1
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Moreno J, Escobedo D, Calhoun C, Le Saux CJ, Han HC. Arterial Wall Stiffening in Caveolin-1 Deficiency-Induced Pulmonary Artery Hypertension in Mice. EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS 2021; 6:217-228. [PMID: 33776068 PMCID: PMC7993546 DOI: 10.1007/s11340-020-00666-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) is a complex disorder that can lead to right heart failure. The generation of caveolin-1 deficient mice (CAV-1-/-) has provided an alternative genetic model to study the mechanisms of pulmonary hypertension. However, the vascular adaptations in these mice have not been characterized. OBJECTIVE To determine the histological and functional changes in the pulmonary and carotid arteries in CAV-1-/- induced PAH. METHODS Pulmonary and carotid arteries of young (4-6 months old) and mature (9-12 months old) CAV-1-/- mice were tested and compared to normal wild type mice. RESULTS Artery stiffness increases in CAV-1-/- mice, especially the circumferential stiffness of the pulmonary arteries. Increases in stiffness were quantified by a decrease in circumferential stretch and transition strain, increases in elastic moduli, and an increase in total strain energy at physiologic strains. Changes in mechanical properties for the pulmonary artery correlated with increased collagen content while carotid artery mechanical properties correlated with decreased elastin content. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrated that an increase in artery stiffness is associated with CAV-1 deficiency-induced pulmonary hypertension. These results improve our understanding of artery remodeling in PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Moreno
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio
- Biomedical Engineering Program, UTSA-UTHSCSA
| | - D. Escobedo
- Department of Medicine/Cardiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
| | - C. Calhoun
- Department of Medicine/Cardiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
| | - C. Jourdan Le Saux
- Department of Medicine/Cardiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
| | - H. C. Han
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio
- Biomedical Engineering Program, UTSA-UTHSCSA
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2
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Hebbar UU, Banerjee RK. Influence of coupled hemodynamics-arterial wall interaction on compliance in a realistic pulmonary artery with variable intravascular wall properties. Med Image Anal 2019; 57:56-71. [PMID: 31279216 DOI: 10.1016/j.media.2019.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension is characterized by elevation of pulmonary artery (PA) pressure (p) and structural remodeling of the PA wall, leading to reduction in arterial compliance (c). As a step towards improving diagnosis of pulmonary disease, we use the PA branch geometry (main pulmonary artery (MPA) branching into left (LPA) and right (RPA) pulmonary arteries) obtained from MRI in conjunction with an inverse algorithm to obtain the pre-stress level in the artery walls. Next, a coupled blood-wall interaction (BWI) calculation provides hemodynamic information as well as compliance of the PA walls. We show that the computed load-free geometry from the inverse algorithm exhibits a 27.8% lower inner diameter (d) and 18.5% lower outer d compared to the in vivo geometry from MRI. Further, the mean p computed from the BWI computation in the main PA (pMPA-n) is within 4% of the mean pMPA-e (n-numerical; e-experimental). Also, the mean Q computed in the left PA (QLPA-n) is within 10% of the mean QLPA-e. Finally, the compliance cMPA-n is computed to be 27% lower than cMPA-e, while the cLPA-n is computed to be 20.4% lower than cLPA-e. Importantly, the PA shows significant intra-vascular variation in compliance, with the MPA showing higher overall compliance compared to the LPA (3.5-4 times).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ullhas U Hebbar
- 593 Rhodes Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, OH, 45221, United States
| | - Rupak K Banerjee
- 593 Rhodes Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, OH, 45221, United States.
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3
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B Ramachandra A, Humphrey JD. Biomechanical characterization of murine pulmonary arteries. J Biomech 2019; 84:18-26. [PMID: 30598195 PMCID: PMC6361676 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 11/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The biomechanical properties of the major pulmonary arteries play critical roles in normal physiology as well as in diverse pathophysiologies and clinical interventions. Importantly, advances in medical imaging enable simulations of pulmonary hemodynamics, but such models cannot reach their full potential until they are informed with region-specific material properties. In this paper, we present passive and active biaxial biomechanical data for the right and left main pulmonary arteries from wild-type mice. We also evaluate the suitability of a four-fiber family constitutive model as a descriptor of the passive behavior. Despite regional differences in size, the biaxial mechanical properties, including passive stiffness and elastic energy storage, the biaxial wall stresses at in vivo pressures, and the overall contractile capacity in response to smooth muscle cell stimulation under in vivo conditions are remarkably similar between the right and left branches. The proposed methods and results can serve as baseline protocols and measurements for future biaxial experiments on murine models of pulmonary pathologies, and the constitutive model can inform computational models of normal pulmonary growth and remodeling. Our use of consistent experimental protocols and data analyses can also facilitate comparative studies in health and disease across the systemic and pulmonary circulations as well as studies seeking to understand remodeling in surgeries such as the Fontan procedure, which involves different types of vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhay B Ramachandra
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Jay D Humphrey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.
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4
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Pursell ER, Vélez-Rendón D, Valdez-Jasso D. Biaxial Properties of the Left and Right Pulmonary Arteries in a Monocrotaline Rat Animal Model of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. J Biomech Eng 2016; 138:2565260. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4034826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In a monocrotaline (MCT) induced-pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) rat animal model, the dynamic stress–strain relation was investigated in the circumferential and axial directions using a linear elastic response model within the quasi-linear viscoelasticity theory framework. Right and left pulmonary arterial segments (RPA and LPA) were mechanically tested in a tubular biaxial device at the early stage (1 week post-MCT treatment) and at the advanced stage of the disease (4 weeks post-MCT treatment). The vessels were tested circumferentially at the in vivo axial length with matching in vivo measured pressure ranges. Subsequently, the vessels were tested axially at the mean pulmonary arterial pressure by stretching them from in vivo plus 5% of their length. Parameter estimation showed that the LPA and RPA remodel at different rates: axially, both vessels decreased in Young's modulus at the early stage of the disease, and increased at the advanced disease stage. Circumferentially, the Young's modulus increased in advanced PAH, but it was only significant in the RPA. The damping properties also changed in PAH; in the LPA relaxation times decreased continuously as the disease progressed, while in the RPA they initially increased and then decreased. Our modeling efforts were corroborated by the restructuring organization of the fibers imaged under multiphoton microscopy, where the collagen fibers become strongly aligned to the 45 deg angle in the RPA from an uncrimped and randomly organized state. Additionally, collagen content increased almost 10% in the RPA from the placebo to advanced PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica R. Pursell
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Daniela Vélez-Rendón
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Daniela Valdez-Jasso
- Assistant Professor Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 851 S Morgan Street, SEO 208, Chicago, IL 60607 e-mail:
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5
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Abstract
During the progression of pulmonary hypertension (PH), proximal pulmonary arteries (PAs) undergo remodeling such that they become thicker and the elastic modulus increases. Both of these changes increase the vascular stiffness. The increase in pulmonary vascular stiffness contributes to increased right ventricular (RV) afterload, which causes RV hypertrophy and eventually failure. Studies have found that proximal PA stiffness or its inverse, compliance, is strongly related to morbidity and mortality in patients with PH. Therefore, accurate in vivo measurement of PA stiffness is useful for prognoses in patients with PH. It is also important to understand the structural changes in PAs that occur with PH that are responsible for stiffening. Here, we briefly review the most common parameters used to quantify stiffness and in vivo and in vitro methods for measuring PA stiffness in human and animal models. For in vivo approaches, we review invasive and noninvasive approaches that are based on measurements of pressure and inner or outer diameter or cross-sectional area. For in vitro techniques, we review several different testing methods that mimic one, two or several aspects of physiological loading (e.g., uniaxial and biaxial testing, dynamic inflation-force testing). Many in vivo and in vitro measurement methods exist in the literature, and it is important to carefully choose an appropriate method to measure PA stiffness accurately. Therefore, advantages and disadvantages of each approach are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Tian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Naomi C. Chesler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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6
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Fitzpatrick JC, Clark PM, Capaldi FM. Effect of decellularization protocol on the mechanical behavior of porcine descending aorta. Int J Biomater 2010; 2010:620503. [PMID: 20689621 PMCID: PMC2910464 DOI: 10.1155/2010/620503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymatic-detergent decellularization treatments may use a combination of chemical reagents to reduce vascular tissue to sterilized scaffolds, which may be seeded with endothelial cells and implanted with a low risk of rejection. However, these chemicals may alter the mechanical properties of the native tissue and contribute to graft compliance mismatch. Uniaxial tensile data obtained from native and decellularized longitudinal aortic tissue samples was analyzed in terms of engineering stress and fit to a modified form of the Yeoh rubber model. One decellularization protocol used SDS, while the other two used TritonX-100, RNase-A, and DNase-I in combination with EDTA or sodium-deoxycholate. Statistical significance of Yeoh model parameters was determined by paired t-test analysis. The TritonX-100/EDTA and 0.075% SDS treatments resulted in relatively variable mechanical changes and did not effectively lyse VSMCs in aortic tissue. The TritonX-100/sodium-deoxycholate treatment effectively lysed VSMCs and was characterized by less variability in mechanical behavior. The data suggests a TritonX-100/sodium-deoxycholate treatment is a more effective option than TritonX-100/EDTA and SDS treatments for the preparation of aortic xenografts and allografts because it effectively lyses VSMCs and is the least likely treatment, among those considered, to promote a decrease in mechanical compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C. Fitzpatrick
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Drexel University, 115 Randell Hall, 3141 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Peter M. Clark
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Franco M. Capaldi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Drexel University, 115 Randell Hall, 3141 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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7
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An experimental and theoretical study on the anisotropy of elastin network. Ann Biomed Eng 2009; 37:1572-83. [PMID: 19484387 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-009-9724-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2008] [Accepted: 05/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The mechanical properties of elastin network from bovine thoracic aorta under biaxial tensile loading were studied both experimentally and theoretically. Histology and scanning electron microscopy were performed to verify the removal of cells, collagen, and other extracellular matrix components. Equi- and nonequi-biaxial tests were performed to study the effect of different loading conditions on the stress-strain responses of the elastin network. The mechanical properties of different elastin sections along the thoracic aorta were examined and studied to understand the anisotropy of elastin along the whole artery. Biaxial tensile test data comparing elastin vs. intact aorta showed that elastin is mainly responsible for the linear elastic response of the arterial wall at lower strains. Experimental results revealed that elastin network possesses significant anisotropic mechanical properties with the circumferential direction being stiffer than the longitudinal direction. The mechanical properties of elastin vary significantly along the thoracic aorta, with the thin section appearing to have the highest tangent modulus. Biological assay results indicate that elastin content is about the same along the thoracic aorta. The mechanical behavior of elastin network was well captured by the eight-chain statistical mechanics based microstructural model. Material parameters obtained from the equi-biaxial test were able to predict the stress-strain responses of elastin network under arbitrary nonequi-biaxial loading conditions. Also, by varying material parameters in the model, the changes in microstructure such as elastin fiber orientation and cross-linking density on the macroscopic mechanical properties of elastin network were discussed.
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8
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Garcia M, Kassab GS. Right coronary artery becomes stiffer with increase in elastin and collagen in right ventricular hypertrophy. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009; 106:1338-46. [PMID: 19179652 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.90592.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in blood flow influence the structure, function, mechanical properties, and remodeling of arteries. The objective of the present study was to investigate the role of increased blood flow on the biaxial incremental elastic moduli of the porcine right coronary artery (RCA) and to determine the microstructural basis for the changes in moduli. We hypothesized that an increase in RCA flow will lead to increased stiffness in conjunction with remodeling of elastin and collagen in the vessel wall. The control and experimental groups consisted of five RCA vessels each. The RCA of the experimental group was exposed to 4 wk of flow-overload in right ventricular hypertrophy induced by pulmonary artery banding. Stress-strain relationships were determined and the incremental elastic moduli were derived in the circumferential, axial, and cross directions. The results show a significant increase in the elastic moduli in the circumferential (262.7 +/- 15.7 vs. 120.2 +/- 12.4 kPa; P < 0.001), axial (177.8 +/- 25.5 vs. 100.3 +/- 11.9 kPa; P = 0.025), and cross directions (104.8 +/- 8.2 vs. 68.2 +/- 8.6 kPa; P = 0.016) of the experimental RCA compared with controls. Multiphoton microscopy was used to assess the changes in elastin and collagen content in the media and adventitia of the vessel wall. We found a significant increase in elastin and collagen area fraction particularly in the adventitial layer. These data suggest stiffening of the vessel wall as a result of increased elastin and more predominantly collagen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Garcia
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Surgery, Cellular and Integrative Physiology, Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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9
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Lammers SR, Kao PH, Qi HJ, Hunter K, Lanning C, Albietz J, Hofmeister S, Mecham R, Stenmark KR, Shandas R. Changes in the structure-function relationship of elastin and its impact on the proximal pulmonary arterial mechanics of hypertensive calves. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2008; 295:H1451-9. [PMID: 18660454 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00127.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix remodeling has been proposed as one mechanism by which proximal pulmonary arteries stiffen during pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Although some attention has been paid to the role of collagen and metallomatrix proteins in affecting vascular stiffness, much less work has been performed on changes in elastin structure-function relationships in PAH. Such work is warranted, given the importance of elastin as the structural protein primarily responsible for the passive elastic behavior of these conduit arteries. Here, we study structure-function relationships of fresh arterial tissue and purified arterial elastin from the main, left, and right pulmonary artery branches of normotensive and hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertensive neonatal calves. PAH resulted in an average 81 and 72% increase in stiffness of fresh and digested tissue, respectively. Increase in stiffness appears most attributable to elevated elastic modulus, which increased 46 and 65%, respectively, for fresh and digested tissue. Comparison between fresh and digested tissues shows that, at 35% strain, a minimum of 48% of the arterial load is carried by elastin, and a minimum of 43% of the change in stiffness of arterial tissue is due to the change in elastin stiffness. Analysis of the stress-strain behavior revealed that PAH causes an increase in the strains associated with the physiological pressure range but had no effect on the strain of transition from elastin-dominant to collagen-dominant behavior. These results indicate that mechanobiological adaptations of the continuum and geometric properties of elastin, in response to PAH, significantly elevate the circumferential stiffness of proximal pulmonary arterial tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Lammers
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
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10
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Zhang Y, Dunn ML, Drexler ES, McCowan CN, Slifka AJ, Ivy DD, Shandas R. A microstructural hyperelastic model of pulmonary arteries under normo- and hypertensive conditions. Ann Biomed Eng 2005; 33:1042-52. [PMID: 16133913 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-005-5771-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2004] [Accepted: 04/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This work represents the first application of a statistical mechanics based microstructural orthotropic hyperelastic model to pulmonary artery mechanics under normotensive and hypertensive conditions. The model provides an analogy between the entangled network of long molecular chains and the structural protein framework seen in the medial layer, and relates the mechanical response at macro-level to the deformation (entropy change) of individual molecular chains at the micro-level. A finite element approach was adopted to implement the model. Material parameters were determined via comparing model output to measured pressure-stretch results from normotensive and hypertensive trunks and branches obtained from a rat model of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Results from this initial study show that this model appears reasonable for the study of hyperelastic and anisotropic pulmonary artery mechanics. Typical tangent modulus values ranged from 200 to 800 kPa for normotensive arteries-this increased to beyond 1 MPa for hypertensive vessels. Our study also provokes the hypothesis that increase of cross-linking density may be one mechanism by which the pulmonary artery stiffens in hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhang Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, 427 UCB, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
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11
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Zeng YJ, Qiao YH, Yang J, Gregersen H, Zhang EP, Xu XH, Xu H. Torque properties of a rat oesophagus for physiological and diabetic conditions. Physiol Meas 2004; 25:1211-21. [PMID: 15535186 DOI: 10.1088/0967-3334/25/5/011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In this paper the torque of an oesophagus is studied for physiological and diabetic conditions. Since the function of the oesophagus is mainly mechanical, this work is focused on providing quantitative measurement of the passive biomechanical properties of the oesophagus torque. The oesophagus was treated as a membrane when calculating the stress and strain. The torque versus twist-angle relation was approximated to be linear at a specified pressure and longitudinal stretch ratio. Thus, the shear modulus can be computed by the torque, twist angle and polar moment of inertia in this state. The shear modulus varies greatly with the changing inflation pressure and longitudinal stretch ratio. When the longitudinal stretch ratio or transmural pressure is constant, the shear modulus is increased after 28 days of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y-J Zeng
- Forensic Medicine Department, Medical School, Santou University, Santou, People's Republic of China.
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12
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Lu X, Pandit A, Kassab GS. Biaxial incremental homeostatic elastic moduli of coronary artery: two-layer model. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 287:H1663-9. [PMID: 15371266 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00226.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The detailed mechanical properties of various layers of the coronary artery are important for understanding the function of the vessel. The present article is focused on the determination of the incremental modulus in different layers and directions in the neighborhood of the in vivo state. The incremental modulus can be defined for any material subjected to a large deformation if small perturbations in strain lead to small perturbations of stresses in a linear fashion. This analysis was applied to the porcine coronary artery, which was treated as a two-layered structure consisting of an inner intima-media layer and an outer adventitia layer. We adopted a theory based on small-perturbation experiments at homeostatic conditions for determination of incremental moduli in circumferential, axial, and cross directions in the two layers. The experiments were based on inflation and axial stretch. We demonstrate that under homeostatic conditions the incremental moduli are layer- and direction dependent. The incremental modulus is highest in the circumferential direction. Furthermore, in the circumferential direction, the media is stiffer than the whole wall, which is stiffer than the adventitia. In the axial direction, the adventitia is stiffer than the intact wall, which is stiffer than the media. Hence, the coronary artery must be treated as a composite, nonisotropic body. The data acquire physiological relevance in relation to coronary artery health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Lu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California-Irvine, 204 Rockwell Engineering Center, Irvine, CA 92697-2715, USA
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13
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Kobs RW, Muvarak NE, Eickhoff JC, Chesler NC. Linked mechanical and biological aspects of remodeling in mouse pulmonary arteries with hypoxia-induced hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 288:H1209-17. [PMID: 15528223 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.01129.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Right heart failure due to pulmonary hypertension causes significant morbidity and mortality. To study the linked vascular mechanical and biological changes that are induced by pulmonary hypertension, we mechanically tested isolated left main pulmonary arteries from mice exposed to chronic hypobaric hypoxia and performed histological assays on contralateral vessels. In isolated vessel tests, hypoxic vessels stretched less in response to pressure than controls at all pressure levels. Given the short length and large diameter of the pulmonary artery, the tangent Young's modulus could not be measured; instead, an effective elastic modulus was calculated that increased significantly with hypoxia [(280 kPa (SD 53) and 296 kPa (SD 50) for 10 and 15 days, respectively, vs. 222 kPa (SD 35) for control; P < 0.02)]. Hypoxic vessels also had higher damping coefficients [(0.063 (SD 0.017) and 0.054 (SD 0.014) for 10 and 15 days, respectively, vs. 0.033 (SD 0.016) for control; P < 0.002)], indicating increased energy dissipation. The increased stiffness with hypoxia correlated with an increase in collagen thickness (percent collagen multiplied by wall thickness) as well as the sum of elastin and collagen thicknesses measured histologically in the artery wall. These results highlight the mechanobiological changes in the pulmonary vasculature that occur in response to hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. Furthermore, they demonstrate significant vascular mechanical and biological changes that would increase pulmonary vascular impedance, leading to right heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan W Kobs
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Rm. 2146, Engineering Centers Bldg., 1550 Engineering Dr., Madison, WI 53706-1609, USA
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14
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Mandegar M, Fung YCB, Huang W, Remillard CV, Rubin LJ, Yuan JXJ. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pulmonary vascular remodeling: role in the development of pulmonary hypertension. Microvasc Res 2004; 68:75-103. [PMID: 15313118 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2004.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary artery vasoconstriction and vascular remodeling greatly contribute to a sustained elevation of pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP) in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). The development of PAH involves a complex and heterogeneous constellation of multiple genetic, molecular, and humoral abnormalities, which interact in a complicated manner, presenting a final manifestation of vascular remodeling in which fibroblasts, smooth muscle and endothelial cells, and platelets all play a role. Vascular remodeling is characterized largely by medial hypertrophy due to enhanced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation or attenuated apoptosis and to endothelial cell over-proliferation, which can result in lumen obliteration. In addition to other factors, cytoplasmic Ca2+ in particular seems to play a central role as it is involved in both the generation of force through its effects on the contractile machinery, and the initiation and propagation of cell proliferation via its effects on transcription factors, mitogens, and cell cycle components. This review focuses on the role played by cellular factors, circulating factors, and genetic molecular signaling factors that promote a proliferative, antiapoptotic, and vasoconstrictive physiological milieu leading to vascular remodeling.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Blood Pressure
- Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptors, Type II
- Calcium Signaling
- Capillaries/pathology
- Capillaries/physiopathology
- Endothelium, Vascular/pathology
- Feedback
- Humans
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/classification
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/etiology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/pathology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/physiopathology
- Hypertrophy
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Membrane Transport Proteins/physiology
- Models, Biological
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/pathology
- Mutation
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/physiology
- Potassium Channels, Voltage-Gated/metabolism
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Pulmonary Artery/pathology
- Pulmonary Artery/physiopathology
- Pulmonary Circulation
- Pulmonary Veins/pathology
- Pulmonary Veins/physiopathology
- Serotonin/physiology
- Serotonin Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins
- Vascular Resistance
- Vasoconstriction
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Mandegar
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093, USA
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15
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Li Z, Huang W, Jiang ZL, Gregersen H, Fung YC. Tissue remodeling of rat pulmonary arteries in recovery from hypoxic hypertension. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:11488-93. [PMID: 15277667 PMCID: PMC509227 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0404084101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The reversibility of tissue remodeling is of general interest to medicine. Pulmonary arterial tissue remodeling during hypertension induced by hypoxic breathing is well known, but little has been said about the recovery of the arterial wall when the blood pressure is lowered again. We hypothesize that tissue recovery is a function of the oxygen concentration, blood pressure, location on the vascular tree, and time. We measured the changes of blood pressure, vessel lumen, vessel wall thicknesses, and opening angle of each segment of the blood vessel at its zero-stress state after step changes of the oxygen concentration in the breathing gas. The zero-stress state of each vessel is emphasized because it is important to the analysis of stress and strain and in morphometry. Experimental results are presented as histories of tissue parameters after step changes of the oxygen level. Tissue characteristics are examined under the hypothesis that they are linearly related to changes in the local blood pressure. Under this linearity hypothesis, each aspect of the tissue change can be expressed as a convolution integral of the blood pressure history with a kernel called the indicial response function. It is shown the indicial response function for rising blood pressure is different from that for falling blood pressure. This difference represents a major nonlinearity of the tissue remodeling process of the blood vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuangjie Li
- Department of Bioengineering and Whitaker Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, USA
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16
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Chesler NC, Thompson-Figueroa J, Millburne K. Measurements of Mouse Pulmonary Artery Biomechanics. J Biomech Eng 2004; 126:309-14. [PMID: 15179864 DOI: 10.1115/1.1695578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Background: Robust techniques for characterizing the biomechanical properties of mouse pulmonary arteries will permit exciting gene-level hypotheses regarding pulmonary vascular disease to be tested in genetically engineered animals. In this paper, we present the first measurements of the biomechanical properties of mouse pulmonary arteries. Method of Approach: In an isolated vessel perfusion system, transmural pressure, internal diameter and wall thickness were measured during inflation and deflation of mouse pulmonary arteries over low (5–40 mmHg) and high (10–120 mmHg) pressure ranges representing physiological pressures in the pulmonary and systemic circulations, respectively. Results: During inflation, circumferential stress versus strain showed the nonlinear “J”-shape typical of arteries. Hudetz’s incremental elastic modulus ranged from 27±13kPan=7 during low-pressure inflation to 2,700±1,700kPan=9 during high-pressure inflation. The low and high-pressure testing protocols yielded quantitatively indistinguishable stress-strain and modulus-strain results. Histology performed to assess the state of the tissue after mechanical testing showed intact medial and adventitial architecture with some loss of endothelium, suggesting that smooth muscle cell contractile strength could also be measured with these techniques. Conclusions: The measurement techniques described demonstrate the feasibility of quantifying mouse pulmonary artery biomechanical properties. Stress-strain behavior and incremental modulus values are presented for normal, healthy arteries over a wide pressure range. These techniques will be useful for investigations into biomechanical abnormalities in pulmonary vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi C Chesler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, 2146 Engineering Centers Building, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1609, USA.
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Liao D, Yang J, Zhao J, Zeng Y, Vinter-Jensen L, Gregersen H. The effect of epidermal growth factor on the incremental Young's moduli in the rat small intestine. Med Eng Phys 2003; 25:413-8. [PMID: 12711239 DOI: 10.1016/s1350-4533(03)00020-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Biomechanical remodelling of the rat small intestine after treatment with epidermal growth factor (EGF) subcutaneously for 2 days (n=6), 4 days (n=6), 7 days (n=6), and 14 days (n=4) was studied. The incremental circumferential, longitudinal and cross moduli close to the in vivo state were computed from bi-axial test data (combined inflation and axial stretching) by a least square method. The moduli in the circumferential direction and the longitudinal direction differed in all groups, i.e. the mechanical properties were anisotropic in both normal and EGF-treated rats. Time-dependent variation existed for the Young's moduli in all directions during EGF treatment (P<0.05). The circumferential modulus decreased during the first 7 days of EGF treatment and it almost remodelled back to that of the control group after 14 days treatment. The incremental modulus in the circumferential direction ranged between 17.4 and 24.2 kPa. The modulus in the longitudinal direction ranged between 22.9 and 32.4 kPa. The longitudinal modulus after 4 days EGF treatment was significantly larger than that of control group (P<0.02). The cross modulus decreased during the first 4 days of EGF treatment thereafter it increased to a maximum at 7 days. The values for the cross moduli were between 4.7 and 6.6 kPa. In conclusion, the mechanical properties in the intestinal wall are anisotropic and remodel during treatment with EGF.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Liao
- Centre for Sensory-Motor Interaction, Visceral Pain and Biomechanics Lab, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7D-3, Denmark
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Huang W, Sher YP, Peck K, Fung YCB. Matching gene activity with physiological functions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:2603-8. [PMID: 11880616 PMCID: PMC122394 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.042684399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/2001] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Matching the activity of the genes with biomechanics and physiology is an effective way to use cDNA microarray technology. Required are data on the change of activities of genes associated with specific physiological functions with respect to a continuous variable such as time. For each pair of data (gene and physiological function) as functions of time, we can compute a coefficient of correlation, R. The correlation is perfect if R is +1 or -1; it is nonexistent if R = 0. By evaluating R for every gene in a microarray, we can arrange the genes in the order of the number R, thus learning which genes are best correlated with the mechanical or physiological function. We illustrate this procedure by studying the blood vessels in the lung in response to pulmonary hypoxic hypertension, including the remodeling of vascular morphometry, the elastic moduli, and the zero-stress state of the vessel wall. For each physiological function, we identify the top genes that correlate the best. We found that different genes correlate best with a given function in large and small arteries, and that the genes in pulmonary veins which respond to arterial functions are different from those in pulmonary arteries. We found one set of genes matching the remodeling of arterial wall thickness, but another set of genes whose integral of activity over time best fit the wall thickness change. Our method can be used to study other thought-provoking problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Huang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, USA
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