Risk factors for suicide attempts among U.S. military veterans: A 7-year population-based, longitudinal cohort study

Measuring Whether Gratitude and Loneliness Mediate the Link Between Non-organizational Religiosity and Suicidal Ideation: Evidence From Black Adults During COVID-19

OBJECTIVES

Suicides among Black adults in the United States increased nationally during the COVID-19 pandemic, although limited empirical evidence documents the pathways that explain how suicide risk may develop in this population. We examined experiences of non-organizational religious involvement, gratitude, and loneliness and their relation to suicidal ideation among Black adults in the United States.

METHODS

We analyzed data from a probability-based sample of 995 Black adults in the United States who completed online surveys from April through June 2022. We recruited participants from the AmeriSpeak panel at the National Opinion Research Center. We applied structural equation modeling techniques to measure direct and indirect associations among religiosity, positive psychology, and mental health variables. We tested whether non-organizational religiosity was indirectly associated with suicidal ideation via feelings of gratitude and COVID-19-specific forms of loneliness during the pandemic.

RESULTS

The measurement model demonstrated a good fit to the data. Structural model results indicated that non-organizational religious involvement was positively related to gratitude (β = 0.51; P < .001); in turn, feelings of gratitude were associated with reduced suicidal ideation (β = -0.12; P = .02). Moreover, COVID-19-specific forms of loneliness were positively associated with past-year suicidal ideation (β = 0.11; P = .01). Non-organizational religious involvement, however, was not directly associated with feelings of COVID-19-related loneliness or suicidal ideation.

CONCLUSIONS

Public health officials should account for feelings of gratitude and loneliness as mechanisms that can be leveraged to inform the development of evidence-based suicide prevention interventions for Black adults during public health emergencies such as the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond.

Veterans at High Risk for Post-COVID-19 Suicide Attempts or Other Self-Directed Violence

Importance

US veterans have a higher risk of suicide than the general civilian population. Research suggests that COVID-19 infection is associated with increased risk of suicide attempts or other forms of self-directed violence (SDV) among veterans.

Objective

To identify subgroups of veterans with high risk of post-COVID-19 suicide attempts or SDV.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This is a retrospective cohort study conducted using data from the Veteran Health Administration (VHA). Participants included VHA enrollees with a first case of COVID-19 between May 1, 2021, and April 30, 2022, residing in the 50 states or Washington, DC.

Exposure

COVID-19 infection.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main outcome was a suicide attempt or SDV 12 months after COVID-19 infection. Latent class analysis was used to identify subgroups. Outcome rates and 95% CIs per 10 000 veterans were calculated. Multinomial regressions were used to model outcome risk and marginal risk ratios with 99.5% CIs to compare outcome risk across latent classes.

Results

The cohort included 285 235 veterans with COVID-19 and was predominantly male (248 118 veterans [87.0%]) and younger than 65 years (171 636 veterans [60.2%]). Chronic pain (152 788 veterans [53.6%]), depression (98 093 veterans [34.4%]), and posttraumatic stress disorder (79 462 veterans [27.9%]) diagnoses were common. The 12-month outcome rate was 73.8 events per 10 000 (95% CI, 70.7-77.0 events per 10 000). Two latent classes with high rates of suicide attempt or SDV were identified. The first high-risk subgroup (46 693 veterans [16.4%]) was older (34 472 veterans [73.8%] aged ≥65 years) and had a high prevalence of physical conditions (43 329 veterans [92.8%] had hypertension, and 36 824 veterans [78.9%] had chronic pain); the 12-month outcome rate was 103.7 events per 10 000 (95% CI, 94.7-113.3 events per 10 000). The second high-risk subgroup (82 309 veterans [28.9%]) was generally younger (68 822 veterans [83.6%] aged <65 years) with a lower prevalence of physical conditions but high prevalence of mental health conditions (61 367 veterans [74.6%] had depression, and 50 073 veterans [60.8%] had posttraumatic stress disorder); the 12-month outcome rate was 162.9 events per 10 000 (95% CI, 154.5-171.8 events per 10 000), and compared with the lowest risk subgroup, the 12-month risk of suicide attempts or SDV was 14 times higher in this subgroup (risk ratio, 14.23; 99.5% CI, 10.22-19.80).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of veterans with COVID-19, 2 veteran subgroups with distinct health profiles had high rates of suicide attempts and SDV, suggesting that different groups may require different approaches to suicide prevention after COVID-19.

Suicide Risk Evaluations and Suicide in the Veterans Health Administration

Importance

The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) implemented the Comprehensive Suicide Risk Evaluation (CSRE) in 2019 to standardize suicide risk assessment across the health care system. Identifying CSRE responses associated with suicide could inform risk management and prevent suicide.

Objective

To identify CSRE responses associated with subsequent suicide.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study examines acute (within 30 days) and chronic (within 365 days) suicide risk after 269 374 CSREs were administered. Participants included US VHA patients undergoing CSRE evaluation between November 1, 2019, and December 31, 2020. Data collection and analysis were performed from April 5 to August 20, 2024.

Exposures

CSRE responses, including suicidal ideation, behaviors, warning signs, risk factors, and protective factors.

Main Outcome and Measure

Suicide per death certificate data from the Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense Mortality Data Repository. Outcomes were analyzed using multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression.

Results

A total of 153 736 patients with 269 374 valid CSREs (86.26% male; mean [SD] age, 50.48 [15.26] years) were included in the multivariable-adjusted analyses of suicide. Suicidal ideation (hazard ratio [HR], 3.14; 95% CI, 1.51-6.54), firearm access (HR, 2.62; 95% CI, 1.49-4.61), making preparations for a suicide attempt (HR, 2.15; 95% CI, 1.27-3.62), seeking access to lethal means (HR, 2.04; 95% CI, 1.11-3.75), anxiety (HR, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.16-2.81), and psychiatric hospitalization history (HR, 1.63; 95% CI, 1.02-2.61) were associated with increased suicide risk within 30 days, whereas anger (HR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.30-0.85) was associated with decreased risk. Suicidal ideation (HR, 1.63; 95% CI, 1.20-2.21), firearm access (HR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.13-2.13), making preparations for a suicide attempt (HR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.09-2.23), reckless behaviors (HR, 1.40; 95% CI, 1.00-1.95), and history of psychiatric hospitalization (HR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.32-2.13) were associated with increased suicide risk within 365 days, whereas anger (HR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.44-0.71), preexisting risk factors (eg, trauma; HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.62-0.96), and recent transition from the military (HR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.22-0.70) were associated with decreased risk in multivariable-adjusted analyses. Suicide risk within 365 days was elevated among patients identified by clinicians to be at intermediate acute risk (HR, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.13-1.71), intermediate chronic risk (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.01-1.77), and high chronic risk (HR, 1.74; 95% CI, 1.22-2.47) of suicide compared with patients at low risk in multivariable-adjusted analyses.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of suicide following risk assessments, findings suggest that only a few constructs are associated with subsequent suicide, particularly suicidal ideation, firearm access, and preparatory behaviors. Developing risk prediction algorithms including CSRE responses may enhance clinical evaluation.

Entrapment in the military context: Factor structure and associations with suicidal thoughts and behaviors

BACKGROUND

Improved understanding of how US service members transition from chronic/baseline to acute suicide risk is warranted. One such model, the Integrated Motivational Volitional Model of Suicide, posits entrapment as central to this process. However, entrapment has not been extensively investigated within military populations.

METHODS

This study examines the factor structure, reliability, and predictive validity of the Entrapment Scale (E-Scale) within a military population. Exploratory structural equation modeling (SEM) and confirmatory factor analysis compared one- versus two-factor structures of the E-Scale. Autoregressive SEM assessed if E-Scale scores predicted suicidal ideation and suicide attempt likelihood at 6- and 12-month follow-up, and examined whether the impact of entrapment was moderated by social support (i.e., appraisal, tangible, and belonging).

RESULTS

Results favored a two-factor solution (external and internal) of entrapment. The relationship between entrapment and suicide outcomes was moderated by perceived social support but in unexpected directions. Unexpectedly, social support strengthened the relationship between external entrapment and suicide outcomes for most models. Only tangible support moderated the relationship between internal entrapment (IE) and suicide outcomes as predicted.

CONCLUSIONS

IE is linked with suicidal ideation in the short-term, whereas external entrapments relationship with suicide outcomes may reflect more persistent social challenges for military members.

How Veterans with Chronic Pain Approach Using Cannabis for Symptom Management: Results from a Qualitative Interpretive Description Study

Introduction: Veterans use cannabis as a chronic pain treatment due to a combination of the easing of restrictions and dissatisfaction with care standards. The segregation of medical cannabis from conventional health systems may translate to opportunities and disadvantages that are not well defined. Our study aimed to characterize how Veterans with chronic pain approach using cannabis for symptom management, including product access, developing a treatment plan, and its integration into daily life. Materials and Methods: We used an interpretive description design and conducted semi-structured interviews with U.S. Veterans in Michigan who had chronic pain; were aged 21 years or older; and (a) used cannabis, (b) were planning to use cannabis, or (c) interested in learning about how cannabis could help with pain. We analyzed deidentified interview transcripts to develop themes that focused on how Veterans approached new and continued use of cannabis for chronic pain management. Results: Participants were Veterans with chronic pain, median age = 50 years (n = 32). Participants described how factors at the individual, relationship, community, and societal levels influenced their interest in and use of cannabis for chronic pain. We identified five main themes: (1) cannabis supports holistic wellness, but there are also undesired effects; (2) medical cannabis requires a personalized treatment approach; (3) Veterans seek expanded access to medical cannabis and more assurance regarding product safety and efficacy; (4) sociopolitical attitudes and advocacy shape medical cannabis acceptability; and (5) the interest in research to inform treatment approaches and facilitate access. Discussion: This article illustrates how Veterans approached using cannabis for chronic pain management. Findings illuminate the potential value of cannabis for Veterans with chronic pain while also highlighting numerous obstacles and limitations related to its use. There are opportunities for health care providers to support Veterans who are interested in cannabis while research regarding efficacy and safety continues. Future efforts should engage Veterans to collectively work toward a better understanding of cannabis as a pain treatment option.

Identifying U.S. regions with the highest suicide rates and examining differences in suicide methods among Asian American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander Veterans

The suicide rate among Asian American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander (AANHPI) Veterans increased from 2001 to 2020. Identifying regions where suicide rates are elevated and increasing among AANHPI Veterans would inform targeted prevention efforts for members of this cohort. We conducted a population-based retrospective cohort study of 377,833 AANHPI Veterans to examine suicide rates and methods (2005-2019) by United States (US) region and over time (2005-2009, 2010-2014, 2015-2019), using US Veteran Eligibility Trends and Statistics and Joint DoD/VA Mortality Data Repository data. AANHPI Veterans across most regions experienced increases in suicide rates from the earliest to latest period; however, patterns differed by region. Age-adjusted suicide rates increased across all three periods among those in the Northeast and West, but increased, then declined in the Midwest and South. In 2015-2019, the age-adjusted suicide rate among AANHPI Veterans was highest in the Northeast (42.0 per 100,000) and lowest in the West (27.5). However, the highest percentages of AANHPI Veteran suicide deaths in 2005-2019 occurred in the West (39.5%) and South (34.7%), with lower percentages in the Midwest (15.0%) and Northeast (10.8%). Across regions, those ages 18-34 had the highest suicide rates. Firearms were the most frequently used suicide method across regions (44.4%-60.2%), except the Northeast (35.2%), where suffocation was more common (38.3%). Results suggest particular needs for suicide prevention efforts among AANHPI Veterans in the Northeast and to ensure that lethal means safety initiatives for AANHPI Veterans encompass both firearms and suffocation, with some variations in emphasis across regions.

Genetic liability to suicidal thoughts and behaviors and risk of suicide attempt in US military veterans: moderating effects of cumulative trauma burden

BACKGROUND

Little is known about environmental factors that may influence associations between genetic liability to suicidality and suicidal behavior.

METHODS

This study examined whether a suicidality polygenic risk score (PRS) derived from a large genome-wide association study (N = 122,935) was associated with suicide attempts in a population-based sample of European-American US military veterans (N = 1664; 92.5% male), and whether cumulative lifetime trauma exposure moderated this association.

RESULTS

Eighty-five veterans (weighted 6.3%) reported a history of suicide attempt. After adjusting for sociodemographic and psychiatric characteristics, suicidality PRS was associated with lifetime suicide attempt (odds ratio 2.65; 95% CI 1.37-5.11). A significant suicidality PRS-by-trauma exposure interaction emerged, such that veterans with higher levels of suicidality PRS and greater trauma burden had the highest probability of lifetime suicide attempt (16.6%), whereas the probability of attempts was substantially lower among those with high suicidality PRS and low trauma exposure (1.4%). The PRS-by-trauma interaction effect was enriched for genes implicated in cellular and developmental processes, and nervous system development, with variants annotated to the DAB2 and SPNS2 genes, which are implicated in inflammatory processes. Drug repurposing analyses revealed upregulation of suicide gene-sets in the context of medrysone, a drug targeting chronic inflammation, and clofibrate, a triacylglyceride level lowering agent.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that genetic liability to suicidality is associated with increased risk of suicide attempt among veterans, particularly in the presence of high levels of cumulative trauma exposure. Additional research is warranted to investigate whether incorporation of genomic information may improve suicide prediction models.

Factors associated with a lack of health care utilization among Veterans after a positive suicide screen in the emergency department

OBJECTIVES

Many Veterans at high risk for suicide are identified in Veterans Health Administration (VHA) emergency departments (ED). Little is known about what may predict care utilization in this population. To address this knowledge gap, we explored factors associated with Veterans' lack of VHA care utilization following a positive suicide risk screen in the ED.

METHODS

In a retrospective observational study, we identified all patients who were seen in a VHA ED from October 1, 2019, to September 30, 2020. We examined factors associated with not utilizing VHA mental health (MH) and all VHA care in the 6 months following a positive suicide ED screen. Predictors included comorbidity, homelessness, and MH visit and diagnosis history.

RESULTS

We identified 23,446 Veterans with a positive suicide risk screen in the ED in fiscal year 2020. Overall, 4.1% had no VHA MH visits 6 months postscreen. The probability of not utilizing MH care was significantly higher for Veterans with no comorbidity (4.7% vs. 3.4% for mild comorbidity), no MH diagnosis (10.5% vs 2.8%), no past-year MH visits (13.6% vs 2.3%), and no past-year homelessness (5.4% vs. 1.1%). A smaller proportion of the population did not receive any VHA care 6 months postscreen (0.5%). Veterans who did not experience homelessness (0.6% vs 0.2%), had no MH diagnosis (1.6% vs. 0.3%), and had no previous MH visits (1.9% vs 0.2%) were significantly more likely to not utilize VHA care.

CONCLUSIONS

Veterans who do not utilize VHA care after a positive suicide risk screen appear to have fewer documented health and housing concerns than those who do receive care. Yet, Veterans with a positive suicide risk screen who are otherwise healthy may remain at elevated risk for suicide following their ED visit. ED providers may consider enhanced follow-up care to mitigate suicide risk for these Veterans.

Mental Health in the Time of Coronavirus Disease 2019

Certain life experiences can have a profound effect on human emotions. During the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, patients are reporting mood disturbances at much higher levels. Multiple encounters with real and imagined threat, prolonged isolation, and loss of control have adversely impacted the country’s behavioral health. However, most people will not pursue psychological care when needed, and some who pursue it will be unable to access it. Nurse practitioners and other health care professionals are in an optimal position to help. Psychological research explains some of what is driving this phenomenon and offers suggestions of benefit to patients, families, and colleagues.