The first report of animal genotypes of Cryptosporidium parvum in immunosuppressed and immunocompetent humans in Slovakia

Molecular identification and subtyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in laboratory mice and rats

Cryptosporidium species can infect humans and more than 260 animal species, including 54 rodent species. However, data on the occurrence and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in laboratory rodents are limited. The present study aimed to determine the occurrence rate and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in laboratory mice and rats. We collected 506 fresh combined fecal pellet specimens (457 from mice and 49 from rats) of more than 2,000 laboratory rodents in Heilongjiang Province and Shanghai City, China. Cryptosporidium spp. were identified and subtyped by DNA sequencing of the SSU rRNA and the gp60 genes, respectively. By sequence analysis of the SSU rRNA gene, the occurrence rate of Cryptosporidium spp. was 16.6% (84/506) in combined fecal specimens, with 18.2% (83/457) for mice and 2.0% (1/49) for rats. Cryptosporidium parvum (n = 39), C. tyzzeri (n = 33), and C. parvum + C. tyzzeri (n = 11) were identified in mice. Cryptosporidium parvum was only detected in one rat fecal specimen. At the gp60 locus, 71.4% (60/84) of the Cryptosporidium-positive specimens were successfully amplified, and they all came from mice. We identified five C. parvum subtypes (IIaA14G2R1, IIaA16G2R1, IIaA17G1R1, IIaA17G2R1, and IIaA18G2R1) and two C. tyzzeri subtypes (IXaA6R1 and IXbA8). Based on the identification in laboratory mice of C. parvum subtypes that have been reported previously in humans, the mice infected with this species may threaten human health, especially for people who have contact with the animals and their feces.

Cryptosporidium Infections in Neonatal Calves on a Dairy Farm

This study was conducted with the aim of the molecular identification of the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium spp. in calves in the early stage of their development on a dairy farm in Eastern Slovakia. Twenty-five Holstein and Holstein cross calves were included in the study and monitored from their birth to the fifth week of life (1-5 weeks). Fresh fecal samples were collected from the same group of calves each week, except during the fourth week, and with the exception of Sample 8. All samples were analyzed using the Ziehl-Neelsen staining method and coproantigen was tested using the ELISA test as the screening method. Using the ELISA method, the highest incidence of cryptosporidiosis was observed in the second week of life of the calves, while the antigen was detected in 21 (91.6%) calves. Using the Ziehl-Neelsen staining method, the highest incidence was also observed in the second week, with an incidence rate of 62.5%. Positive isolates confirmed by the ELISA test were molecularly characterized. The species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium in the positive isolates were identified using PCR and the sequence analysis of the small subunit of the ribosomal 18S RNA (ssu rRNA) and the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) genes of the parasite. The sequence analysis of 29 isolates at the 18S rRNA loci confirmed the presence of two species-Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium ryanae. Out of 29 isolates, 25 were assigned to the species C. parvum, with the gp60 locus identified as genotype IIaA17G1R1. Among the individual animal groups, calves are the most common reservoirs of the C. parvum zoonotic species. This disease has significant public health implications as contact with livestock and their feces and working with barn manure are major sources of infection, not only for other animals but also for humans.

Molecular identification and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients in Shanghai, China

BACKGROUND

Opportunistic infections are a ubiquitous complication in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients. Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are common opportunistic intestinal pathogens in humans. In China, despite the number of HIV/AIDS patients being extremely large, only a few studies have investigated opportunistic infections caused by intestinal pathogens in this patient population. The aims of this study were to elucidate the occurrence and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi in HIV/AIDS patients.

METHODS

We collected fecal specimens from 155 HIV/AIDS patients (one from each patient). All of the specimens were examined for the presence of the pathogens by genotyping using polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene for Cryptosporidium spp.; the triosephosphate isomerase, β-giardin and glutamate dehydrogenase genes for G. duodenalis; and the internal transcribed spacer region of the rRNA gene for E. bieneusi. The Cryptosporidium-positive specimens were further subtyped by polymerase chain reacion and sequencing of the 60-kDa glycoprotein gene.

RESULTS

Six (3.9%), three (1.9%), and eight (5.2%) HIV/AIDS patients were positive for Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi, respectively. No statistical differences were observed in occurrence rate between the groups by gender, clinical symptom (diarrhea), and CD4⁺ cell count. Four Cryptosporidium species were identified: Cryptosporidium hominis (n = 2), Cryptosporidium parvum (n = 1), Cryptosporidium meleagridis (n = 1), and Cryptosporidium andersoni (n = 2). Furthermore, two C. hominis subtypes (IeA12G3T3 and IaA28R4) were detected. Three G. duodenalis-positive specimens were successfully amplified and sequenced at the triosephosphate isomerase and β-giardin loci, which led to the identification of assemblages C and B, respectively. Seven genotypes (D, Type IV, EbpC, Peru11, EbpD, A, and I) were identified in E. bieneusi-positive specimens.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings should increase awareness of AIDS-related opportunistic intestinal pathogens, and indicate the need for routine examination in clinical practice for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, and E. bieneusi. Homology analyses of the three intestinal pathogens at the nucleotide and/or amino acid levels indicated their zoonotic potential.

Detection of unusual Cryptosporidium parvum subtype in patients with gastrointestinal cancer in Egypt

While the importance of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised persons is well known, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in cancer patients is not clear. The current study was designed to assess the occurrence and genetic characteristics of Cryptosporidium spp. in patients with gastrointestinal (GI) cancer in Egypt. Stool samples were collected from 100 patients with GI malignancies and 20 healthy individuals without any GI manifestations (control group). They were screened by microscopy and the immunochromatographic RIDA®QUICK Cryptosporidium kit. Subtyping of Cryptosporidium spp. was conducted by sequence analysis of the glycoprotein 60 (gp60) locus. Sociodemographic, environmental data and information on GI symptoms, cancer types, and clinical treatment were obtained via a questionnaire. By microscopy and RIDA®QUICK, only 7% (7/100) of GI cancer patients were positive for Cryptosporidium, compared with 40% (40/100) by gp60 nPCR. No positives were obtained from the control group. Male sex (P = 0.02) and younger age (P = 0.004) were major Cryptosporidium risk factors for infection. The occurrence of Cryptosporidium was also significantly more frequent (P = 0.003) in watery stool samples. Sequence analysis of the gp60 amplicons (~ 400 bp) identified a novel C. parvum subtype with nine TCA repeats and eleven ACATCA repeats. A formal subtype designation could not be made due to the short sequence length. More studies should be conducted to verify the common occurrence of this unusual C. parvum subtype and establish its genetic identity.

Distribution of Cryptosporidium parvum subgenotypes in pre-weaned calves in Germany

Cryptosporidium parvum is a main cause of severe diarrhea in young calves leading to economic loss and animal suffering. Little is known about the epidemiology of the genetic subtypes that may differ in their infectiousness and zoonotic potential. The present study analyzes the distribution of Glycoprotein 60 (GP60) variants in C. parvum positive samples obtained from young calves in Germany where individual fecal samples of 441 pre-weaned calves collected from 98 German dairy herds were evaluated for cryptosporidiosis (Göhring et al., 2014). DNA was extracted for Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis from 268 samples that were positive for Cryptosporidium by coproantigen EIA originating from 91 farms confirming C. parvum as the only species occurring. GP60 subtype analysis revealed 12C. parvum subtypes, all belonging to the zoonotic allele family IIa. The most widespread subtype was IIaA15G2R1 (71.4%). Other subtypes occurred sporadically: IIaA16G2R1, IIaA16G3R1 and IIaA17G2R1 (6.2%), IIaA13G1R2 (3.5%), IIaA14G1R1 (3.1%), IIaA14G2R1 (1.3%), IIaA17G1R1 (0.9%) and IIaA13G2R1, IIaA16G1R2, IIaA17G1R2 and IIaA24G1R1 (0.4%). Altogether a high diversity of subgenotypes was found with IIaA15G2R1 clearly dominating irrespective of geographic region. All subgenotypes are considered zoonotic underscoring that pre-weaned calves are likely to be a reservoir for zoonotic C. parvum and thus may be a risk for animal-to-human transmission.

High Occurrence of Zoonotic Subtypes of Cryptosporidiumparvum in Cypriot Dairy Farms

Cryptosporidium parvum is one of the major causes of neonatal calf diarrhoea resulting in reduced farm productivity and compromised animal welfare worldwide. Livestock act as a major reservoir of this parasite, which can be transmitted to humans directly and/or indirectly, posing a public health risk. Research reports on the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in ruminants from east Mediterranean countries, including Cyprus, are limited. This study is the first to explore the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in cattle up to 24 months old on the island of Cyprus. A total of 242 faecal samples were collected from 10 dairy cattle farms in Cyprus, all of which were screened for Cryptosporidium spp. using nested-PCR amplification targeting the small subunit of the ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA) gene. The 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene was also sequenced for the samples identified as Cryptosporidium parvum-positive to determine the subtypes present. The occurrence of Cryptosporidium was 43.8% (106/242) with at least one positive isolate in each farm sampled. Cryptosporidium bovis, Cryptosporidium ryanae and C. parvum were the only species identified, while the prevalence per farm ranged from 20–64%. Amongst these, the latter was the predominant species, representing 51.8% of all positive samples, followed by C. bovis (21.7%) and C. ryanae (31.1%). Five C. parvum subtypes were identified, four of which are zoonotic—IIaA14G1R1, IIaA15G1R1, IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA18G2R1. IIaA14G1R1 was the most abundant, representing 48.2% of all C. parvum positive samples, and was also the most widespread. This is the first report of zoonotic subtypes of C. parvum circulating in Cyprus. These results highlight the need for further research into the parasite focusing on its diversity, prevalence, host range and transmission dynamics on the island.

Cross-Border Investigations on the Prevalence and Transmission Dynamics of Cryptosporidium Species in Dairy Cattle Farms in Western Mainland Europe

Cryptosporidium is an apicomplexan parasitic protist, which infects a wide range of hosts, causing cryptosporidiosis disease. In farms, the incidence of this disease is high in animals such as cows, leading to extensive economic loss in the livestock industry. Infected cows may also act as a major reservoir of Cryptosporidium spp., in particular C. parvum, the most common cause of cryptosporidiosis in these animals. This poses a risk to the trading of livestock, to other farms via breeding centres, and to human health. This study is a part of a global project aimed at strategies to tackle cryptosporidiosis. To reach this target, it was essential to determine whether prevalence was dependent on the studied countries or if the issue was borderless. Indeed, C. parvum occurrence was assessed across dairy farms in certain regions of Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. At the same time, the animal-to-animal transmission of the circulating C. parvum subtypes was studied. To accomplish this, we analysed 1084 faecal samples, corresponding to 57 dairy farms from all three countries. To this end, 18S rRNA and gp60 genes fragments were amplified, followed by DNA sequencing, which was subsequently used for detection and subtyping C. parvum. Bioinformatic and phylogenetic methods were integrated to analyse and characterise the obtained DNA sequences. Our results show 25.7%, 24.9% and 20.8% prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands respectively. Overall, 93% of the farms were Cryptosporidium positive. The gp60 subtyping demonstrated a significant number of the C. parvum positives belonged to the IIa allelic family, which has been also identified in humans. Therefore, this study highlights how prevalent C. parvum is in dairy farms and further suggests cattle as a possible carrier of zoonotic C. parvum subtypes, which could pose a threat to human health.

Occurrence of cryptosporidium parvum IIaA17G1R1 in hospitalized hemato-oncological patients in Slovakia

This study aimed to determine the presence of cryptosporidiosis in immunosuppressed patients hospitalized at the Clinic of Haematology and Oncohaematology in a form of routine screening. Samples were collected from November 2019 to February 2020, when the first wave of the Coronavirus pandemic occurred in Slovakia. A total of 36 samples were collected from patients hospitalized at the Clinic of Haematology and Oncohaematology, both from the open ward and the intensive care unit. For the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis, a nested PCR targeting the gp60 gene and the SSU rRNA locus was used. From the 36 samples, Cryptosporidium parvum subtype IIaA17G1R1 was diagnosed in 9 patients (7 from the open ward and 2 from the intensive care unit), all hospitalized at the clinic at the same time, in February 2020. The occurrence of the same species and subtype, Cryptosporidium parvum IIaA17G1R1, in 9 patients hospitalized at the same time, both at the open ward and the intensive care unit may suggest a possible transmission occurred at the clinic.

Molecular detection of genotypes and subtypes of Cryptosporidium infection in diarrheic calves, lambs, and goat kids from Turkey

The studies on Cryptosporidium infections of animals in Turkey mostly rely on microscopic observation. Few data are available regarding the prevalence of Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes infection. The aim of this study is to analyse the detection of Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes from young ruminants. A total of 415 diarrheic fecal specimens from young ruminants were examined for the Cryptosporidium detection by use of nested PCR of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene and the highly polymorphic 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene followed by sequence analyses. The results of this study revealed that 25.6% (106 of 415) of the specimens were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. infection. We identified 27.4% (91/333), 19.4% (13/67), and 13.4% (2/15) of positivity in calves, lambs and goat kids, respectively. Genotyping of the SSU rRNA indicated that almost all positive specimens were of C. parvum, except for one calf which was of C. bovis. Sequence analysis of the gp60 gene revealed the most common zoonotic subtypes (IIa and IId) of C. parvum. We detected 11 subtypes (IIaA11G2R1, IIaA11G3R1, IIaA12G3R1, IIaA13G2R1, IIaA13G4R1, IIaA14G1R1, IIaA14G3R1, IIaA15G2R1, IIdA16G1, IIdA18G1, IIdA22G1); three of them (IIaA12G3R1, IIaA11G3R1 and IIaA13G4R1) was novel subtypes found in calves and lambs. Additionally, three subtypes (IIaA11G2R1, IIaA14G3R1, and IIdA16G1) were detected in young ruminants for the first time in Turkey. These results indicate the high infection of Cryptosporidium in Turkey and propose that young ruminants are likely a major reservoir of C. parvum and a potential source of zoonotic transmission.

Prevalence and genotyping of bovine Cryptosporidium species in the Mediterranean and Central Anatolia Region of Turkey

The prevalence of Cryptosporidium species in calves and heifers with relation to diarrhea from several herds was investigated in this study. Fecal samples were collected from 135 and 120 pre-weaned calves and 79 and 130 heifers raised in the Central Anatolia (CAR) and Mediterranean Regions (MR) of Turkey, respectively. A total of 86 post-weaned calves in CAR were also included in the study. For diagnostic comparison, all samples were examined by microscopic examination, SSU rRNA nested PCR and TaqMan real-time PCR for the presence of oocyst and Cryptosporidium DNA. In total, 102 (34.0 %) and 93 (37.2 %) of the examined samples from CAR and MR were found positive for Cryptosporidium DNA with both nested PCR and real-time PCR analyses, respectively with an overall prevalence of 35.5 %. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of microscopic examination were determined as 68.7 % and 100.0 % compared to molecular tools, respectively. RFLP and sequence analyses of the SSU rRNA from the PCR products revealed that 138 (70.8 %) out of 195 positive isolates were C. parvum further confirming the species-specific real-time PCR results. Among the remaining 57 (29.2 %) positive isolates, 30 (15.4 %) and 27 (13.8 %) were characterized as C. ryanae and C. bovis, respectively. C. parvum was the dominant species in pre-weaned calves especially with diarrhea while C. bovis and C. ryanae were mostly found in post-weaned calves and heifers. The sequence analyses of the gp60 gene of C. parvum isolates revealed two subtypes (IIaA13G2R1, IIaA14G1R1) belonging to zoonotic family IIa, with IIaA13G2R1 being the most common in diarrheic calves.

Cryptosporidium spp., prevalence, molecular characterisation and socio-demographic risk factors among immigrants in Qatar

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization WHO has estimated that in developed countries, up to 30% of the population may suffer from foodborne diseases each year, and that in developing countries up to 2 million deaths per annum can be attributed to cryptosporidiosis. Reports have already emphasized the role of immigrants in outbreaks of parasitic diseases especially those working in food processing industries.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Herein we assessed Cryptosporidium spp. infections among immigrants in Qatar with a special focus on food handlers and housemaids. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. by q-PCR among 839 asymptomatic subjects was 4.5%. Based on the Gp60 gene, the majority of isolates were identified as C. parvum subtype IIdA20G1b. The positive sample for C. hominis was subtyped as IeA12G3T3. Seven mixed infections were also identified (four C. parvum + C. hominis, and three C. parvum + C. meleagridis). The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. did not differ significantly between the sexes or age classes but varied significantly between subjects affiliated to different religions with the lowest prevalence among the Muslims. Multifactorial analysis retained also marked significance with education, income, and a house contents index.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our results contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis and the risk factors associated with the likelihood of carrying this infection among immigrant workers from developing countries.

An apple a day: an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Norway associated with self-pressed apple juice

In the autumn of 2018, an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis affected adult employees from the same company in Western Norway. The organism was Cryptosporidium parvum, GP60 subtype IIaA14G1R1. All those infected had drunk from the same container of self-pressed apple juice. Incubation period (1 week) and clinical signs were similar among those infected, although some experienced a more prolonged duration of symptoms (up to 2-3 weeks) than others. The infections resulted after consumption from only one of 40 containers of juice and not from any of the other containers. It seems that although Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in a sample from another container, the contamination did not affect the whole batch. This is perhaps indicative of a restricted contamination event, either from contaminated ground in the orchard, or during collection of the fruit, or during processing. Although outbreaks of food-borne cryptosporidiosis have previously been associated with consumption of contaminated apple juice, most of the more recent outbreaks of food-borne cryptosporidiosis have been associated with salad vegetables or herbs. This outbreak, the first outside USA reported to be associated with apple juice, is a timely reminder that such juice is a suitable transmission vehicle for Cryptosporidium oocysts, and that appropriate hygienic measures are essential in the production of such juice, including artisanal (non-commercial) production.