shown to induce growth of the cell wall; however, while Cel12A's wall-loosening action leads to a reduction in the cell wall strength, expansin's has been shown to increase the strength of the cell wall. In contrast, members of the XTH enzyme family hydrolyse hemicellulose but do not appear to cause wall creep. This experimentally observed behaviour still awaits a full explanation. We derive and analyse a mathematical model for the effective mechanical properties of the evolving cell wall network, incorporating cellulose microfibrils, which reorient with cell growth and are linked via biomechanical hotspots made up of regions of crosslinking hemicellulose. Assuming a visco-elastic response for the cell wall and using a continuum approach, we calculate the total stress resultant of the cell wall for a given overall growth rate. By changing appropriate parameters affecting breakage rate and viscous properties, we provide evidence for the biomechanical hotspot hypothesis and develop mechanistic understanding of the growth-inducing enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Euan T Smithers
- School of Mathematics, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman street, Cambridge, CB2 1LR, Cambridgeshire, UK.
| | - Jingxi Luo
- School of Mathematics, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Rosemary J Dyson
- School of Mathematics, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
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2
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Bidhendi AJ, Lampron O, Gosselin FP, Geitmann A. Cell geometry regulates tissue fracture. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8275. [PMID: 38092784 PMCID: PMC10719271 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44075-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In vascular plants, the epidermal surfaces of leaves and flower petals often display cells with wavy geometries forming intricate jigsaw puzzle patterns. The prevalence and diversity of these complex epidermal patterns, originating from simple polyhedral progenitor cells, suggest adaptive significance. However, despite multiple efforts to explain the evolutionary drivers behind these geometrical features, compelling validation remains elusive. Employing a multidisciplinary approach that integrates microscopic and macroscopic fracture experiments with computational fracture mechanics, we demonstrate that wavy epidermal cells toughen the plants' protective skin. Through a multi-scale framework, we demonstrate that this energy-efficient patterning mechanism is universally applicable for toughening biological and synthetic materials. Our findings reveal a tunable structural-mechanical strategy employed in the microscale design of plants to protect them from deleterious surface fissures while facilitating and strategically directing beneficial ones. These findings hold implications for targeted plant breeding aimed at enhancing resilience in fluctuating environmental conditions. From an engineering perspective, our work highlights the sophisticated design principles the plant kingdom offers to inspire metamaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir J Bidhendi
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec, H9X 3V9, Canada.
- EERS Global Technologies, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Olivier Lampron
- Laboratoire de Mécanique Multi-échelles, Département de génie mécanique, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Frédérick P Gosselin
- Laboratoire de Mécanique Multi-échelles, Département de génie mécanique, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Anja Geitmann
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec, H9X 3V9, Canada.
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3
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Panteris E, Pappas D. F-Actin Organization and Epidermal Cell Morphogenesis in the Brown Alga Sargassum vulgare. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13234. [PMID: 37686039 PMCID: PMC10488008 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The ordinary epidermal cells of various vascular plants are characterized by wavy anticlinal wall contours. This feature has not yet been reported in multicellular algal species. Here, we found that, in the leaf-like blades of the brown alga Sargassum vulgare, epidermal cells exhibit prominent waviness. Initially, the small meristodermal cells exhibit straight anticlinal contour, which during their growth becomes wavy, in a pattern highly reminiscent of that found in land plants. Waviness is restricted close to the external periclinal wall, while at inner levels the anticlinal walls become thick and even. The mechanism behind this shape relies on cortical F-actin organization. Bundles of actin filaments are organized, extending under the external periclinal wall and connecting its junctions with the anticlinal walls, constituting an interconnected network. These bundles define the sites of local thickening deposition at the anticlinal/periclinal wall junctions. These thickenings are interconnected by cellulose microfibril extensions under the external periclinal wall. Apart from the wavy anticlinal contour, outward protrusions also arise on the external periclinal wall, thus the whole epidermis exhibits a quilted appearance. Apart from highlighting a new role for F-actin in cell shaping, the comparison of this morphogenetic mechanism to that of vascular plants reveals a case of evolutionary convergence among photosynthetic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Panteris
- Department of Botany, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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4
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van Spoordonk R, Schneider R, Sampathkumar A. Mechano-chemical regulation of complex cell shape formation: Epidermal pavement cells-A case study. QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 4:e5. [PMID: 37251797 PMCID: PMC10225270 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2023.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
All plant cells are encased by walls, which provide structural support and control their morphology. How plant cells regulate the deposition of the wall to generate complex shapes is a topic of ongoing research. Scientists have identified several model systems, the epidermal pavement cells of cotyledons and leaves being an ideal platform to study the formation of complex cell shapes. These cells indeed grow alternating protrusions and indentations resulting in jigsaw puzzle cell shapes. How and why these cells adopt such shapes has shown to be a challenging problem to solve, notably because it involves the integration of molecular and mechanical regulation together with cytoskeletal dynamics and cell wall modifications. In this review, we highlight some recent progress focusing on how these processes may be integrated at the cellular level along with recent quantitative morphometric approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - René Schneider
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Plant Physiology Department, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Arun Sampathkumar
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany
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5
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Brown MJM, Jordan GJ. No cell is an island: characterising the leaf epidermis using epidermalmorph, a new R package. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 237:354-366. [PMID: 36205061 PMCID: PMC10098627 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The leaf epidermis is the interface between a plant and its environment. The epidermis is highly variable in morphology, with links to both phylogeny and environment, and this diversity is relevant to several fields, including physiology, functional traits, palaeobotany, taxonomy and developmental biology. Describing and measuring leaf epidermal traits remains challenging. Current approaches are either extremely labour-intensive and not feasible for large studies or limited to measurements of individual cells. Here, we present a method to characterise individual cell size, shape (including the effect of neighbouring cells) and arrangement from light microscope images. We provide the first automated characterisation of cell arrangement (from traced images) as well as multiple new shape characteristics. We have implemented this method in an R package, epidermalmorph, and provide an example workflow using this package, which includes functions to evaluate trait reliability and optimal sampling effort for any given group of plants. We demonstrate that our new metrics of cell shape are independent of gross cell shape, unlike existing metrics. epidermalmorph provides a broadly applicable method for quantifying epidermal traits that we hope can be used to disentangle the fundamental relationships between form and function in the leaf epidermis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matilda J. M. Brown
- Biological SciencesUniversity of TasmaniaHobart7000Tas.Australia
- Royal Botanic Gardens KewRichmondTW9 3AEUK
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6
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Panteris E, Adamakis IDS. Double Puzzle: Morphogenesis of the Bi-Layered Leaf Adaxial Epidermis of Magnolia grandiflora. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3437. [PMID: 36559549 PMCID: PMC9785140 DOI: 10.3390/plants11243437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Anticlinal ordinary epidermal cell wall waviness is a widespread feature found in the leaves of a variety of land plant species. However, it has not yet been encountered in leaves with multiple epidermides. Surprisingly, in Magnolia grandiflora leaves, ordinary epidermal cells in both layers of the bi-layered adaxial epidermis exhibit wavy anticlinal contour. During the development of the above cells, cortical microtubules are organized in anticlinally oriented bundles under the anticlinal walls, and radial arrays extending from the bundles at the edges of anticlinal and external periclinal walls, under the external periclinal walls. This microtubule pattern is followed by cell wall reinforcement with local thickenings, the cellulose microfibrils of which are parallel to the underlying microtubules. This specialized microtubule organization and concomitant cell wall reinforcement is initiated in the external epidermal layer, while hypodermis follows. The waviness pattern of each epidermal layer is unrelated to that of the other. The above findings are discussed in terms of morphogenetic mechanism induction and any implications in the functional significance of ordinary epidermal cell waviness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Panteris
- Department of Botany, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
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7
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Dauphin BG, Ranocha P, Dunand C, Burlat V. Cell-wall microdomain remodeling controls crucial developmental processes. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 27:1033-1048. [PMID: 35710764 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2022.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls display cellular and subcellular specificities. At the subcellular level, wall regional territories with specific compositions are necessary for macroscopic developmental processes. These regional specificities were named differently throughout the years, and are unified here under the term 'cell-wall microdomains' that define the local composition and organization of wall polymers underlying territories of wall loosening and/or softening or stiffening. We review the occurrence and developmental role of wall microdomains in different cell types. We primarily focus on the contribution of two categories of wall-remodeling molecular actors: fine-tuning of homogalacturonan (HG; pectin) demethylesterification patterns and two classes of oxidoreductases [class III peroxidases (CIII PRXs) and laccases (LACs)], but we also highlight two different molecular scaffolds recently identified for positioning specific CIII PRXs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastien G Dauphin
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse 3, Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse, 24 chemin de Borde Rouge, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Philippe Ranocha
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse 3, Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse, 24 chemin de Borde Rouge, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Christophe Dunand
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse 3, Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse, 24 chemin de Borde Rouge, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Vincent Burlat
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse 3, Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse, 24 chemin de Borde Rouge, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France.
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8
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Zuch DT, Doyle SM, Majda M, Smith RS, Robert S, Torii KU. Cell biology of the leaf epidermis: Fate specification, morphogenesis, and coordination. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:209-227. [PMID: 34623438 PMCID: PMC8774078 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
As the outermost layer of plants, the epidermis serves as a critical interface between plants and the environment. During leaf development, the differentiation of specialized epidermal cell types, including stomatal guard cells, pavement cells, and trichomes, occurs simultaneously, each providing unique and pivotal functions for plant growth and survival. Decades of molecular-genetic and physiological studies have unraveled key players and hormone signaling specifying epidermal differentiation. However, most studies focus on only one cell type at a time, and how these distinct cell types coordinate as a unit is far from well-comprehended. Here we provide a review on the current knowledge of regulatory mechanisms underpinning the fate specification, differentiation, morphogenesis, and positioning of these specialized cell types. Emphasis is given to their shared developmental origins, fate flexibility, as well as cell cycle and hormonal controls. Furthermore, we discuss computational modeling approaches to integrate how mechanical properties of individual epidermal cell types and entire tissue/organ properties mutually influence each other. We hope to illuminate the underlying mechanisms coordinating the cell differentiation that ultimately generate a functional leaf epidermis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mateusz Majda
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Richard S Smith
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
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9
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Cosgrove DJ, Anderson CT. Plant Cell Growth: Do Pectins Drive Lobe Formation in Arabidopsis Pavement Cells? Curr Biol 2021; 30:R660-R662. [PMID: 32516619 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Pectins are conventionally thought to form a gel-like matrix between stress-bearing cellulose microfibrils in growing plant cell walls. A new study proposes a more active role in driving wall expansion. How does the proposal stack up against current evidence?
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA.
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
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10
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Antreich SJ, Xiao N, Huss JC, Gierlinger N. A belt for the cell: cellulosic wall thickenings and their role in morphogenesis of the 3D puzzle cells in walnut shells. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:4744-4756. [PMID: 33963747 PMCID: PMC8219037 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Walnut (Juglans regia) kernels are protected by a tough shell consisting of polylobate sclereids that interlock into a 3D puzzle. The shape transformations from isodiametric to lobed cells is well documented for 2D pavement cells, but not for 3D puzzle sclereids. Here, we study the morphogenesis of these cells by using a combination of different imaging techniques. Serial face-microtomy enabled us to reconstruct tissue growth of whole walnut fruits in 3D, and serial block face-scanning electron microscopy exposed cell shapes and their transformation in 3D during shell tissue development. In combination with Raman and fluorescence microscopy, we revealed multiple loops of cellulosic thickenings in cell walls, acting as stiff restrictions during cell growth and leading to the lobed cell shape. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the 3D shape transformation of polylobate sclereids and the role of pectin and cellulose within this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J Antreich
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nannan Xiao
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jessica C Huss
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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11
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Liu S, Jobert F, Rahneshan Z, Doyle SM, Robert S. Solving the Puzzle of Shape Regulation in Plant Epidermal Pavement Cells. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 72:525-550. [PMID: 34143651 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-080720-081920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The plant epidermis serves many essential functions, including interactions with the environment, protection, mechanical strength, and regulation of tissue and organ growth. To achieve these functions, specialized epidermal cells develop into particular shapes. These include the intriguing interdigitated jigsaw puzzle shape of cotyledon and leaf pavement cells seen in many species, the precise functions of which remain rather obscure. Although pavement cell shape regulation is complex and still a long way from being fully understood, the roles of the cell wall, mechanical stresses, cytoskeleton, cytoskeletal regulatory proteins, and phytohormones are becoming clearer. Here, we provide a review of this current knowledge of pavement cell morphogenesis, generated from a wealth of experimental evidence and assisted by computational modeling approaches. We also discuss the evolution and potential functions of pavement cell interdigitation. Throughout the review, we highlight some of the thought-provoking controversies and creative theories surrounding the formation of the curious puzzle shape of these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijia Liu
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - François Jobert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - Zahra Rahneshan
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - Siamsa M Doyle
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
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12
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Zhang L, McEvoy D, Le Y, Ambrose C. Live imaging of microtubule organization, cell expansion, and intercellular space formation in Arabidopsis leaf spongy mesophyll cells. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:623-641. [PMID: 33955495 PMCID: PMC8136880 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koaa036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Leaf spongy mesophyll cells form an interconnected network of branched cells and intercellular spaces to maximize the surface area available for light capture and photosynthetic gas exchange. To investigate the morphogenetic events leading to cell separation and branching in Arabidopsis thaliana, we used mesophyll-specific promoters to facilitate imaging of mesophyll cell shape and microtubule (MT) organization over multiple spatiotemporal scales without interference from the overlying epidermal cells. We show that cells enlarge by selective expansion of cell wall regions in contact with intercellular spaces. Cell-cell contacts remain relatively fixed in size, forming the termini of interconnecting branches. Surprisingly, classic schizogeny (de-adhesion of neighboring cells) is relatively infrequent, being related to the local topology of cell junctions during early expansion. Intercellular spaces cue the position of stable MT bundles, which in turn promote efficient dilation of intercellular spaces and cell branching. Our data provide insights into mesophyll morphogenesis and MT organization and lay the groundwork for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyong Zhang
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5E2, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Delanie McEvoy
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5E2, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Yen Le
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5E2, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Chris Ambrose
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5E2, Saskatchewan, Canada
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13
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Lin W, Yang Z. Unlocking the mechanisms behind the formation of interlocking pavement cells. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 57:142-154. [PMID: 33128897 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2020.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The leaf epidermal pavement cells with the puzzle-piece shape offer an attractive system for studying the mechanisms underpinning cell morphogenesis in a plant tissue. The formation of the interdigitated lobes and indentations in these interlocking cells relies on the integration of chemical and mechanical signals and cell-to-cell signals to establish interdigitated polar sites defining lobes and indentations. Recent computational and experimental studies have suggested new roles of cell walls, their interplay with mechanical signals, cell polarity signaling regulated by auxin and brassinosteriods, and the cytoskeleton in the regulation of pavement cell morphogenesis. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on these regulatory mechanisms behind pavement cell morphogenesis in plants and discusses how they could be integrated spatiotemporally to generate the interdigitated polarity patterns and the interlocking shape in pavement cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwei Lin
- Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, and Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Zhenbiao Yang
- Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, and Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA.
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14
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Bidhendi AJ, Altartouri B, Gosselin FP, Geitmann A. Mechanical Stress Initiates and Sustains the Morphogenesis of Wavy Leaf Epidermal Cells. Cell Rep 2020; 28:1237-1250.e6. [PMID: 31365867 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavement cells form wavy interlocking patterns in the leaf epidermis of many plants. We use computational mechanics to simulate the morphogenetic process based on microtubule organization and cell wall chemistry. Based on the in silico simulations and experimental evidence, we suggest that a multistep process underlies the morphogenesis of pavement cells. The in silico model predicts alternatingly located, feedback-augmented mechanical heterogeneity of the periclinal and anticlinal walls. It suggests that the emergence of waves is created by a stiffening of the emerging indented sides, an effect that matches cellulose and de-esterified pectin patterns in the cell wall. Further, conceptual evidence for mechanical buckling of the cell walls is provided, a mechanism that has the potential to initiate wavy patterns de novo and may precede chemical and geometrical symmetry breaking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir J Bidhendi
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec H9X 3V9, Canada; Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - Bara Altartouri
- Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - Frédérick P Gosselin
- Laboratoire de Mécanique Multi-échelles, Département de Génie Mécanique, Polytechnique Montréal, C.P. 6079, Succ. Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Anja Geitmann
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec H9X 3V9, Canada; Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H1X 2B2, Canada.
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15
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Seerangan K, van Spoordonk R, Sampathkumar A, Eng RC. Long-term live-cell imaging techniques for visualizing pavement cell morphogenesis. Methods Cell Biol 2020; 160:365-380. [PMID: 32896328 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent advancements in microscopy and biological technologies have allowed scientists to study dynamic plant developmental processes with high temporal and spatial resolution. Pavement cells, epidermal cells found on leaf tissue, form complex shapes with alternating regions of indentations and outgrowths that are postulated to be driven by the microtubule cytoskeleton. Given their complex shapes, pavement cells and the microtubule contribution towards morphogenesis have been of great interest in the field of developmental biology. Here, we focus on two live-cell imaging methods that allow for early and long-term imaging of the cotyledon (embryonic leaf-like tissue) and leaf epidermis with minimal invasiveness in order to study microtubules throughout pavement cell morphogenesis. The methods described in this chapter can be applied to studying other developmental processes associated with cotyledon and leaf tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumar Seerangan
- Plant Cell Biology & Microscopy, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Ruben van Spoordonk
- Plant Cell Biology & Microscopy, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Arun Sampathkumar
- Plant Cell Biology & Microscopy, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Ryan Christopher Eng
- Plant Cell Biology & Microscopy, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany.
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Haas KT, Wightman R, Meyerowitz EM, Peaucelle A. Pectin homogalacturonan nanofilament expansion drives morphogenesis in plant epidermal cells. Science 2020; 367:1003-1007. [PMID: 32108107 PMCID: PMC7932746 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaz5103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The process by which plant cells expand and gain shape has presented a challenge for researchers. Current models propose that these processes are driven by turgor pressure acting on the cell wall. Using nanoimaging, we show that the cell wall contains pectin nanofilaments that possess an intrinsic expansion capacity. Additionally, we use growth models containing such structures to show that a complex plant cell shape can derive from chemically induced local and polarized expansion of the pectin nanofilaments without turgor-driven growth. Thus, the plant cell wall, outside of the cell itself, is an active participant in shaping plant cells. Extracellular matrix function may similarly guide cell shape in other kingdoms, including Animalia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalina T Haas
- Medical Research Council Cancer Unit, University of Cambridge, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XZ, UK. .,Laboratoire Matière et Systèmes Complexes, Université Paris Diderot and CNRS UMR7057, 10 rue Alice Domon et Léonie Duquet, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Raymond Wightman
- Microscopy Core Facility, Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, 47 Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Elliot M Meyerowitz
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Alexis Peaucelle
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000 Versailles, France.
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Grones P, Raggi S, Robert S. FORCE-ing the shape. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 52:1-6. [PMID: 31234034 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a dynamic structure that mediates cell and organ morphogenesis and provides structural support to the whole plant body. The primary load bearing components of the cell wall are a cellulose-xyloglucan network embedded in a pectin matrix. Plant morphogenesis is regulated by a constant adjustment of the chemical structure and thus mechanical properties of the cell wall components. These modifications are modulated by a variety of different remodeling agents that precisely control cell wall mechanical properties. Here, we briefly review the major recent updates on cell wall mechanics during growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Grones
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sara Raggi
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden.
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18
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Exley C, Guerriero G, Lopez X. Silicic acid: The omniscient molecule. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 665:432-437. [PMID: 30772574 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We contend that silicic acid is a much under-valued molecule and specifically in the context of its role in establishing and maintaining life on Earth. Silicic acid can also be an ill-understood molecule with its chemistry all too often confused with that of either silicates or silica. Herein we (i) provide a working definition for silicic acid; (ii) identify its omnipresent role in biochemical evolution in excluding aluminium from biota and providing adventitious benefits through biological silicification and (iii) explain how the silicic acid cycle is intrinsic to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Exley
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, United Kingdom.
| | - Gea Guerriero
- Environmental Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg.
| | - Xabier Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain.
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19
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Vőfély RV, Gallagher J, Pisano GD, Bartlett M, Braybrook SA. Of puzzles and pavements: a quantitative exploration of leaf epidermal cell shape. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 221:540-552. [PMID: 30281798 PMCID: PMC6585845 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal cells of leaves are diverse: tabular pavement cells, trichomes, and stomatal complexes. Pavement cells from the monocot Zea mays (maize) and the eudicot Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) have highly undulate anticlinal walls. The molecular basis for generating these undulating margins has been extensively investigated in these species. This has led to two assumptions: first, that particular plant lineages are characterized by particular pavement cell shapes; and second, that undulatory cell shapes are common enough to be model shapes. To test these assumptions, we quantified pavement cell shape in epidermides from the leaves of 278 vascular plant taxa. We found that monocot pavement cells tended to have weakly undulating margins, fern cells had strongly undulating margins, and eudicot cells showed no particular undulation degree. Cells with highly undulating margins, like those of Arabidopsis and maize, were in the minority. We also found a trend towards more undulating cell margins on abaxial leaf surfaces; and that highly elongated leaves in ferns, monocots and gymnosperms tended to have highly elongated cells. Our results reveal the diversity of pavement cell shapes, and lays the quantitative groundwork for testing hypotheses about pavement cell form and function within a phylogenetic context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Róza V. Vőfély
- The Sainsbury LaboratoryUniversity of CambridgeBateman StreetCambridgeCB1 2LRUK
| | - Joseph Gallagher
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts611 North Pleasant StreetAmherstMA01003‐9297USA
| | - Grace D. Pisano
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts611 North Pleasant StreetAmherstMA01003‐9297USA
| | - Madelaine Bartlett
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts611 North Pleasant StreetAmherstMA01003‐9297USA
| | - Siobhan A. Braybrook
- The Sainsbury LaboratoryUniversity of CambridgeBateman StreetCambridgeCB1 2LRUK
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental BiologyUniversity of California at Los Angeles610 Charles E Young Dr. SouthLos AngelesCA90095USA
- Molecular Biology InstituteUniversity of California at Los Angeles611 Charles E. Young Drive EastLos AngelesCA90095‐1570USA
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20
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Eng RC, Sampathkumar A. Getting into shape: the mechanics behind plant morphogenesis. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 46:25-31. [PMID: 30036706 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The process of shape change in cells and tissues inevitably involves the modification of structural elements, therefore it is necessary to integrate mechanics with biochemistry to develop a full understanding of morphogenesis. Here, we discuss recent findings on the role of biomechanics and biochemical processes in plant cell growth and development. In particular, we focus on how the plant cytoskeleton components, which are known to regulate morphogenesis, are influenced by biomechanical stress. We also discuss new insights into the role that pectin plays in biomechanics and morphogenesis. Using the jigsaw-shaped pavement cells of the leaf as a case study, we review new findings on the biomechanics behind the morphogenesis of these intricately-shaped cell types. Finally, we summarize important quantitative techniques that has allowed for the testing and the generation of hypotheses that link biomechanics to morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Christopher Eng
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Arun Sampathkumar
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany.
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21
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Sapala A, Runions A, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Das Gupta M, Hong L, Hofhuis H, Verger S, Mosca G, Li CB, Hay A, Hamant O, Roeder AHK, Tsiantis M, Prusinkiewicz P, Smith RS. Why plants make puzzle cells, and how their shape emerges. eLife 2018; 7:e32794. [PMID: 29482719 PMCID: PMC5841943 DOI: 10.7554/elife.32794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The shape and function of plant cells are often highly interdependent. The puzzle-shaped cells that appear in the epidermis of many plants are a striking example of a complex cell shape, however their functional benefit has remained elusive. We propose that these intricate forms provide an effective strategy to reduce mechanical stress in the cell wall of the epidermis. When tissue-level growth is isotropic, we hypothesize that lobes emerge at the cellular level to prevent formation of large isodiametric cells that would bulge under the stress produced by turgor pressure. Data from various plant organs and species support the relationship between lobes and growth isotropy, which we test with mutants where growth direction is perturbed. Using simulation models we show that a mechanism actively regulating cellular stress plausibly reproduces the development of epidermal cell shape. Together, our results suggest that mechanical stress is a key driver of cell-shape morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Sapala
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - Adam Runions
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
- Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryCanada
| | | | - Mainak Das Gupta
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
- Department of Microbiology and Cell BiologyIndian Institute of ScienceBangaloreIndia
| | - Lilan Hong
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaUnited States
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Section of Plant BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaUnited States
| | - Hugo Hofhuis
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - Stéphane Verger
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des PlantesUniversité de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRSLyonFrance
| | - Gabriella Mosca
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - Chun-Biu Li
- Department of MathematicsStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
| | - Angela Hay
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - Olivier Hamant
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des PlantesUniversité de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCBL, INRA, CNRSLyonFrance
| | - Adrienne HK Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaUnited States
- School of Integrative Plant Science, Section of Plant BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaUnited States
| | - Miltos Tsiantis
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | | | - Richard S Smith
- Department of Comparative Development and GeneticsMax Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
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