Important features of bench press performance in non-disabled and Para athletes: A scoping review

PURPOSE

Understanding important features for performance in non-disabled bench press and Paralympic powerlifting may inform talent identification and transfer models. The aim of this scoping review was to describe features associated with bench press performance.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search of three electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus and EMBASE) to identify studies involving non-disabled and Para athlete populations that investigated features related to bench press one-repetition maximum (1RM), across six domains (anthropometric, body composition, demographic, technical, disability and neuromuscular). Search terms included "resistance training", "para powerlifting' and "one repetition max". No date restrictions were include in searches. Studies using adult participants, with at least six-months of bench press experience, who were able to bench press their body mass were included.

RESULTS

Thirty-two studies met our inclusion criteria. Twenty-four studies involved non-disabled athletes (total n = 2,686; 21.9% female) and eight involved Para athletes (total n = 2,364; 39.4% female). Anthropometric (17 studies) and body composition (12 studies) features were most studied; half of the 32 studies investigated features from a single domain. Of anthropometric variables, upper arm circumference shared the strongest association with bench press 1RM in non-disabled (r = 0.87) and para-athletes (r = 0.65). Upper limb fat free mass (r = 0.91) and body mass index (r = 0.46) were the body composition variables sharing the strongest association with bench press 1RM in non-disabled and para-athletes. Few studies considering the uncertainty of their results. Practices of open and transparent science, such as pre-registration and data sharing, were absent.

CONCLUSION

The development of bench press talent identification and sport transfer models will require future studies to investigate both non-training and training modifiable features, across multiple domains. Large longitudinal studies using information from athlete monitoring databases and multivariable model approaches are needed to understand the interacting features associated with bench press performance, and for the development of talent identification models.

Performance Trajectory Related to Age, Classification, and Sex in Elite Kayak Para Canoe Athletes

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study is to verify the performance trajectory related to age, classification (KL: kayak level; M: male; F: female), and sex of elite kayak Para canoe athletes.

DESIGN

This is a retrospective cohort study.

RESULTS

Race results and athletes' data were retrieved from publicly available online databases for 17 competitions and 102 finals between 2015 and 2022. Race time reduced over the years except for KL3-M class. There was a reduction in the relative difference between KL2-M and KL3-M over the years ( r = -0.83, 95% confidence interval = -0.34 to -0.97, P ≤ 0.05). In addition, no significant differences were found in race times relative differences between KL2-F and KL3-F over the years. Although the correlation between age and performance was only found to be statistically significant in the KL3-F class, the ages of all classes (35.2, 32.6, 29.5, 34.6, 37.6, and 30.6 yrs for males and females KL1, KL2, and KL3, respectively) were higher than those in Olympic canoeing (27.8 yrs).

CONCLUSIONS

Race times have improved overall since 2015, but not for the KL3-M class. Nevertheless, because of the stochastic ages of the finalist athletes, it was not possible to determine the age at which peak performance is achieved in all classes. Kayak Para canoe classes should be monitored in the coming years to determine whether interventions are necessary to improve differentiation.

Distribution and Prevalence of Elbow Pain (EP) in Elite Swimmers in Tianjin, China-A Regional Epidemiological Study

Elbow pain (EP) in overhead sports is a common phenomenon. Swimming is classified as an overhead sport, but a lack of attention regarding EP in swimming has created a gap in the knowledge around elite freestyle swimming in Tianjin, China. The purpose of this study was to identify the distribution and prevalence of EP among elite freestyle swimmers in Tianjin, China. The methodology involved a total of 311 qualified participants who volunteered to undertake all measurements. The main findings showed that 183 of the elite freestyle swimmers in this study had EP (accounting for 58.84% of the total 311 participants), with 147 in slight pain and 36 in critical pain. The characteristics of a heavier body weight, taller height, longer left/right forearm length, and longer weekly average training hours serve as contributing factors to the occurrence of EP issues. Gender, age, weekly average training hours, and left/right forearm length are the primary factors correlating with and influencing the assessment scores. In conclusion, swimmers with longer weekly training hours, older ages, heavier bodyweight, and longer forearm lengths should receive greater attention in relation to EP. Regular assessments at a high frequency serve as a means to identify the risk of EP.

Peak Age and Performance Trajectories in Para Powerlifters

OBJECTIVE

This study established the age-related performance trajectories in Para powerlifters, thereby presenting valuable information for athlete development.

DESIGN

Data on athlete date of birth, body mass, and weight lifted in competition were analyzed for 2079 athletes between 1994 and 2019.

RESULTS

Age-related performance trajectories showed that men and women lift their heaviest weights in competition at 36 and 41 yrs of age, respectively. This correspond to the mean age of competitors in the heaviest bodyweight categories at elite competitions (men 36 yrs, women 43 yrs), who were older than competitors in lighter bodyweight categories. It is possible that para powerlifters "move up" bodyweight categories as they get older and before lifting their heaviest weights in competition. High-performing athletes lifted their heaviest weight in competition 2.6 yrs earlier than lower performing peers, and the best performances in most bodyweight categories were achieved by athletes between 31 and 35 yrs of age.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that para powerlifters should reach their peak performance in their early to mid-30s and before age-related changes to neural and hormonal processes impact muscular strength. This information can help coaches and athletes evaluate their strategies for achieving success in para powerlifting.

Performance Increases in Pair Skating and Ice Dance at International Championships and Olympic Games

In pair skating and ice dance, performance seems to have increased at international competitions, which is potentially associated with changes in athlete age. We hypothesized increasing age, numbers of total points and more complex jumps of the best elite couples at international championships in recent years. Corresponding data were assessed via the results databases of the European and World Championships, as well as the Winter Olympics since 2005. Linear regression statistics were conducted, and significance was assessed via one-way ANOVAs. There were no significant changes in age. Increases in total points were found in both disciplines (World and European Championships both p < 0.001 for both disciplines, Olympics pair skating p = 0.003, ice dance n/a). Significant increases were found in the number of double and triple twist jumps at the European Championships (Double p = 0.046, triple p = 0.041), but not at the World Championships or the Olympics. At the World Championships, single solo jumps decreased (p = 0.031) in favor of triple jumps, which increased (p = 0.020), without a similar effect at the European Championships or Olympics. In conclusion, increases in total points and more complex jumps were observed at international championships without associated changes in age. Attention should be given to possible changes in the incidence of acute and overuse injuries following this development.

Sex Differences in Age-Associated Rate of Decline in Grip Strength When Engaging in Vigorous Physical Activity

Handgrip strength (GS) is used as an indicator of overall muscle strength and health outcomes for aging adults. GS has also been evaluated as a potential link with sport performances. We quantified the age-associated decline in grip strength for males and females engaged in weekly vigorous physical activity, differentiated by body mass, and investigated whether there was an acceleration of decline at any age. The Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe is a multinational complex panel data survey with a target population of individuals aged 50 years or older. Data from 48,070 individuals from 20 European countries, collected from 2004 to 2015, were used in multivariable regression models to study the association of age and body weight with grip strength for individuals engaged in vigorous physical activity at least once a week. The annual rate of change in GS differed for males and females; it was constant from ages 50 to 55 years and then accelerated for females, possibly due to the menopausal transition. In contrast, the decline in GS accelerates with each year of increase in age for males. Higher body mass was associated with an increase in GS, but the increase was less pronounced for older males. The increase in GS diminished with a body mass above the median even with engagement in weekly vigorous physical activities. GS reference values for individuals engaged in vigorous physical activity add to existing reference values for general populations.

Long-Term Adaptations in the Squat, Bench Press, and Deadlift: Assessing Strength Gain in Powerlifting Athletes

PURPOSE

Understanding strength changes with resistance training is important in human performance. It also enables better understanding into the expected magnitude of strength increase and factors that influence this change over time.

METHODS

Squat, bench press, and deadlift scores were collated from 407 powerlifting meets (n = 1896 unique competitors: ~625 females, ~1270 males) between 2003 and 2018. Absolute (in kilograms) and relative starting strength (in kilograms per body weight) for each lift type was expressed for both sexes. Maximum and overall strength gain per day and per year (in kilograms) was calculated by comparing first and final, or maximum scores for each lift, respectively, and considered based on strength quartile classification. Paired and independent t-tests compared strength changes from baseline and between sexes. One-way ANOVAs compared strength changes between quartiles. Pearson correlations assessed relationships between strength changes over time, and baseline strength, number of competitions, and total days competing.

RESULTS

Maximum strength adaptations were greater for squat (20.2-25.4 kg·yr-1) and deadlift (18.1-21.1 kg·yr-1) compared with bench press (10.5-12.8 kg·yr-1, P ≤ 0.001). However, the change in absolute (all lifts: P = 0.247-0.379) and relative strength (all lifts: P = 0.641-0.821) did not differ between sexes. For females, maximum strength gain per day did not differ by quartile (all lifts: P = 0.091-0.746), nor did overall strength gain per day (P = 0.151-0.575). Conversely, males in the fourth quartile generally displayed lower maximum and overall strength gain per day.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings show differences in strength gain between upper- and lower-body lifts, but not sex differences in the change in strength. In line with previous research, the strongest males likely gain strength more slowly than weaker counterparts. Professionals should consider this information in the training, assessment, and long-term benchmarking of athletes whose sports require a focus on muscular strength.

How Do Master Weightlifters Train? A Transnational Study of Weightlifting Training Practices and Concurrent Training

(1) Background: The wide range of preparedness, physical fitness, and capabilities of older athletes makes it challenging to recommend general training programs for this cohort ranging from ages 35 to 80 and older. Weightlifting has enjoyed an unprecedented growth in recent years, especially among women. The objectives of this study are to describe age and sex differences in self-reported training regimens and concurrent training for Masters weightlifters and investigate regional differences. (2) Methods: A total of 1051 Masters weightlifters from Australia, Canada, Europe, and the USA completed an online survey that included questions on sport history and training practices. (3) Results: A training session typically lasted 1.5 to 2 h for both sexes across all ages. Weightlifters engaged in concurrent training (66.9%), especially in endurance training (24.9%) and CrossFit (36.4%), but the proportions differed across geographic regions. Older females maintained training 4 days per week, while older males reduced this to 3 days per week. (4) Conclusions: Weightlifting training practice of Masters athletes was remarkably consistent across ages, but concurrent training differed between males and females and across regions. This study provides helpful information for athletes, coaches, and sport organizations about the variation in weightlifting training practices and concurrent training of older athletes.

Peak Age and Relative Performance Progression in International Cross-Country Skiers

PURPOSE

To quantify peak age and relative performance progression toward peak age in cross-country skiing according to event type, sex, and athlete performance level.

METHODS

International Ski Federation (FIS) points (performance expressed relative to the best athlete) of athletes born between 1981 and 1991, competing in junior world championships or finishing top 30 in world championships or Olympics, were downloaded from the FIS website. Individual performance trends were derived by fitting a quadratic curve to each athletes FIS point and age data.

RESULTS

Peak age was 26.2 (2.3) years in distance and 26.0 (1.7) years in sprint events. The sex difference in peak age in sprint events was ∼0.8 years (small, P = .001), while there was no significant sex difference in peak age in distance events (P = .668). Top performers displayed higher peak ages than other athletes in distance (mean difference, ±95% confidence limits = 1.6 y, ±0.6 y, moderate, P < .001) and sprint events (1.0, ±0.6 y, moderate, P < .001). FIS point improvement over the 5 years preceding peak age did not differ between event types (P = .325), while men improved more than women in both events (8.8, ±5.4%, small, P = .002 and 7.5, ±6.4%, small, P = .002). Performance level had a large effect on improvement in FIS points in both events (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

This study provides novel insights on peak age and relative performance progression among world-class cross-country skiers and can assist practitioners, sport institutions, and federations with goal setting and evaluating strategies for achieving success.

Relative Age Effects in Elite Olympic Weightlifters

ABSTRACT

Kollars, JM, Taber, CB, and Beyer, KS. Relative age effects in elite olympic weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 35(5): 1223-1228, 2021-The time of year in which an athlete is born may provide an advantage developmentally for competition, known as relative age effects (RAEs). The presence of RAEs in sport may result in athletes participating less or leaving the sport early. To determine if RAEs exist in elite Olympic weightlifting, data were examined from the past 5 Olympic Games. Using retrospective competition data, a total of 953 weightlifters (595 men and 358 women) who competed in the Olympic Games between 2000 and 2016 were included in this study. Athletes were divided into lightweight, middleweight, and heavyweight for analysis. Using the subset weight classes, the observed date of birth distribution vs. the expected worldwide date of birth distribution were compared using multiple chi square tests. Relative age effects were present overall for weightlifters (χ2 = 189.428, p < 0.001), with over-representation in January (z = +12.6, 20.9%) and under-representation in June (z = -2.1, 6.3%), September (z = -3.2, 5.7%), and November (z = -3.0, 5.1%). Relative age effects were also present in men lightweight (χ2 = 74.773, p < 0.001), men middleweight (χ2 = 41.786, p < 0.001), men heavyweight (χ2 = 39.395, p < 0.001), and women lightweight (χ2 = 37.251, p < 0.001). Determining that RAEs are present in weightlifting is important because it will help maintain the amount of opportunity for all athletes regardless of when they were born in the year. Coaches should be aware of the possible advantages of training age and the effect of physical maturation as a result of these RAEs. Coaches may use this information for athlete selection, but the presence of RAEs should not discourage athletes from participating in the sport of weightlifting.

Dual Careers of Athletes During COVID-19 Lockdown

This study aimed to investigate the student-athletes' capability to face the academic, sport, and social challenges during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown and to disclose novel aspects of dual careers. A 32-item online survey encompassing demographic characteristics, sport and university engagement, support and dual-career benefits, physical activity, sitting time, and the time deemed necessary to recover the previous level of performance was developed. Four hundred sixty-seven student-athletes (males: 57%, females: 43%) from 11 countries, competing in 49 different sports (individual: 63.4%, team: 36.6%) at regional (17.5%), national (43.3%), and international (39.2%) levels, and enrolled at high school (21.9%) and university (78.1%) levels completed the survey. During the lockdown, the respondents decreased the time dedicated to sport and academics, although they maintained an active lifestyle. Student-athletes from countries under severe contagion were more likely to train at home, dedicate to academics, and receive support from the coach but less likely receive support from their teachers. With respect to their team sport counterparts, athletes competing in individual sports trained more and were more likely to receive support from their coaches. International athletes showed the highest training time and support from their coaches and as student-athletes. High school students received more support from their coaches and teachers, whereas university students were more likely considering dual careers useful to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic. This study substantiates the relevant role of competitive sports participation in the maintenance of active lifestyles, with student-athletes considering home training and e-learning valuable resources during the lockdown. Furthermore, their sport and academic commitments helped student-athletes cope with the emergency of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Fitness Tests and Match Performance in a Male Ice Hockey National League

PURPOSE

To determine if generic off-ice physical fitness tests can provide useful predictions of ice hockey players' match performance.

METHODS

Approximately 40 to 60 defenders and 70 to 100 forwards from the Norwegian male upper ice hockey league were tested for strength (1-repetition maximum in squat and bench press), power (40-m sprint and countermovement jump), and endurance (hanging sit-ups, chins, and 3000-m run) annually at the end of every preseason period between 2008 and 2017. Measures of match performance were each player's season mean counts per match of assists, points, goals, penalty minutes, and plus-minus score.

RESULTS

Overall, match performance measures displayed trivial to small correlations with the fitness tests. More specifically, points per game had at most small correlations with measures of strength (range, approximately -0.2 to 0.3), speed (approximately -0.2 to 0.3), and endurance (approximately -0.1 to 0.3). After adjustments for age that showed moderate to large correlations with player match performance, multiple-regression analyses of each test measure still provided some predictability among players of the same age. However, players selected for the national team had substantially better mean scores for most tests and match performance measures than those not selected, with a moderate to large difference for age, 1-repetition maximum squat, and 1-repetition maximum bench press.

CONCLUSIONS

Fitness tests had only marginal utility for predicting match performance in Norwegian hockey players, but those selected into the national team had better general fitness.

Prediction of elite athletes' performance by analysis of peak-performance age and age-related performance progression

AbstractThe aim of this study was to analyse age-related performance progression and peak-performance age (PPA) in elite track and field athletes and to use a model to predict peak performance. Best performances of world-class athletes from ages 14 to 15 y up to and including the last Olympic year (n = 798), all-time top lists (n = 444), and world record-holders (n = 43) were considered in all 22 disciplines for men and 21 disciplines for women. A discipline/sex-specified model was used by applying dynamic panel data methods to analyze the performance trends. Profile analysis showed that PPA of all-time top list throwers was higher than middle-distance runners (P < 0.001), distance runners (P < 0.05), and jumpers (P < 0.05) in men and higher (P < 0.05) than middle-distance runners in women. Olympic year top list athletes showed that PPA of women throwers was higher than sprinters (P < 0.001) and middle-distance runners (P < 0.05), and PPA of women distance runners was higher (P < 0.05) than sprinters. In both all-time (P < 0.05) and Olympic year (P < 0.05) top lists, the PPA of men race walkers was higher than middle-distance runners. Performance over the preceding 1-2 years (in all disciplines), height (in Long Jump Men; Long Jump Women; Triple Jump Men) and weight (in Discus Throwing Men) indices, respectively, are important (P < 0.05) for predicting future records with different coefficients in different disciplines. The models provide a useful tool for coaches to predict peak performance records and PPA of their athletes which may be of benefit with goal-setting and evaluation of performance progression at different ages in track and field athletics.

Weight Selection Attempts of Elite Classic Powerlifters

This study provides the first comparison of weight selection attempt strategies used by powerlifters competing at the international level. We observed attempts selected by elite male and female classic powerlifters and compared weight selection attempts between sexes. Male (n = 66) and female (n = 43) powerlifters who completed all lifts successfully at an International Powerlifting Federation Classic World Championship between 2012-2019 were included in the analysis. We calculated the percentage weight increase from first attempts (A1) to second attempts (A2) and from A2 to third attempts (A3). For purposes of comparison, A1 values were expressed as a percentage of A3 values. We calculated non-parametric statistics with effect sizes for between and within-group comparisons. Relative to A3, males selected greater A1s compared to females for bench press (η² = 0.16; p = 0.004) and deadlift (η² = 0.06; p = 0.036) for each lift. Alternatively, females selected greater A1 to A2 and A2 to A3 progressions for bench press (η² = 0.06; p = 0.026; η² = 0.21; p = 0.005, respectively), and A2 to A3 for deadlift (η² = 0.04; p = 0.035) compared to males. Within-group comparisons showed that males selected greater A1s on bench press compared to deadlift (η² = 0.06; p = 0.046), whereas females selected greater A1s on squat compared to deadlift (η² = 0.13; p = 0.038) relative to A3. Males also selected greater A2 to A3 progressions on deadlift compared to bench press (η² = 0.10; p = 0.044), whereas females selected greater A2 to A3 progressions for bench press (η² = 0.15; p = 0.039) and deadlift compared to squat (η² = 0.10; p = 0.041). In conclusion, selecting an opener of ∼91% of the expected A3 weight, followed by ∼5% increase from A1 to A2, and ∼3% increase from A2 to A3 represent the typical weight selection attempts used across lifts by elite classic powerlifters competing in the World Championships. The results of this study provide novel insight into the weight selection attempts of elite classic powerlifters.

The relationship between age and fitness profiles in elite male ice hockey players

BACKGROUND

The present study investigated relationships between age, body composition and performance in elite male ice hockey players.

METHODS

199 players performed off-ice tests (countermovement jump height (CMJ) and body composition) and on-ice tests (5-10-5 Pro Agility test, 30-m sprint test and the maximal Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Ice Hockey test (Yo-Yo IR1-IH<inf>MAX</inf>) for assessment of aerobic capacity.

RESULTS

No overall correlations between age and performance were present except small-moderate positive associations between age and body- and muscle mass (r=0.24-0.30, P≤0.05). The youngest age group (YOU; 18-21 years) were 4-9% lighter than all other age groups and possessed 7% less muscle mass compared to the oldest players (OLD; 30-33 years) (P≤0.05), whereas no differences were present in body fat percentage. OLD were 2-3% inferior to the second youngest (SEC; 22-25 years) and mid-age group (MID; 26-29 years) in sprint and agility performance in addition to a 6-10% lower CMJ height (P≤0.05). The younger age groups differed only by a 7 and 5% better CMJ performance in MID compared to YOU and SEC, respectively (P≤0.05). In contrast, no differences were found in distance covered on the Yo-Yo IR1-IH<inf>max</inf>.

CONCLUSIONS

Only small-moderate associations between age and body composition were present unlike for the remaining performance parameters. Nevertheless, a consistently lower high-intensity exercise performance was evident in the oldest- and a lower body weight in the youngest players, whereas aerobic capacity was similar. This suggests that capabilities related to size, strength and power are the most critical parameters differing between young and old ice hockey players.

Sex differences and impact of body mass on performance from childhood to senior athletes in Olympic weightlifting

Background

Olympic weightlifting requires technical skills, explosive power, strength, and coordination. Weightlifters can be competitive within a range of morphological characteristics due to competition body weight classes. To date no studies have examined when sex differences arise in weightlifting and the impact of body mass on performances at different ages.

Objectives

To examine when sex-related differences emerge, to quantify the influence of body mass on performances at different ages, and to estimate the age at peak performance.

Methods

Competitions results from USA Weightlifting National Championships, Youth, Junior, and Senior from 2014 to 2019 were collected for weightlifters aged 6 to 30.

Results

At age 10 the median total weight lifted was 51kg and 54kg, respectively, for girls and boys. From age 10 to 12 a gender gap emerges with a sex difference of 11.7% at age 14 at 55kg body mass. At age 25 the sex-related performance difference is smaller for lighter athletes (23.6% at 69kg body mass) and larger for heavier athletes (29.9% at 81kg body mass). The median peak age for men is 26.5 years (95% CI: 25.7, 27.3) and for women 25.9 years (95% CI: 24.7, 27.3).

Conclusion

We quantified the impact of body weight and age and sex differences for youth and young adults, ages 6 to 30 years old, participating in national level Olympic weightlifting competitions in the United States. Body weight at younger ages has less impact on performance compared to older ages, and boys and girls perform similarly. When reaching the ages typically associated with the onset of puberty, boys’ performances rapidly increase and the gap between genders widens. Women achieve peak performance at a similar age than men. Such results may help to establish progression trajectories for talented athletes and inform coaches, athletes and national governing bodies.

Performance Development From Youth to Senior and Age of Peak Performance in Olympic Weightlifting

A total of 3,782 performance results for male and female weightlifters, ages 14–30 from 123 countries, from Youth, Junior, and Senior World Championships and Olympic Games 2013–2017 were used to estimate the age at peak performance in Olympic weightlifting and quantify performance development from adolescence to adulthood. The age at peak performance was estimated for men and women globally and for different geographic regions. Overall, male and female weightlifters achieve their peak performance in weightlifting at similar ages. The median peak age is 26.0 years (95% CI: 24.9, 27.1) for men and 25.0 years (95% CI: 23.9, 27.4) for women, at the 90th percentile of performances. The median peak age was 26.3 years for men (95% CI: 24.5, 29.6) and 26.4 years for women (95% CI: 24.5, 29.6), at the 50th percentile. It is a novel finding that the age at peak performance varies for male and female athletes from different geographic regions (Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Middle East, Far East, North- and South America). For some regions men reach peak performance at a younger age than women, while this relationship is reversed for other regions. A possible explanation could be that socio-economic factors influence the pool of available athletes and thus may under- or overestimate the true peak age. Unlike in track and field where the discipline might determine specific body types, weightlifters at all ages compete in body weight classes, enabling us to compare performance levels and annual rate of change for athletes of different body mass. We quantified increases in performance in Olympic weightlifting for male and female adolescents. Sex-specific differences arise during puberty, boys outperform girls, and there is a rapid increase in their performance levels before the further growth slows down. The largest annual rate of increase in the total weight lifted was achieved between 16 and 17 years of age for both sexes with lower body mass and between 21 and 22 years with higher body mass. Such new information may help to establish progression trajectories for young athletes.