Associations Between Parent-Perceived Neighborhood Safety and Encouragement and Child Outdoor Physical Activity Among Low-Income Children

Identifying data gaps in early childhood physical activity evidence

Childhood physical activity sets the foundation for health. While we know many factors that contribute to physical activity, there are limitations in our knowledge, especially in early childhood. Through our review, we identify gaps in existing datasets to guide future research.

Factors affecting outdoor physical activity (OPA) in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Aim

The outdoor physical activity (OPA) of children and adolescents in the "Z" era decreased sharply compared with the previous generation, and the purpose of this study is to explore the factors that influence children and adolescents' participation in OPA.

Method

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched Eric, PsycArtical, PsycINFO, Pubmed, Pubmed, Medline, SCOPUS, Web of Science Core Collection, CNKI, and the search ending date was March 20, 2024.The quality of the evidence was assessed with the crosssectional study tool (Appraisal tool for Cro-SS-Sectional Studies, AXIS).Employing meta-analysis to evaluate the strength of evidence for the influencing factors.

Results

Results show that, in the dimension of basic demographic characteristics, parents' educational level and family income are significant factors affecting children and adolescents' participation in OPA. In the dimension of family characteristics, parents' attitudes towards their children and adolescents' participation in OPA, as well as their encouragement and support, are significant factors influencing participation, but the factor of parents' attitudes is unstable. In the dimension of perceived social environment, perceived community cohesion, community safety, and peer support are significant factors affecting children and adolescents' participation in OPA, but the factors of community safety and peer support are unstable. In the dimension of the physical environment, access to activity facilities is the only significant influencing factor.

Suggestion

The factors affecting the participation of children and adolescents in OPA are relatively complex. It is suggested to consider building child-friendly communities from many aspects to increase OPA for children and adolescents to enhance their physical health and mental health.

Parents, but not their children, demonstrate greater delay discounting with resource scarcity

BACKGROUND

Individuals with obesity tend to discount the future (delay discounting), focusing on immediate gratification. Delay discounting is reliably related to indicators of economic scarcity (i.e., insufficient resources), including lower income and decreased educational attainment in adults. It is unclear whether the impact of these factors experienced by parents also influence child delay discounting between the ages of 8 and 12-years in families with obesity.

METHODS

The relationship between indices of family income and delay discounting was studied in 452 families with parents and 6-12-year-old children with obesity. Differences in the relationships between parent economic, educational and Medicaid status, and parent and child delay discounting were tested.

RESULTS

Results showed lower parent income (p = 0.019) and Medicaid status (p = 0.021) were differentially related to greater parent but not child delay discounting among systematic responders.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest differences in how indicators of scarcity influence delay discounting for parents and children, indicating that adults with scarce resources may be shaped to focus on immediate needs instead of long-term goals. It is possible that parents can reduce the impact of economic scarcity on their children during preadolescent years. These findings suggest a need for policy change to alleviate the burden of scarce conditions and intervention to modify delay discounting rate and to improve health-related choices and to address weight disparities.

Exercising Caution: A Case for Ethics Analysis in Physical Activity Promotion

Despite the important role of physical activity in population health and well-being, it has received less focus in public health ethics as compared to other modifiable lifestyle factors such as smoking and diet. However, when considering the current and potential role of physical activity within public health—including interventions and policies to encourage physical activity in schools and workplaces, changes to the built environment and the equity issues associated with access to physical activity—it is a ripe territory for ethical analysis. This paper makes a case for a more sustained focus on physical activity within public health ethics by reviewing two ethical issues within physical activity and public health: physical activity inequity as a structural injustice issue, and stigma in physical activity promotion. While the benefits of physical activity for every age group and demographic are numerous, ethics oversight is encouraged to ensure that these efforts do not impose unnecessary risks or stigmatize marginalized populations.

Day-level associations of physical activity and sedentary time in mother-child dyads across three years: a multi-wave longitudinal study using accelerometers

Understanding associations between mothers' and children's physical activity and sedentary behavior on more fine-grained timescales can provide insights into real-time intervention opportunities. This study examined the extent to which mothers' and their children's device-measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time (SDT) were associated at the day level during non-school time. Mother-child dyads (N = 193; baseline Mean ages = 40.69 ± 6.11 [mother] and 9.57 ± 0.89 [child] years) provided 3,135 paired days of accelerometry data from six bi-annual waves across three years. Controlling for covariates, multilevel models revealed that mothers' and their children's MVPA and SDT were positively associated at the day level during non-school time, both on weekdays and weekends. During weekdays, the day-level association for SDT was stronger for older than younger children, and the day-level association for MVPA was stronger for boys than girls. Designing family-based interventions targeting school-age children and their mothers during non-school time across the week may be useful for promoting active lifestyles.

The role of family, school and neighbourhood in Explaining Inequalities in Physical Activity Trajectories between age 9 and 18

Differentials in physical activity (PA) between social and economic groups has been shown to contribute significantly to social gradients in health and life expectancy, yet relatively little is known about why differentials in PA emerge. This paper uses longitudinal data on a nationally representative sample of 6,216 young people aged between 9 and 18, from Ireland, to measure the role of family, school and neighbourhood level factors in accounting for differentials in PA trajectories between groups of young people, defined by level of maternal education, whilst adjusting for the individual characteristics of the young person (sex, age, personality, body mass index and health-status). Levels of PA fall significantly across the sample between 9 and 18, and the decline in PA is larger for the children of lower educated mothers. We find a clear gradient in PA at each age by maternal education for both males and females. Descriptive analyses found social gradients in the majority of our risk factors. Using multi-level, linear spline regression models to decompose differentials between groups, we find that family-level mechanisms account for the biggest proportion of the differential in PA for both males (50.8%) and females (35.1%). Differences in income across maternal education categories accounted for 24.1% of the differential for males and 14.7% among females, making it the second most effective mechanism in explaining the social patterning of PA. Neighbourhood-level processes resulted in a modest reduction in the same differential, while school level processes had the effect of equalising differences in PA across maternal education groups.

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The potential social determinants of inequalities in physical activity were outlined.

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The role of family, school and neighbourhood in explaining these inequalities was quantified.

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The cumulative effect of social environment was observed over a 10-year period.

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Family-level characteristics were identified as the most effective explanatory mechanism.

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Highly educated mothers were observed to be enrolling their children in organised sport.

Parents' Perceived Neighborhood Safety and Children's Cognitive Performance: Complexities by Race, Ethnicity, and Cognitive Domain

BACKGROUND AIM

To examine racial/ethnic variations in the effect of parents' subjective neighborhood safety on children's cognitive performance.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 10,027 children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The exposure variable was parents' subjective neighborhood safety. The outcomes were three domains of children's cognitive performance: general cognitive performance, executive functioning, and learning/memory. We used mixed-effects regression models for data analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, parents' subjective neighborhood safety was positively associated with children's executive functioning, but not general cognitive performance or learning/memory. Higher parents' subjective neighborhood safety had a more positive influence on the executive functioning of non-Hispanic White than Asian American children. Higher parents' subjective neighborhood safety was associated with higher general cognitive performance and learning/memory for non-White children relative to non-Hispanic White children.

CONCLUSION

The race/ethnicity of children moderates the association between neighborhood safety and cognitive performance. This becomes more complicated, as the patterns seem to differ across race/ethnicity and cognitive domains. It is unknown whether the observed racial/ethnic variations in the effect of neighborhood safety on cognitive performance are due to neighborhood characteristics such as residential segregation. Addressing neighborhood inequalities is needed if we wish to reduce racial/ethnic inequities in the cognitive development of children.

Systematic review of the correlates of outdoor play and time among children aged 3-12 years

BACKGROUND

Due to the myriad of benefits of children's outdoor play and time, there is increasing concern over its decline. This systematic review synthesized evidence on the correlates of outdoor play and outdoor time among children aged 3-12 years.

METHODS

A total of 12 electronic databases in five different languages (Chinese, English, Korean, Spanish, Portuguese) were searched between October 28, 2019 and July 27, 2020. Covidence software was used for screening and Microsoft Excel with a predesigned coding form was used for data extraction. Evidence was synthesized and correlates were categorized using the socioecological model framework.

RESULTS

Based on 107 studies representing 188,498 participants and 422 childcare centers from 29 countries, 85 studies examined potential correlates of outdoor play while 23 studies examined that of outdoor time (one examined both). The duration of outdoor play and outdoor time ranged between 60 and 165 min/d and 42-240 min/d, respectively. Out of 287 (outdoor play) and 61 (outdoor time) potential correlates examined, 111 correlates for outdoor play and 33 correlates for outdoor time were identified as significant correlates. Thirty-three variables were identified as key/common correlates of outdoor play/time, including eight correlates at the individual level (e.g., sex/gender, race/ethnicity, physical activity), 10 correlates at the parental level (e.g., parental attitude/support/behavior, parenting practice), nine at the microsystem level (e.g., proximal home/social environment such as residence type, peer influence), three at the macrosystem/community level (e.g., availability of space children can play), and three at the physical ecology/pressure for macrosystem change level (e.g., seasonality, rurality). No key correlates were found at the institutional level.

CONCLUSIONS

Individual, parental, and proximal physical (home) and social environments appear to play a role in children's outdoor play and time. Ecological factors (i.e., seasonality, rurality) also appear to be related to outdoor play/time. Evidence was either inconsistent or lacking at institutional and macrosystem/community levels. Standardizing terminology and measures of outdoor play/time is warranted. Future work should investigate the interactions and processes of multiple variables across different levels of socioecological modelling to better understand the mechanisms through which outdoor play/time opportunities can be optimized for children while paying special attention to varying conditions in which children are born, live, and play.

Combination Effect of Outdoor Activity and Screen Exposure on Risk of Preschool Myopia: Findings From Longhua Child Cohort Study

Evidence regarding screen use and outdoor activity during very early childhood (i. e., from aged 1 to 3 years) and their potential combined links to the later preschool myopia is limited. This information is needed to release effective public health messages and propose intervention strategies against preschool myopia. We collected information regarding very early childhood screen use, outdoor activity and the kindergartens vision screenings of 26,611 preschoolers from Longhua Child Cohort Study by questionnaires. Logistic regression models were used to examine the associations between reported outdoor activity, screen use from 1 to 3 years of age, and preschool myopia. Throughout very early childhood, from 1 to 3 years, the proportion of children exposed to screens increased (from 35.8 to 68.4%, p < 0.001), whereas the proportion of children who went outdoors ≥7 times/week (67.4–62.1%, p < 0.001) and who went outdoors for ≥60 min/time (53.3–38.0%, p < 0.001) declined. Exposure to fixed screen devices [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.66, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.09–3.44], mobile screen devices (AOR = 2.76, 95% CI = 2.15–3.58), and limited outdoor activity (AOR = 1.87, 95% CI = 1.42–2.51) during early childhood were associated with preschool myopia. Among children whose parents were myopic, the interactions between outdoor activity and fixed or mobile screen use on later preschool myopia were significant; the ORs and 95% CI were 3.34 (1.19–9.98) and 3.04 (1.06–9.21), respectively. Our findings suggest the possibility that the impact of screen exposure during early childhood on preschool myopia could be diminished by outdoor activity for children whose parents have myopia.

The Role of the Neighborhood Social Environment in Physical Activity among Hispanic Children: Moderation by Cultural Factors and Mediation by Neighborhood Norms

Little is known about how the neighborhood social environment (e.g., safety, crime, traffic) impacts child physical activity. We examine the mechanism by which the neighborhood social environment is associated with child physical activity, moderated by individual-level cultural factors (e.g., language at home, immigrant generation) and mediated by neighborhood physical activity-related social norms (e.g., seeing walkers in the neighborhood). Data included 2749 non-Hispanic White and Hispanic children from the Healthy Communities Study. Multilevel regression was performed. The neighborhood social environment was not associated with physical activity in the full sample. However, Hispanic children speaking both English and Spanish and first- or second-generation Hispanic children engaged in more physical activity when the quality of the neighborhood social environment was higher (b = 1.60, p < 0.001 for Hispanic children speaking English and Spanish; b = 2.03, p < 0.01 for first-generation Hispanic children; b = 1.29, p < 0.01 for second-generation Hispanic children). Neighborhood physical activity-related social norms mediated the association between the neighborhood social environment and physical activity among Hispanic children speaking English and Spanish (b = 0.33, p < 0.001) and second-generation Hispanic children (b = 0.40, p < 0.001). Findings suggest heterogeneity in how neighborhood social environments impact physical activity by cultural factors. Health promotion programs may need to enhance neighborhood social environments to increase Hispanic children’s physical activity.

The prevalence of physical inactivity in Iranian adolescents and the impact of economic and social inequalities on it: results of a National Study in 2018

BACKGROUND

This study aims to determine the prevalence of physical inactivity in Iranian adolescents aged 10-12 years and the impact of socioeconomic inequality on it.

METHODS

In this descriptive study, the study population consisted of 10-12 years old adolescents from an Iranian population from Kurdistan, Fars and Markazi provinces in 2018. The sample size was 1590 individuals. The sampling method was cluster sampling. Data was collected using demographic questionnaire, modifiable activity questionnaire (MAQ) and socioeconomic questionnaire. Cut points on the MAQ for light activity, moderate activity and heavy activity were MET< 3, MET = 3-6 and MET> 6, respectively. Linear and logistic regression were used to estimate the final model and the Oaxaca analysis method was applied. All analyses were performed in Stata/SE 14.0.

RESULTS

Of the 1590 participants, 52.82% were male. The results showed that 25.79% of the subjects were physically inactive and 7.30% engaged in moderate physical activity during the week. The average physical activity during 1 week was more in boys than in girls (P-value< 0.05). Adolescents of mothers with secondary and high school education were more likely to have physical inactivity than mothers with a high school diploma or higher (AOR: 1.35, 95% CI: 1.02-1.77). The concentration index was -.11, indicating a greater concentration of physical inactivity in adolescents with low socioeconomic levels.

CONCLUSION

One-fourth of the study population had physical inactivity in this age group. Socioeconomic levels, parental literacy, and sex of adolescents were associated with the level of physical activity.

The indirect influence of child play on the association between parent perceptions of the neighborhood environment and sense of community

The neighborhood is a critical setting that broadly affects health, although specific mechanisms that link relationships between the neighborhood environment and indicators of health are still emerging. Children playing is a simple, but underexplored marker that may explain how the neighborhood built environment is related to a psychological sense of community. A telephone survey was conducted among parents with children in the Greater Phoenix Metropolitan area (n = 251) to gather information on perceptions of the built environment, parent attitudes and physical activity behaviors, children's play, and sense of community in the neighborhood. Results of a structural equation modeling analysis (SEM) indicated that children playing in the neighborhood partially explained the relationship between perceptions of the built environment and sense of community (β = 0.031, CI = 0.007-0.067). Parent perceptions of the built environment were positively associated with both children playing (β = 0.229, CI = 0.120-0.341) and sense of community (β = 0.360, CI = 0.220-0.505), and children playing (β = 0.135, CI = 0.027-0.243) and parent attitudes (β = 0.440, CI = 0.319-0.546) were positively related to sense of community. As planners and community advocates consider strategies to build a sense of community within neighborhoods, the importance of favorable environmental conditions that facilitate children's play should be considered.

How Does Park Use and Physical Activity Differ between Childhood and Adolescence? A Focus on Gender and Race-Ethnicity

Physical activity typically declines between childhood and adolescence. Despite urban parks being a great venue for physical activity, children change both the frequency of park use and their park use habits as they age into adolescence. However, little is known about how these differences vary by gender and how distinct race/ethnicity groups differentially change their park habits. This study analyzed the differences in park use and per capita energy expenditure between children and teenagers of different gender and race/ethnicity backgrounds. Using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC), systematic observations were conducted in 20 New York City parks in 2017, located in low-income areas with high presence of Latino or Asian residents. A total of 9963 scans in 167 distinct target areas counted 16,602 children (5-10 years old) and 11,269 teenagers (11 or older). Using adjusted marginal means, we estimated the number of park users of each age range, gender, and race/ethnicity expected to be found in each park activity setting. Teenagers of both genders and most race/ethnicity groups were less likely to be in a park and had lower per capita energy expenditure, compared with children. The difference in park attendance was greater than the difference in per capita energy expenditure. Dissimilarities were clearly gendered and race/ethnicity dependent. Asian and Latino females showed the greatest divergence between childhood and adolescence. African American boys were the only group to show a positive age contrast in park attendance and per capita energy expenditure.

Children's Transport Built Environments: A Mixed Methods Study of Associations between Perceived and Objective Measures and Relationships with Parent Licence for Independent Mobility in Auckland, New Zealand

Children's independent mobility is declining internationally. Parents are the gatekeepers of children's independent mobility. This mixed methods study investigates whether parent perceptions of the neighbourhood environment align with objective measures of the neighbourhood built environment, and how perceived and objective measures relate to parental licence for children's independent mobility. Parents participating in the Neighbourhood for Active Kids study (n = 940) answered an open-ended question about what would make their neighbourhoods better for their child's independent mobility, and reported household and child demographics. Objective measures of the neighbourhood built environment were generated using geographic information systems. Content analysis was used to classify and group parent-reported changes required to improve their neigbourhood. Parent-reported needs were then compared with objective neighbourhood built environment measures. Linear mixed modelling examined associations between parental licence for independent mobility and (1) parent neighbourhood perceptions; and (2) objectively assessed neighbourhood built environment features. Parents identified the need for safer traffic environments. No significant differences in parent reported needs were found by objectively assessed characteristics. Differences in odds of reporting needs were observed for a range of socio-demographic characteristics. Parental licence for independent mobility was only associated with a need for safer places to cycle (positive) and objectively assessed cycling infrastructure (negative) in adjusted models. Overall, the study findings indicate the importance of safer traffic environments for children's independent mobility.

Parental Correlates of Outdoor Play in Boys and Girls Aged 0 to 12-A Systematic Review

Outdoor play is one major source of physical activity (PA) in children. In particular, parents act as gatekeepers, because they can enable their children's outdoor play. This systematic review aims to provide an overview of parental correlates of outdoor play. A systematic literature research of six electronic databases (ERIC, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, PubMed/Medline, SCOPUS, and Web of Science Core Collection) was conducted with previously defined search terms, focusing on children 0⁻12 years old. In total, 1719 potentially publications were screened based on eligibility criteria. Included studies were scored for overall study quality. Findings were summarized using a semi-quantitative method. Twenty-one peer-reviewed publications which examined the relationship of parental correlates and outdoor play were included. Overall, five parental correlates were associated with children's amount of outdoor play: mothers' ethnicity, mothers' employment status, parents' education level, the importance parents assign to outdoor play, and perceived social cohesion in the neighborhood. Merely four studies reported sex/gender-stratified results. In summary, only parents' encouragement/support provided evidence for girls' amount of outdoor play. The findings are considered to be of public health relevance for developing intervention programs to increase outdoor play and for improving child's health. More research, especially considering sex/gender of the child, is required.