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Seaman RW, Galindo DG, Stinson BT, Sulima A, Rice KC, Javors MA, Ginsburg BC, Collins GT. Cardiovascular and locomotor effects of binary mixtures of common 'bath salts' constituents: Studies with methylone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone and caffeine in rats. Br J Pharmacol 2025; 182:1836-1855. [PMID: 39843219 DOI: 10.1111/bph.17444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 10/09/2024] [Accepted: 11/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2025] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The use of 'bath salts' drug preparations has been associated with high rates of toxicity and death. Preparations often contain mixtures of drugs, including multiple synthetic cathinones or synthetic cathinones and caffeine. Little is known about the interactions of 'bath salts' constituents and adverse effects often reported by users. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH This study used adult male Sprague-Dawley rats to characterise the cardiovascular effects, locomotor effects and pharmacokinetics of methylone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and caffeine, administered alone and as binary mixtures. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the effect levels of a strictly additive interaction for dose pairs. KEY RESULTS Methylone, MDPV and caffeine increased heart rate (HR) and locomotion, with methylone producing the largest increase in HR, MDPV producing the largest increase in locomotor activity and caffeine being the least effective in stimulating HR and locomotor activity. MDPV and caffeine increased mean arterial pressure (MAP), with caffeine being more effective than MDPV. The nature of the interactions between methylone and MDPV tended towards sub-additivity for all endpoints, whereas interactions between MDPV or methylone and caffeine tended to be additive or sub-additive for cardiovascular endpoints, and additive or supra-additive for increases in locomotion. No pharmacokinetic interactions were observed between individual constituents, but methylone appeared to display nonlinear pharmacokinetics at the largest dose evaluated. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS These findings demonstrate that 'bath salts' preparations can impact both cardiovascular and locomotor effects and suggest that interactions among constituent drugs could contribute to the 'bath salts' toxidrome reported by human users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Seaman
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - David G Galindo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Benjamin T Stinson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Martin A Javors
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Brett C Ginsburg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
- South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, Texas, USA
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2
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Huestis MA, Smith WB, Leonowens C, Blanchard R, Viaccoz A, Spargo E, Miner NB, Yazar‐Klosinski B. MDMA pharmacokinetics: A population and physiologically based pharmacokinetics model-informed analysis. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2025; 14:376-388. [PMID: 39592887 PMCID: PMC11812931 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.13282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2024] [Revised: 10/24/2024] [Accepted: 11/05/2024] [Indexed: 11/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Midomafetamine (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]) is under the U.S. Food and Drug Administration review for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in adults. MDMA is metabolized by CYP2D6 and is a strong inhibitor of CYP2D6, as well as a weak inhibitor of renal transporters MATE1, OCT1, and OCT2. A pharmacokinetic phase I study was conducted to evaluate the effects of food on MDMA pharmacokinetics. The results of this study, previously published pharmacokinetic data, and in vitro data were combined to develop and verify MDMA population pharmacokinetic and physiologically based pharmacokinetic models. The food effect study demonstrated that a high-fat/high-calorie meal did not alter MDMA plasma concentrations, but delayed Tmax. The population pharmacokinetic model did not identify any clinically meaningful covariates, including age, weight, sex, race, and fed status. The physiologically based pharmacokinetic model simulated pharmacokinetics for the proposed 120 and 180 mg MDMA HCl clinical doses under single- and split-dose (2 h apart) conditions, indicating minor differences in overall exposure, but lower AUC within the first 4 h and delayed Tmax when administered as a split dose compared to a single dose. The physiologically based pharmacokinetic model also investigated the drug-drug interaction magnitude by varying the fraction metabolized by a representative CYP2D6 substrate (atomoxetine) and evaluated inhibition of renal transporters. The simulations confirm MDMA is a potent CYP2D6 inhibitor, but likely has no meaningful impact on the pharmacokinetics of drugs sensitive to renal transport. This model-informed drug development approach was employed to inform drug-drug interaction potential and predict pharmacokinetics of clinically relevant dosing regimens of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn A. Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health ProfessionsThomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
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3
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Andrés CMC, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Munguira EB, Juan CA, Pérez-Lebeña E. From Psychoactivity to Antimicrobial Agents: Multifaceted Applications of Synthetic Cathinones and Catha edulis Extracts. Molecules 2024; 29:5918. [PMID: 39770007 PMCID: PMC11679858 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29245918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2024] [Revised: 12/12/2024] [Accepted: 12/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/11/2025] Open
Abstract
The emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the global drug market since the 2000s has posed major challenges for regulators and law enforcement agencies. Among these, synthetic cathinones have gained prominence due to their stimulant effects on the central nervous system, leading to widespread recreational use. These compounds, often marketed as alternatives to illicit stimulants such as amphetamines and cocaine, have been linked to numerous cases of intoxication, addiction and death. The structural diversity and enantiomeric forms of synthetic cathinones further complicate their detection and regulation and pose challenges to forensic toxicology. In addition to their psychoactive and toxicological effects, new research suggests that cathinones may have antimicrobial properties. Compounds derived from Catha edulis (khat), including cathinone, have shown antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, highlighting their potential role in the fight against antibiotic resistance. This article provides an overview of the chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, toxicological effects and potential antimicrobial applications of synthetic cathinones. The potential therapeutic use of cathinone-derived compounds to combat antimicrobial resistance represents an exciting new frontier in drug development, although further research is needed to balance these benefits with the psychoactive risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia María Curieses Andrés
- Hospital Clínico Universitario of Valladolid, Avenida de Ramón y Cajal, 3, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (C.M.C.A.); (E.B.M.)
| | - José Manuel Pérez de la Lastra
- Institute of Natural Products and Agrobiology, CSIC-Spanish Research Council, Avda. Astrofísico Fco. Sánchez, 3, 38206 La Laguna, Spain
| | - Elena Bustamante Munguira
- Hospital Clínico Universitario of Valladolid, Avenida de Ramón y Cajal, 3, 47003 Valladolid, Spain; (C.M.C.A.); (E.B.M.)
| | - Celia Andrés Juan
- Cinquima Institute and Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Valladolid University, Paseo de Belén, 7, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Eduardo Pérez-Lebeña
- Valladolid University Foundation, Valladolid University, Paseo de Belén, 11, 47011 Valladolid, Spain;
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4
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Seaman RW, Galindo DG, Stinson BT, Sulima A, Rice KC, Javors MA, Ginsburg BC, Collins GT. Cardiovascular and Locomotor Effects of Binary Mixtures of Common "Bath Salts" Constituents: Studies with Methylone, MDPV, and Caffeine in Rats. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.31.578069. [PMID: 38352520 PMCID: PMC10862873 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.31.578069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Background and Purpose The use of "Bath Salts" drug preparations has been associated with high rates of toxicity and death. Preparations often contain mixtures of drugs including multiple synthetic cathinones or synthetic cathinones and caffeine; however, little is known about whether interactions among "Bath Salts" constituents contribute to the adverse effects often reported in users. Experimental Approach This study used adult male Sprague-Dawley rats to characterize the cardiovascular effects, locomotor effects, and pharmacokinetics of methylone, MDPV, and caffeine, administered alone and as binary mixtures. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the effect levels predicted for a strictly additive interaction for each dose pair. Key Results Methylone, MDPV, and caffeine increased heart rate and locomotion, with methylone producing the largest increase in heart rate, MDPV producing the largest increase in locomotor activity, and caffeine being the least effective in stimulating heart rate and locomotor activity. MDPV and caffeine increased mean arterial pressure, with caffeine being more effective than MDPV. The nature of the interactions between methylone and MDPV tended toward sub-additivity for all endpoints, whereas interactions between MDPV or methylone and caffeine tended to be additive or sub-additive for cardiovascular endpoints, and additive or supra-additive for increases in locomotion. No pharmacokinetic interactions were observed between individual constituents, but methylone displayed non-linear pharmacokinetics at the largest dose evaluated. Conclusion and Implications These findings demonstrate that the composition of "Bath Salts" preparations can impact both cardiovascular and locomotor effects and suggest that such interactions among constituent drugs could contribute to the "Bath Salts" toxidrome reported by human users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Seaman
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - David G Galindo
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Benjamin T Stinson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Agnieszka Sulima
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Martin A Javors
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Brett C Ginsburg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
- South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA
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5
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Che P, Davidson JT, Kool J, Kohler I. Electron activated dissociation - a complementary fragmentation technique to collision-induced dissociation for metabolite identification of synthetic cathinone positional isomers. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1283:341962. [PMID: 37977786 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade, a remarkable number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) have emerged onto the drug market, resulting in serious threats to both public health and society. Despite their abundance and potential toxicity, there is little information available on their metabolism, a crucial piece of information for clinical and forensic purposes. NPS metabolism can be studied using in vitro models, such as liver microsomes, cytosol, hepatocytes, etc. The tentative structural elucidation of metabolites of NPS formed using in vitro models is typically carried out using liquid chromatography combined with high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS2) with collision-induced dissociation (CID) as a fragmentation method. However, the thermally-excited ions produced with CID may not be sufficient for unambiguous identification of metabolites or their complete characterization. Electron-activated dissociation (EAD), a relatively new fragmentation approach that can be used to fragment singly-charged ions, may provide complementary structural information that can be used to further improve the confidence in metabolite identification. The aim of this study was to compare CID and EAD as fragmentation methods for the characterization and identification of synthetic cathinone positional isomers and their metabolites. The in vitro metabolism of 2-methylethcathinone (2-MEC), 3-methylethcathinone (3-MEC) and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) was investigated with both CID and EAD methods using LC-HRMS2. Four, seven and six metabolites were tentatively identified for the metabolism of 2-MEC, 3-MEC and 4-MEC, respectively. Here, the metabolism of 3-MEC and 2-MEC is reported for the first time. The EAD product ion mass spectra showed different fragmentation patterns compared to CID, where unique and abundant product ions were observed in EAD but not in CID. More importantly, certain EAD exclusive product ions play a significant role in structural elucidation of some metabolites. These results highlight the important role that EAD fragmentation can play in metabolite identification workflows, by providing additional fragmentation data compared with CID and, thus, enhancing the confidence in structural elucidation of drug metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Che
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - J Tyler Davidson
- Sam Houston State University, Department of Forensic Science, Huntsville, TX, USA
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Isabelle Kohler
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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6
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Che P, Davidson JT, Still K, Kool J, Kohler I. In vitro metabolism of cathinone positional isomers: does sex matter? Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:5403-5420. [PMID: 37452840 PMCID: PMC10444680 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04815-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, one of the most prevalent categories of new psychoactive substances, have been posing a serious threat to public health. Methylmethcathinones (MMCs), notably 3-MMC, have seen an alarming increase in their use in the last decade. The metabolism and toxicology of a large majority of synthetic cathinones, including 3-MMC and 2-MMC, remain unknown. Traditionally, male-derived liver materials have been used as in vitro metabolic incubations to investigate the metabolism of xenobiotics, including MMCs. Therefore, little is known about the metabolism in female-derived in vitro models and the potential sex-specific differences in biotransformation. In this study, the metabolism of 2-MMC, 3-MMC, and 4-MMC was investigated using female rat and human liver microsomal incubations, as well as male rat and human liver microsomal incubations. A total of 25 phase I metabolites of MMCs were detected and tentatively identified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Seven sex-specific metabolites were detected exclusively using pooled male rat liver microsomal incubations. In addition, the metabolites generated from the sex-dependent in vitro metabolic incubations that were present in both male and female rat liver microsomal incubations showed differences in relative abundance. Yet, neither sex-specific metabolites nor significant differences in relative abundance were observed from pooled human liver microsomal incubations. This is the first study to report the phase I metabolic pathways of MMCs using in vitro metabolic incubations for both male and female liver microsomes, and the relative abundance of the metabolites observed from each sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Che
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Tyler Davidson
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, USA
| | - Kristina Still
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Isabelle Kohler
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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7
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Sprega G, Di Giorgi A, Poyatos L, Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, Tini A, Pichini S, Busardò FP, Lo Faro AF, Farré M. Usefulness of Oral Fluid for Measurement of Methylone and Its Metabolites: Correlation with Plasma Drug Concentrations and the Effect of Oral Fluid pH. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13040468. [PMID: 37110127 PMCID: PMC10143603 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13040468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate methylone and its metabolites concentration in oral fluid following controlled increasing doses, focusing on the effect of oral fluid pH. Samples were obtained from a clinical trial where twelve healthy volunteers participated after ingestion of 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg of methylone. Concentration of methylone and its metabolites 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylcathinone (HMMC) and 3,4-methylenedioxycathinone in oral fluid were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated, and the oral fluid-to-plasma ratio (OF/P) at each time interval was calculated and correlated with the oral fluid pH using data from our previous study in plasma. Methylone was detected at all time intervals after each dose; MDC and HMMC were not detectable after the lowest dose. Oral fluid concentrations of methylone ranged between 88.3-503.8, 85.5-5002.3, 182.8-13,201.8 and 214.6-22,684.6 ng/mL following 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg doses, respectively, peaked between 1.5 and 2.0 h, and were followed by a progressive decrease. Oral fluid pH was demonstrated to be affected by methylone administration. Oral fluid is a valid alternative to plasma for methylone determination for clinical and toxicological studies, allowing for a simple, easy and non-invasive sample collection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Sprega
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Alessandro Di Giorgi
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Lourdes Poyatos
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Esther Papaseit
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Anastasio Tini
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Alfredo Fabrizio Lo Faro
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Magí Farré
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
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Epigenetic Studies for Evaluation of NPS Toxicity: Focus on Synthetic Cannabinoids and Cathinones. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10061398. [PMID: 35740419 PMCID: PMC9219842 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10061398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In the recent decade, numerous new psychoactive substances (NPSs) have been added to the illicit drug market. These are synthetized to mimic the effects of classic drugs of abuse (i.e., cannabis, cocaine, etc.), with the purpose of bypassing substance legislations and increasing the pharmacotoxicological effects. To date, research into the acute pharmacological effects of new NPSs is ongoing and necessary in order to provide an appropriate contribution to public health. In fact, multiple examples of NPS-related acute intoxication and mortality have been recorded in the literature. Accordingly, several in vitro and in vivo studies have investigated the pharmacotoxicological profiles of these compounds, revealing that they can cause adverse effects involving various organ systems (i.e., cardiovascular, respiratory effects) and highlighting their potential increased consumption risks. In this sense, NPSs should be regarded as a complex issue that requires continuous monitoring. Moreover, knowledge of long-term NPS effects is lacking. Because genetic and environmental variables may impact NPS responses, epigenetics may aid in understanding the processes behind the harmful events induced by long-term NPS usage. Taken together, “pharmacoepigenomics” may provide a new field of combined study on genetic differences and epigenetic changes in drug reactions that might be predictive in forensic implications.
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9
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Yeh YL, Wang SM. Quantitative Determination and Metabolic Profiling of Synthetic Cathinone Eutylone In Vitro and in Urine Samples by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1325-1337. [PMID: 35332690 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ling Yeh
- Department of Forensic Science, Central Police University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Forensic Science Section, Hsinchu City Police Bureau, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Meng Wang
- Department of Forensic Science, Central Police University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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10
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Enantioselectivity of Pentedrone and Methylone on Metabolic Profiling in 2D and 3D Human Hepatocyte-like Cells. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030368. [PMID: 35337165 PMCID: PMC8953427 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pentedrone and methylone can express stereoselectivity in toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic processes. Similarly, their chiral discrimination in metabolism, which was not yet evaluated, can result in different metabolic profiles and subsequent hepatotoxic effects. Therefore, the aim of this work was to assess, for the first time, both the hepatic cytotoxic and metabolic profile of pentedrone and methylone enantiomers using physiologically relevant in vitro models. The hepatotoxicity of these compounds was observed in a concentration-dependent manner in human stem-cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) cultured under 3D (3D-HLCs) and 2D (2D-HLCs) conditions. Enantioselectivity, on the other hand, was only shown for pentedrone (1 mM) in 3D-HLCs, being R-(−)-pentedrone the most cytotoxic. Furthermore, the metabolic profile was initially evaluated in human liver microsomes (HLM) and further demonstrated in 3D-HLCs and 2D-HLCs applying a gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) technique. Methylone and pentedrone showed distinct and preferential metabolic routes for their enantiomers, resulting in the production of differentiated metabolites; R-(+)-methylone and R-(−)-pentedrone are the most metabolized enantiomers. In conclusion, the results demonstrated enantioselectivity for pentedrone and methylone in the metabolic processes, with enantioselectivity in cytotoxicity for pentedrone.
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Gavrilović I, Gelu Y, Abbate V. In Vitro Metabolic Study of Four Synthetic Cathinones: 4-MPD, 2-NMC, 4F-PHP and bk-EPDP. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12020115. [PMID: 35208190 PMCID: PMC8877857 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12020115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of illicit drugs is exceedingly prevalent in society, and several of them can be illegally purchased from the internet. This occurrence is particularly augmented by the rapid emergence of novel psychoactive substances (NPS), which are sold and distributed as “legal highs”. Amongst NPS, the class of synthetic cathinones represents stimulant substances exhibiting similar effects to amphetamine and its derivatives. Despite potentially being less psychoactive than amphetamine, synthetic cathinones are harmful substances for humans, and little or no information is available regarding their pharmacology and toxicology. The present study investigated the in vitro metabolism and metabolites of four recent synthetic cathinones, namely, 1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-(methylamino)-pentanone (4-MPD), 1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-dimethylamino-propanone (2-NMC), 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl-hexanone (4F-PHP) and 1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(ethylamino)-1-pentanone (bk-EPDP). Our in vitro metabolism study resulted in 24 identified metabolites, including both phase I and phase II metabolites. All metabolites were detected and identified using liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry and may serve as additional markers of abuse of these NPS in toxicological analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Gavrilović
- Drug Control Centre, King’s College London, Franklin Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK;
| | - Yunita Gelu
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK;
| | - Vincenzo Abbate
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-(0)207-83895
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12
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Kurach Ł, Chłopaś-Konowałek A, Budzyńska B, Zawadzki M, Szpot P, Boguszewska-Czubara A. Etazene induces developmental toxicity in vivo Danio rerio and in silico studies of new synthetic opioid derivative. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24269. [PMID: 34931035 PMCID: PMC8688443 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03804-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic opioids are gaining more and more popularity among recreational users as well as regular abusers. One of such novel psychoactive substance, is etazene, which is the most popular opioid drug in the darknet market nowadays. Due to limited information available concerning its activity, we aimed to characterize its developmental toxicity, including cardiotoxicity with the use of in vivo Danio rerio and in silico tools. Moreover, we aimed, for the first time, to characterize the metabolite of etazene, which could become a potential marker of its use for future forensic analysis. The results of our study proved severe dose-dependent developmental toxicity of etazene (applied concentrations 10-300 µM), including an increase in mortality, developmental malformations, and serious cardiotoxic effects, as compared with well-known and used opioid-morphine (applied concentrations 1-50 mM). In silico findings indicate the high toxic potential of etazene which may lead to drug-drug interactions and accumulation of substances. Furthermore, phase I metabolite of etazene resulting from N-dealkylation reaction was identified, and therefore it should be considered as a target for toxicological screening. Nonetheless, the exact mechanism of observed effects in response to etazene should be further examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Kurach
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki Str., 20-093, Lublin, Poland.
| | | | - Barbara Budzyńska
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki Str., 20-093, Lublin, Poland
| | - Marcin Zawadzki
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, 4 J.Mikulicza-Radeckiego Str., 50-345, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Paweł Szpot
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, 4 J.Mikulicza-Radeckiego Str., 50-345, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Anna Boguszewska-Czubara
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki Str., 20-093, Lublin, Poland
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13
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Darney K, Lautz LS, Béchaux C, Wiecek W, Testai E, Amzal B, Dorne JLCM. Human variability in polymorphic CYP2D6 metabolism: Implications for the risk assessment of chemicals in food and emerging designer drugs. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 156:106760. [PMID: 34256299 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The major human cytochrome P450 CYP2D6 isoform enzyme plays important roles in the liver and in the brain with regards to xenobiotic metabolism. Xenobiotics as CYP2D6 substrates include a whole range of pharmaceuticals, pesticides and plant alkaloids to cite but a few. In addition, a number of endogenous compounds have been shown to be substrates of CYP2D6 including trace amines in the brain such as tyramine and 5-methoxytryptamine as well as anandamide and progesterone. Because of the polymorphic nature of CYP2D6, considerable inter-phenotypic and inter-ethnic differences in the pharmaco/toxicokinetics (PK/TK) and metabolism of CYP2D6 substrates exist with potential consequences on the pharmacology and toxicity of chemicals. Here, large extensive literature searches have been performed to collect PK data from published human studies for a wide range of pharmaceutical probe substrates and investigate human variability in CYP2D6 metabolism. The computed kinetic parameters resulted in the largest open source database, quantifying inter-phenotypic differences for the kinetics of CYP2D6 probe substrates in Caucasian and Asian populations, to date. The database is available in supplementary material (CYPD6 DB) and EFSA knowledge junction (DOI to added). Subsequently, meta-analyses using a hierarchical Bayesian model for markers of chronic oral exposure (oral clearance, area under the plasma concentration time curve) and acute oral exposure (maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) provided estimates of inter-phenotypic differences and CYP2D6-related uncertainty factors (UFs) for chemical risk assessment in Caucasian and Asian populations classified as ultra-rapid (UM), extensive (EMs), intermediate (IMs) and poor metabolisers (PMs). The model allowed the integration of inter-individual (i.e. inter-phenotypic and inter-ethnic), inter-compound and inter-study variability together with uncertainty in each PK parameter. Key findings include 1. Higher frequencies of PMs in Caucasian populations compared to Asian populations (>8% vs 1-2%) for which EM and IM were the most frequent phenotype. 2. Large inter-phenotypic differences in PK parameters for Caucasian EMs (coefficients of variation (CV) > 50%) compared with Caucasian PMs and Asian EMs and IMs (i.e CV < 40%). 3. Inter-phenotypic PK differences between EMs and PMs in Caucasian populations increase with the quantitative contribution of CYP2D6 for the metabolism (fm) for a range of substrates (fmCYP2D6 range: 20-95% of dose) (range: 1-54) to a much larger extent than those for Asian populations (range: 1-4). 4. Exponential meta-regressions between FmCYP2D6 in EMs and inter-phenotypic differences were also shown to differ between Caucasian and Asian populations as well as CYP2D6-related UFs. Finally, implications of these results for the risk assessment of food chemicals and emerging designer drugs of public health concern, as CYP2D6 substrates, are highlighted and include the integration of in vitro metabolism data and CYP2D6-variability distributions for the development of quantitative in vitro in vivo extrapolation models.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Darney
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - L S Lautz
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - C Béchaux
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - W Wiecek
- Certara UK Ltd, Audrey House, 5th Floor, 16-20 Ely Place, London EC1N 6SN, United Kingdom
| | - E Testai
- Istituto Superior di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - B Amzal
- Quinten Health, 75017 Paris, France
| | - J L C M Dorne
- European Food Safety Authority, Via Carlo Magno,1A, 43126 Parma, Italy.
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14
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Soares J, Costa VM, Bastos MDL, Carvalho F, Capela JP. An updated review on synthetic cathinones. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2895-2940. [PMID: 34100120 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03083-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cathinone, the main psychoactive compound found in the plant Catha edulis Forsk. (khat), is a β-keto analogue of amphetamine, sharing not only the phenethylamine structure, but also the amphetamine-like stimulant effects. Synthetic cathinones are derivatives of the naturally occurring cathinone that largely entered the recreational drug market at the end of 2000s. The former "legal status", impressive marketing strategies and their commercial availability, either in the so-called "smartshops" or via the Internet, prompted their large spread, contributing to their increasing popularity in the following years. As their popularity increased, the risks posed for public health became clear, with several reports of intoxications and deaths involving these substances appearing both in the social media and scientific literature. The regulatory measures introduced thereafter to halt these trending drugs of abuse have proved to be of low impact, as a continuous emergence of new non-controlled derivatives keep appearing to replace those prohibited. Users resort to synthetic cathinones due to their psychostimulant properties but are often unaware of the dangers they may incur when using these substances. Therefore, studies aimed at unveiling the pharmacological and toxicological properties of these substances are imperative, as they will provide increased expertise to the clinicians that face this problem on a daily basis. The present work provides a comprehensive review on history and legal status, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, adverse effects and lethality in humans, as well as on the current knowledge of the neurotoxic mechanisms of synthetic cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Soares
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vera Marisa Costa
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Capela
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- FP-ENAS (Fernando Pessoa Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit), CEBIMED (Biomedical Research Centre), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal.
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15
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Gearlds C, Bouldin JB, McKinney M, Schreiner S, Brown SD, Pond BB. Pharmacokinetics of Synthetic Cathinones Found in Bath Salts in Mouse Brain and Plasma Using High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2021; 46:771-778. [PMID: 34427910 DOI: 10.1007/s13318-021-00712-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Approximately 10 years ago, "bath salts" became popular as legal alternatives to the psychostimulants cocaine and the amphetamines. These products contained synthetic cathinones, including 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone), and 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone). Most preclinical investigations have only assessed the effects of these synthetic cathinones independently; however, case reports and Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) studies indicate that bath salts contain mixtures of these substances. In this study, we examine the pharmacokinetic interactions of the drug combination. We hypothesized that combined exposure to MDPV, mephedrone, and methylone would result in increased drug concentrations and enhanced total drug concentrations when compared to individual administration. METHODS Adolescent male Swiss-Webster mice were injected intraperitoneally with either 10 mg/kg MDPV, 10 mg/kg mephedrone, 10 mg/kg methylone, or 10 mg/kg combined MDPV, mephedrone, and methylone. Following injection, brains and plasma were collected at 1, 10, 15, 30, 60, and 120 min. Drugs were extracted via solid-phase extraction, and concentrations were determined using a previously published high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method. RESULTS All drugs crossed the blood-brain barrier quickly. For methylone, the maximal concentration (Cmax) and the total drug exposure [as represented by the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC)] were significantly higher when combined with mephedrone and MDPV in both matrices (2.89-fold increase for both Cmax and AUC with combined treatment). For mephedrone, the Cmax was unchanged, but the AUC in brain was increased when in combination by approximately 34%. Interestingly, for MDPV, the Cmax was unchanged, yet the AUC was higher when MDPV was administered individually (there was a 62% decrease in AUC with combined treatment). CONCLUSIONS The pharmacokinetics of methylone, mepedrone, and MDPV are altered when the drugs are used in combination. These data provide insight into the consequences of co-exposure to synthetic cathinones in popular bath salt products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney Gearlds
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Jessica Brooke Bouldin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Mariah McKinney
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Shannon Schreiner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Stacy D Brown
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA
| | - Brooks B Pond
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, East Tennessee State University Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, Johnson City, TN, 37614, USA.
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16
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Poyatos L, Papaseit E, Olesti E, Pérez-Mañá C, Ventura M, Carbón X, Grifell M, Fonseca F, Torrens M, de la Torre R, Farré M. A Comparison of Acute Pharmacological Effects of Methylone and MDMA Administration in Humans and Oral Fluid Concentrations as Biomarkers of Exposure. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10080788. [PMID: 34440023 PMCID: PMC8389614 DOI: 10.3390/biology10080788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Methylone is a synthetic cathinone that is usually used as a substitute for conventional psychostimulants, such as MDMA. Chemically, methylone is considered the β-keto analogue of MDMA, with which it presumably shares similar pharmacological effects. To date, the available data about the human pharmacology of methylone in humans are very scarce and are mainly derived from user experiences, published in internet forums or intoxication reports. Thus, an observational–naturalistic study was conducted to evaluate the acute pharmacological effects and determine biomarkers of exposure in oral fluid of methylone after oral self-administration in comparison to MDMA. Methylone induced the prototypical psychostimulant and empathogenic effects commonly associated with MDMA, although they were of lower intensity. Oral fluid concentrations of methylone can be considered a suitable biomarker of acute exposure, and oral fluid has been proven to be a useful biological matrix of detection. Abstract Considered the β-keto analogue of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy), 3,4-Methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) is a synthetic cathinone. Over the years, methylone has been used as a substitute for conventional psychostimulants, such as MDMA. To date, little is known about the human pharmacology of methylone; the only available information has been provided by surveys or published intoxication reports. In the present observational–naturalistic study, we evaluate the acute subjective and physiological effects of methylone after oral self-administration in comparison to MDMA in healthy poly-drug users. Fourteen participants (10 males, 4 females) selected their single oral doses of methylone from 100 to 300 mg (n = 8, mean dose 187.5 mg) or MDMA from 75 to 100 mg (n = 6, mean dose 87.5 mg) based on their experience. Study variables were assessed at 0, 1, 2, and 4 h (h) and included vital signs (non-invasive blood pressure, heart rate, cutaneous temperature) and subjective effects using visual analogue scales (VAS), the 49-item Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI) short form, and the Evaluation of the Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential (VESSPA-SSE) questionnaire. Additionally, oral fluid concentrations of methylone and MDMA were determined. Acute pharmacological effects produced by methylone followed the prototypical psychostimulant and empathogenic profile associated with MDMA, although they were less intense. Methylone concentrations in oral fluid can be considered a useful biomarker to detect acute exposure in oral fluid. Oral fluid concentrations of MDMA and methylone peaked at 2 h and concentrations of MDMA were in the range of those previously described in controlled studies. Our results demonstrate that the potential abuse liability of methylone is similar to that of MDMA in recreational subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lourdes Poyatos
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.P.); (C.P.-M.); (M.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Esther Papaseit
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.P.); (C.P.-M.); (M.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Eulalia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), 08003 Barcelona, Spain; (E.O.); (R.d.l.T.)
- Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.P.); (C.P.-M.); (M.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (M.V.); (X.C.); (M.G.)
| | - Xoán Carbón
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (M.V.); (X.C.); (M.G.)
| | - Marc Grifell
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (M.V.); (X.C.); (M.G.)
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain; (F.F.); (M.T.)
- Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Parc de Salut Mar, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain; (F.F.); (M.T.)
- Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Parc de Salut Mar, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain; (F.F.); (M.T.)
- Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Parc de Salut Mar, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), 08003 Barcelona, Spain; (E.O.); (R.d.l.T.)
- Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain; (L.P.); (C.P.-M.); (M.F.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
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Centazzo N, Chojnacki MR, Elmore JS, Rodriguez R, Acosta T, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Baumann MH, Concheiro M. Brain Concentrations of Methylone and Its Metabolites after Systemic Methylone Administration: Relationship to Pharmacodynamic Effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2021; 377:398-406. [PMID: 33785525 PMCID: PMC11058058 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.121.000531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone (methylone) is a new psychoactive substance with stimulant properties and potential for abuse. Despite its popularity, limited studies have examined relationships between brain concentrations of methylone, its metabolites, and pharmacodynamic effects. The goal of the present study was 2-fold: 1) to determine pharmacokinetics of methylone and its major metabolites-4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylcathinone (HMMC), 3,4-dihydroxy-N-methylcathinone (HHMC), and 3,4-methylenedioxycathinone (MDC)-in rat brain and plasma and 2) to relate brain pharmacokinetic parameters to pharmacodynamic effects including locomotor behavior and postmortem neurochemistry. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received subcutaneous methylone (6, 12, or 24 mg/kg) or saline vehicle (n = 16/dose), and subgroups were decapitated after 40 or 120 minutes. Plasma and prefrontal cortex were analyzed for concentrations of methylone and its metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Frontal cortex and dorsal striatum were analyzed for dopamine, 5-HT, and their metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection. Brain and plasma concentrations of methylone and its metabolites rose with increasing methylone dose, but brain methylone and MDC concentrations were greater than dose-proportional. Brain-to-plasma ratios for methylone and MDC were ≥ 3 (range 3-12), whereas those for HHMC and HMMC were ≤ 0.2 (range 0.01-0.2). Locomotor activity score was positively correlated with brain methylone and MDC, whereas cortical 5-HT was negatively correlated with these analytes at 120 minutes. Our findings show that brain concentrations of methylone and MDC display nonlinear accumulation. Behavioral and neurochemical effects of systemically administered methylone are related to brain concentrations of methylone and MDC but not its hydroxylated metabolites, which do not effectively penetrate into the brain. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of methylone are related to brain concentrations of methylone and its metabolite MDC but not its hydroxylated metabolites, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylcathinone and 3,4-dihydroxy-N-methylcathinone, which do not effectively penetrate into the brain. Methylone and MDC display nonlinear accumulation in the brain, which could cause untoward effects on serotonin neurons in vulnerable brain regions, including the frontal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Centazzo
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Michael R Chojnacki
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Joshua S Elmore
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Raider Rodriguez
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Teeshavi Acosta
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Masaki Suzuki
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
| | - Marta Concheiro
- Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, New York (N.C., R.R., T.A., M.C.); Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Baltimore, Maryland (M.R.C., J.S.E., M.H.B.); and Drug Design and Synthesis Section, IRP, NIDA, NIH, Rockville, Maryland (M.S., K.C.R.)
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18
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From street to lab: in vitro hepatotoxicity of buphedrone, butylone and 3,4-DMMC. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1443-1462. [PMID: 33550444 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-02990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are among the most popular new psychoactive substances, being abused for their stimulant properties, which are similar to those of amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Considering that the liver is a likely target for cathinones-induced toxicity, and for their metabolic activation/detoxification, we aimed to determine the hepatotoxicity of three commonly abused synthetic cathinones: butylone, α-methylamino-butyrophenone (buphedrone) and 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC). We characterized their cytotoxic profile in primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) and in the HepaRG and HepG2 cell lines. PRH was the most sensitive cell model, showing the lowest EC50 values for all three substances (0.158 mM for 3,4-DMMC; 1.21 mM for butylone; 1.57 mM for buphedrone). Co-exposure of PRH to the synthetic cathinones and CYP450 inhibitors (selective and non-selective) proved that hepatic metabolism reduced the toxicity of buphedrone but increased that of butylone and 3,4-DMMC. All compounds were able to increase oxidative stress, disrupting mitochondrial homeostasis and inducing apoptotic and necrotic features, while also increasing the occurrence of acidic vesicular organelles in PRH, compatible with autophagic activation. In conclusion, butylone, buphedrone and 3,4-DMMC have hepatotoxic potential, and their toxicity lies in the interference with a number of homeostatic processes, while being influenced by their metabolic fate.
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Prado E, Matos RR, de Lima Gomes GM, de Sá CBL, da Costa Nunes IK, de Souza Anselmo C, de Oliveira AS, do Amaral Cohen LS, de Siqueira DS, de Oliveira MAM, Ambrosio JCL, Costa GV, de Aquino Neto FR, Padilha MC, Pereira HMG. Metabolism of synthetic cathinones through the zebrafish water tank model: a promising tool for forensic toxicology laboratories. Forensic Toxicol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-020-00543-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose
The aim of this study was to identify in vivo phase I metabolites of five psychoactive substances: N-ethylpentylone, ethylone, methylone, α-PVP and 4-CDC, using the in house developed experimental set-up zebrafish (Danio rerio) water tank (ZWT). High-resolution mass spectrometry allowed for metabolite identification. A pilot study of reference standard collection of N-ethylpentylone from the water tank was conducted.
Methods
ZWT consisted in 8 fish placed in a 200 mL recipient-containing water for a single cathinone. Experiments were performed in triplicate. Water tank samples were collected after 8 h and pretreated through solid-phase extraction. Separation and accurate-mass spectra of metabolites were obtained using liquid chromatography–high resolution tandem mass spectrometry.
Results
Phase I metabolites of α-PVP were identified, which were formed involving ketone reduction, hydroxylation, and 2″-oxo-pyrrolidine formation. The lactam derivative was the major metabolite observed for α-PVP in ZWT. N-Ethylpentylone and ethylone were transformed into phase I metabolites involving reduction, hydroxylation, and dealkylation. 4-CDC was transformed into phase I metabolites, reported for the first time, involving N-dealkylation, N,N-bis-dealkylation and reduction of the ketone group, the last one being the most intense after 8 h of the experiment.
Conclusions
ZWT model indicated to be very useful to study the metabolism of the synthetic cathinones, such as N-ethylpentylone, ethylone, α-PVP and 4-CDC. Methylone seems to be a potent CYP450 inhibitor in zebrafish. More experiments are needed to better evaluate this issue. Finally, this approach was quite simple, straightforward, extremely low cost, and fast for “human-like” metabolic studies of synthetic cathinones.
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Vaz I, Carvalho T, Valente MJ, Castro A, Araújo AM, Bastos ML, Carvalho M. The interplay between autophagy and apoptosis mediates toxicity triggered by synthetic cathinones in human kidney cells. Toxicol Lett 2020; 331:42-52. [PMID: 32464236 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones abuse remains a serious public health problem. Kidney injury has been reported in intoxications associated with synthetic cathinones, but the molecular mechanisms involved have not been explored yet. In this study, the potential in vitro nephrotoxic effects of four commonly abused cathinone derivatives, namely pentedrone, 3,4-dimethylmethcatinone (3,4-DMMC), methylone and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), were assessed in the human kidney HK-2 cell line. All four derivatives elicited cell death in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, in the following order of potency: 3,4-DMMC >> MDPV > methylone ≈ pentedrone. 3,4-DMMC and methylone were selected to further elucidate the mechanisms behind synthetic cathinones-induced cell death. Both drugs elicited apoptotic cell death and prompted the formation of acidic vesicular organelles and autophagosomes in HK-2 cells. Moreover, the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine significantly potentiated cell death, indicating that autophagy may serve as a cell survival mechanism that protects renal cells against synthetic cathinones toxicity. Both drugs triggered a rise in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species formation, which was completely prevented by antioxidant treatment with N‑acetyl‑L‑cysteine or ascorbic acid. Importantly, these antioxidant agents significantly aggravated renal cell death induced by cathinone derivatives, most likely due to their autophagy-blocking properties. Taken together, our results support an intricate control of cell survival/death modulated by oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy in synthetic cathinones-induced renal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Vaz
- UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit (FP-ENAS), University Fernando Pessoa, Praça Nove de Abril, 349, 4249-004, Porto, Portugal
| | - T Carvalho
- UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit (FP-ENAS), University Fernando Pessoa, Praça Nove de Abril, 349, 4249-004, Porto, Portugal
| | - M J Valente
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Castro
- UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit (FP-ENAS), University Fernando Pessoa, Praça Nove de Abril, 349, 4249-004, Porto, Portugal
| | - A M Araújo
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - M L Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - M Carvalho
- UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit (FP-ENAS), University Fernando Pessoa, Praça Nove de Abril, 349, 4249-004, Porto, Portugal; UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
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22
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Emerging club drugs: 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) is more toxic than its isomer 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB) in hepatocyte cellular models. Arch Toxicol 2019; 94:609-629. [PMID: 31838565 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02638-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
New phenylethylamine derivatives are among the most commonly abused new psychoactive substances. They are synthesized and marketed in lieu of classical amphetaminic stimulants, with no previous safety testing. Our study aimed to determine the in vitro hepatotoxicity of two benzofurans [6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB) and 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB)] that have been misused as 'legal highs'. Cellular viability was assessed through the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay, following 24-h drug exposure of human hepatoma HepaRG cells (EC50 2.62 mM 5-APB; 6.02 mM 6-APB), HepG2 cells (EC50 3.79 mM 5-APB; 8.18 mM 6-APB) and primary rat hepatocytes (EC50 964 μM 5-APB; 1.94 mM 6-APB). Co-incubation of primary hepatocytes, the most sensitive in vitro model, with CYP450 inhibitors revealed a role of metabolism, in particular by CYP3A4, in the toxic effects of both benzofurans. Also, 6-APB and 5-APB concentration-dependently enhanced oxidative stress (significantly increased reactive species and oxidized glutathione, and decreased reduced glutathione levels) and unsettled mitochondrial homeostasis, with disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential and decline of intracellular ATP. Evaluation of cell death mechanisms showed increased caspase-8, -9, and -3 activation, and nuclear morphological changes consistent with apoptosis; at concentrations higher than 2 mM, however, necrosis prevailed. Concentration-dependent formation of acidic vesicular organelles typical of autophagy was also observed for both drugs. Overall, 5-APB displayed higher hepatotoxicity than its 6-isomer. Our findings provide new insights into the potential hepatotoxicity of these so-called 'safe drugs' and highlight the putative risks associated with their use as psychostimulants.
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Dias da Silva D, Ferreira B, Roque Bravo R, Rebelo R, Duarte de Almeida T, Valente MJ, Silva JP, Carvalho F, Bastos MDL, Carmo H. The new psychoactive substance 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) induces oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in primary rat hepatocytes at human-relevant concentrations. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:2617-2634. [PMID: 31468101 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02539-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
3-Methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) has become one of the most popular recreational drugs worldwide after the ban of mephedrone, and was recently deemed responsible for several intoxications and deaths. This study aimed at assessing the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC. For this purpose, Wistar rat hepatocytes were isolated by collagenase perfusion, cultured and exposed for 24 h at a concentration range varying from 31 nM to 10 mM 3-MMC. The modulatory effects of cytochrome P450 (CYP) inhibitors on 3-MMC hepatotoxicity were evaluated. 3-MMC-induced toxicity was perceived at the lysosome at lower concentrations (NOEC 312.5 µM), compared to mitochondria (NOEC 379.5 µM) and cytoplasmic membrane (NOEC 1.04 mM). Inhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2E1 diminished 3-MMC cytotoxicity, yet for CYP2E1 inhibition this effect was only observed for concentrations up to 1.3 mM. A significant concentration-dependent increase of intracellular reactive species was observed from 10 μM 3-MMC on; a concentration-dependent decrease in antioxidant glutathione defences was also observed. At 10 μM, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 activities were significantly elevated, corroborating the activation of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways. Nuclear morphology and formation of cytoplasmic acidic vacuoles suggest prevalence of necrosis and autophagy at concentrations higher than 10 μM. No significant alterations were observed in the mitochondrial membrane potential, but intracellular ATP significantly decreased at 100 μM. Our data point to a role of metabolism in the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC, which seems to be triggered both by autophagic and apoptotic/necrotic mechanisms. This work is the first approach to better understand 3-MMC toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Dias da Silva
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Bárbara Ferreira
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Roque Bravo
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Rebelo
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Tomás Duarte de Almeida
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria João Valente
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Pedro Silva
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Helena Carmo
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
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Luethi D, Kolaczynska KE, Walter M, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Blough BE, Hoener MC, Baumann MH, Liechti ME. Metabolites of the ring-substituted stimulants MDMA, methylone and MDPV differentially affect human monoaminergic systems. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:831-841. [PMID: 31038382 PMCID: PMC8269116 DOI: 10.1177/0269881119844185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amphetamine analogs with a 3,4-methylenedioxy ring-substitution are among the most popular illicit drugs of abuse, exerting stimulant and entactogenic effects. Enzymatic N-demethylation or opening of the 3,4-methylenedioxy ring via O-demethylenation gives rise to metabolites that may be pharmacologically active. Indeed, previous studies in rats show that specific metabolites of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) can interact with monoaminergic systems. AIM Interactions of metabolites of MDMA, methylone and MDPV with human monoaminergic systems were assessed. METHODS The ability of parent drugs and their metabolites to inhibit uptake of tritiated norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) was assessed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells transfected with human monoamine transporters. Binding affinities and functional activity at monoamine transporters and various receptor subtypes were also determined. RESULTS MDMA and methylone displayed greater potency to inhibit norepinephrine uptake as compared to their effects on dopamine and 5-HT uptake. N-demethylation of MDMA failed to alter uptake inhibition profiles, whereas N-demethylation of methylone decreased overall transporter inhibition potencies. O-demethylenation of MDMA, methylone and MDPV resulted in catechol metabolites that maintained norepinephrine and dopamine uptake inhibition potencies, but markedly reduced activity at 5-HT uptake. O-methylation of the catechol metabolites significantly decreased norepinephrine uptake inhibition, resulting in metabolites lacking significant stimulant properties. CONCLUSIONS Several metabolites of MDMA, methylone and MDPV interact with human transporters and receptors at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. In particular, N-demethylated metabolites of MDMA and methylone circulate in unconjugated form and could contribute to the in vivo activity of the parent compounds in human users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karolina E. Kolaczynska
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Walter
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Masaki Suzuki
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,On leave from the Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratories, New Drug Research Division , Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokushima, Japan
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Bruce E. Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Marius C. Hoener
- Neuroscience Research, pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland,Corresponding author: Prof. Dr. med. Matthias E. Liechti, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland. Tel: +41 61 328 68 68; Fax: +41 61 265 45 60;
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25
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Calinski DM, Kisor DF, Sprague JE. A review of the influence of functional group modifications to the core scaffold of synthetic cathinones on drug pharmacokinetics. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:881-890. [PMID: 30069588 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4985-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The synthetic cathinones are a class of designer drugs of abuse that share a common core scaffold. The pharmacokinetic profiles of the synthetic cathinones vary based on the substitutions to the core scaffold. OBJECTIVES To provide a summary of the literature regarding the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the synthetic cathinones, with a focus on the impact of the structural modifications to the pharmacokinetics. RESULTS In many, but not all, instances the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the synthetic cathinones can be reasonably predicted based on the substitutions to the core scaffold. Mephedrone and methylone are chemically alike and have similar Tmax and t1/2 in male rats. MDPV, a structurally distinct synthetic cathinone from mephedrone and methylone, has a lower Tmax and t1/2. Increasing the length of the alkyl chain on the α position of methylone, to produce pentylone, results in increased plasma concentrations and longer t1/2. Metabolism of the synthetic cathinones is reasonably predictable based on the chemical structure, and several phase I metabolites retain pharmacodynamic activity. CYP2D6 is implicated in the metabolism of all of the synthetic cathinones, and other P450s (CYP1A2, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19) are known to contribute variably to the metabolism of specific synthetic cathinones. CONCLUSIONS Continued research will lead to a better understanding of the pharmacokinetic changes associated with structural modifications to the cathinone scaffold, and potentially in the long range, enhanced overdose and addiction therapy. Additionally, the areas of polydrug use and pharmacogenetics have been largely overlooked with regard to synthetic cathinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane M Calinski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA
| | - David F Kisor
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA
| | - Jon E Sprague
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA. .,The Ohio Attorney General's Center for the Future of Forensic Science, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, 43403, USA.
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Kinyua J, Negreira N, McCall AK, Boogaerts T, Ort C, Covaci A, van Nuijs ALN. Investigating in-sewer transformation products formed from synthetic cathinones and phenethylamines using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 634:331-340. [PMID: 29627557 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated the role of biofilms on the stability of drug residues in wastewater. These factors are pertinent in wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) when estimating community-level drug use. However, there is scarce information on the biotransformation of drug residues in the presence of biofilms and the potential use of transformation products (TPs) as biomarkers in WBE. The purpose of this work was to investigate the formation of TPs in sewage reactors in the presence of biofilm mimicking conditions during in-sewer transport. Synthetic cathinones (methylenedioxypyrovalerone, methylone, mephedrone) and phenethylamines (4-methoxy-methamphetamine and 4-methoxyamphetamine) were incubated in individual reactors over a 24h period. Analysis of parent species and TPs was carried out using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToFMS). Identification of TPs was done using suspect and non-target workflows. In total, 18 TPs were detected and identified with reduction of β-keto group, demethylenation, demethylation, and hydroxylation reactions observed for the synthetic cathinones. For the phenethylamines, N- and O-demethylation reactions were identified. Overall, the experiments showed varying stability for the parent species in wastewater in the presence of biofilms. The newly identified isomeric forms of TPs particularly for methylone and mephedrone can be used as potential target biomarkers for WBE studies due to their specificity and detectability within a 24h residence time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Noelia Negreira
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ann-Kathrin McCall
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Tim Boogaerts
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Christoph Ort
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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Gannon BM, Galindo KI, Mesmin MP, Rice KC, Collins GT. Reinforcing Effects of Binary Mixtures of Common Bath Salt Constituents: Studies with 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), 3,4-Methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone), and Caffeine in Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:761-769. [PMID: 28677665 PMCID: PMC5809783 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Bath salts use is associated with high rates of abuse, toxicity, and death. Bath salt preparations often contain mixtures of drugs including multiple synthetic cathinones (eg, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) or 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone)) or synthetic cathinones and caffeine; however, little is known about whether interactions among bath salt constituents contribute to the abuse-related effects of bath salts preparations. This study used male Sprague-Dawley rats responding under a progressive ratio schedule to quantify the reinforcing effectiveness of MDPV, methylone, and caffeine, administered alone and as binary mixtures (n=12 per mixture). Each mixture was evaluated at four ratios (10 : 1, 3 : 1, 1 : 1, and 1 : 3) relative to the mean ED50 for each drug alone. Dose-addition analyses were used to determine the predicted, additive effect for each dose pair within each drug mixture. MDPV, methylone, and caffeine maintained responding in a dose-dependent manner, with MDPV being the most potent and effective, and caffeine being the least potent and effective of the three bath salts constituents. High levels of responding were also maintained by each of the bath salts mixtures. Although the nature of the interactions tended toward additivity for most bath salts mixtures, supra-additive (3 : 1 MDPV : caffeine, and 3 : 1 and 1 : 1 methylone : caffeine) and sub-additive (3 : 1, 1 : 1, and 1 : 3 MDPV : methylone) interactions were also observed. Together, these findings demonstrate that the composition of bath salts preparations can have an impact on both their reinforcing potency and effectiveness, and suggest that such interactions among constituent drugs could contribute to the patterns of use and effects reported by human bath salts users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda M Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Kayla I Galindo
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Melson P Mesmin
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, NIDA and NIAAA, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gregory T Collins
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA,South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA,Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, MC# 7764, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA, Tel: +1 210 567 4199, Fax: +1 210 567 1581, E-mail:
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28
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Valente MJ, Amaral C, Correia-da-Silva G, Duarte JA, Bastos MDL, Carvalho F, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M. Methylone and MDPV activate autophagy in human dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells: a new insight into the context of β-keto amphetamines-related neurotoxicity. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:3663-3676. [PMID: 28527032 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-1984-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy has an essential role in neuronal homeostasis and its dysregulation has been recently linked to neurotoxic effects of a growing list of psychoactive drugs, including amphetamines. However, the role of autophagy in β-keto amphetamine (β-KA) designer drugs-induced neurotoxicity has hitherto not been investigated. In the present study, we show that two commonly abused cathinone derivatives, 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), elicit morphological changes consistent with autophagy and neurodegeneration, including formation of autophagic vacuoles and neurite retraction in dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells. Methylone and MDPV prompted the formation of acidic vesicular organelles (AVOs) and lead to increased expression of the autophagy-associated protein LC3-II in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence of autophagosomes with typical double membranes and autolysosomes in cells exposed to both β-KA. The autophagic flux was further confirmed using bafilomycin A1, a known inhibitor of the late phase of autophagy. Moreover, we showed that autophagy markers were activated before the triggering of cell death and caspase 3 activation, suggesting that β-KA-induced autophagy precedes apoptotic cell death. To address the role of oxidative stress in autophagy induction, we also investigated the effects of antioxidant treatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) on autophagy and apoptotic markers altered by these drugs. NAC significantly attenuated methylone- and MDPV-induced cell death by completely inhibiting the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and hampering both apoptotic and autophagic activity, suggesting that oxidative stress plays an important role in mediating autophagy and apoptosis elicited by these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Valente
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Cristina Amaral
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Georgina Correia-da-Silva
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Guedes de Pinho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Márcia Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- UFP Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit (FP-ENAS), University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal.
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Prediction of regioselectivity and preferred order of metabolisms on CYP1A2-mediated reactions. Part 2: Solving substrate interactions of CYP1A2 with non-PAH substrates on the template system. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2017; 32:229-247. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Strange LG, Kochelek K, Keasling R, Brown SD, Pond BB. The pharmacokinetic profile of synthetic cathinones in a pregnancy model. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2017; 63:9-13. [PMID: 28811141 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the abuse of synthetic cathinones or 'bath salts' has become a major public health concern. Although these compounds were initially sold legally and labeled "not for human consumption", the 'bath salts' are psychostimulants, with similar structures and pharmacologic mechanisms to cocaine, the amphetamines, and 3,4 methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Molly, or Ecstasy). The reported use of these substances by women of child-bearing age highlights the necessity of studies seeking to delineate risks of prenatal exposure. Three popular drugs of this type are methylone, mephedrone, and 3, 4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Unfortunately, there is currently no information available on the teratogenicity of these compounds, or of the extent to which they cross the placenta. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the pharmacokinetic profile of the 'bath salts' in a pregnancy model. Pregnant mice (E17.5 gestation) were injected intraperitoneally with a cocktail of 5mg/kg methylone, 10mg/kg mephedrone, and 3mg/kg (MDPV) dissolved in sterile saline. Maternal brain, maternal plasma, placenta, and fetal brain were collected at 30s, 1min, 5min, 10min, 15min, 30min, 1h, 2h, 4h, and 8h following injection. Methylone, mephedrone, and MDPV were extracted from tissue by solid phase extraction, and concentrations were determined using a previously validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Interestingly, all 3 cathinones reached measurable concentrations in the placenta, as well as the fetal brain; in fact, for MDPV, the maximal concentration (Cmax) was highest in fetal brain, while mephedrone's highest Cmax value was achieved in placenta. Additionally, the total drug exposure for all 3 compounds (as represented by area under the curve, AUC) was higher in fetal matrices (placenta and fetal brain) than in maternal matrices (maternal brain and plasma), and the half-lives for the drugs were longer. Given the extensive presence of methylone, mephedrone, and MDPV in the fetal brain following prenatal exposure, fetal risk is definitely a concern. As there are currently no prenatal studies available on the teratogenicity of these agents, pregnant patients should be informed about the potential risks that these substances may have.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren G Strange
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Kerri Kochelek
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Robert Keasling
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Stacy D Brown
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States
| | - Brooks B Pond
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Box 70594, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States.
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Židková M, Linhart I, Balíková M, Himl M, Dvořáčková V, Lhotková E, Páleníček T. Identification of three new phase II metabolites of a designer drug methylone formed in rats by N-demethylation followed by conjugation with dicarboxylic acids. Xenobiotica 2017; 48:618-625. [PMID: 28665175 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2017.1349964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
1. Methylone (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone, MDMC), which appeared on the illicit drug market in 2004, is a frequently abused synthetic cathinone derivative. Known metabolic pathways of MDMC include N-demethylation to normethylone (3,4-methylenedioxycathinone, MDC), aliphatic chain hydroxylation and oxidative demethylenation followed by monomethylation and conjugation with glucuronic acid and/or sulphate. 2. Three new phase II metabolites, amidic conjugates of MDC with succinic, glutaric and adipic acid, were identified in the urine of rats dosed subcutaneously with MDMC.HCl (20 mg/kg body weight) by LC-ESI-HRMS using synthetic reference standards to support identification. 3. The main portion of administered MDMC was excreted unchanged. Normethylone, was a major urinary metabolite, of which a minor part was conjugated with dicarboxylic acids. 4. Previously identified ring-opened metabolites 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethcathinone (4-OH-3-MeO-MC), 3-hydroxy-4-methoxymeth-cathinone (3-OH-4-MeO-MC) and 3,4-dihydroxymethcathinone (3,4-di-OH-MC) mostly in conjugated form with glucuronic and/or sulphuric acids were also detected. 5. Also, ring-opened metabolites derived from MDC, namely, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycathinone (4-OH-3-MeO-C), 3-hydroxy-4-methoxycathinone (3-OH-4-MeO-C) and 3,4-dihydroxycathinone (3,4-di-OH-C) were identified for the first time in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Židková
- a Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague , Prague , Czech Republic
| | - Igor Linhart
- b Faculty of Chemical Technology , Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology , Prague , Czech Republic , and
| | - Marie Balíková
- a Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague , Prague , Czech Republic
| | - Michal Himl
- b Faculty of Chemical Technology , Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology , Prague , Czech Republic , and
| | - Veronika Dvořáčková
- b Faculty of Chemical Technology , Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology , Prague , Czech Republic , and
| | - Eva Lhotková
- c National Institute of Mental Health , Klecany , Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- c National Institute of Mental Health , Klecany , Czech Republic
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Luethi D, Liechti ME, Krähenbühl S. Mechanisms of hepatocellular toxicity associated with new psychoactive synthetic cathinones. Toxicology 2017. [PMID: 28645576 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are a new class of psychostimulant substances. Rarely, they can cause liver injury but associated mechanisms are not completely elucidated. In order to increase our knowledge about mechanisms of hepatotoxicity, we investigated the effect of five frequently used cathinones on two human cell lines. Bupropion was included as structurally related drug used therapeutically. In HepG2 cells, bupropion, MDPV, mephedrone and naphyrone depleted the cellular ATP content at lower concentrations (0.2-1mM) than cytotoxicity occurred (0.5-2mM), suggesting mitochondrial toxicity. In comparison, methedrone and methylone depleted the cellular ATP pool and induced cytotoxicity at similar concentrations (≥2mM). In HepaRG cells, cytotoxicity and ATP depletion could also be demonstrated, but cytochrome P450 induction did not increase the toxicity of the compounds investigated. The mitochondrial membrane potential was decreased in HepG2 cells by bupropion, MDPV and naphyrone, confirming mitochondrial toxicity. Bupropion, but not the other compounds, uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation. Bupropion, MDPV, mephedrone and naphyrone inhibited complex I and II of the electron transport chain, naphyrone also complex III. All four mitochondrial toxicants were associated with increased mitochondrial ROS and increased lactate production, which was accompanied by a decrease in the cellular total GSH pool for naphyrone and MDPV. In conclusion, bupropion, MDPV, mephedrone and naphyrone are mitochondrial toxicants impairing the function of the electron transport chain and depleting cellular ATP stores. Since liver injury is rare in users of these drugs, affected persons must have susceptibility factors rendering them more sensitive for these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Swiss Centre of Applied Human Toxicology, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Swiss Centre of Applied Human Toxicology, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Swiss Centre of Applied Human Toxicology, Basel, Switzerland.
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33
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Logan BK, Mohr AL, Friscia M, Krotulski AJ, Papsun DM, Kacinko SL, Ropero-Miller JD, Huestis MA. Reports of Adverse Events Associated with Use of Novel Psychoactive Substances, 2013–2016: A Review. J Anal Toxicol 2017; 41:573-610. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkx031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
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Valente MJ, Bastos MDL, Fernandes E, Carvalho F, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M. Neurotoxicity of β-Keto Amphetamines: Deathly Mechanisms Elicited by Methylone and MDPV in Human Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells. ACS Chem Neurosci 2017; 8:850-859. [PMID: 28067045 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones (β-keto amphetamines) act as potent CNS stimulants similarly to classical amphetamines, which raise concerns about their potential neurotoxic effects. The present in vitro study aimed to explore and compare the mechanisms underlying the neurotoxicity of two commonly abused cathinone derivatives, 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), with those of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), using undifferentiated and differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Following a 24 h exposure period, methylone and MDPV induced loss of cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner, in the following order of potency: MDPV ≈ MDMA > methylone. Dopaminergic differentiated cells evidenced higher sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of both cathinones and MDMA than the undifferentiated ones, but this effect was not inhibited by the DAT inhibitor GBR 12909. Intracellular oxidative stress mediated by methylone and MDPV was demonstrated by the increase in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS) production, depletion of intracellular reduced glutathione and increased oxidized glutathione levels. All three drugs elicited mitochondrial impairment, characterized by the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) dissipation and intracellular ATP depletion. Apoptosis was found to be a common mechanism of cell death induced by methylone and MDPV, with evident chromatin condensation and formation of pyknotic nuclei, and activation of caspases 3, 8, and 9. In conclusion, the present data shows that oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction play a role in cathinones-induced neuronal damage, ultimately leading to cell death by apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Valente
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Fernandes
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Guedes de Pinho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Márcia Carvalho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- FP-ENAS, CEBIMED, Fundação Ensino e Cultura Fernando Pessoa , 4249-004 Porto, Portugal
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Pharmacokinetic Profiles and Pharmacodynamic Effects for Methylone and Its Metabolites in Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:649-660. [PMID: 27658484 PMCID: PMC5240186 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone (methylone) is a new psychoactive substance and the β-keto analog of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA). It is well established that MDMA metabolism produces bioactive metabolites. Here we tested the hypothesis that methylone metabolism in rats can form bioactive metabolites. First, we examined the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of methylone and its metabolites after subcutaneous (sc) methylone administration (3, 6, 12 mg/kg) to male rats fitted with intravenous (iv) catheters for repeated blood sampling. Plasma specimens were assayed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry to quantify methylone and its phase I metabolites: 3,4-methylenedioxycathinone (MDC), 3,4-dihydroxy-N-methylcathinone (HHMC), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylcathinone (HMMC). The biological activity of methylone and its metabolites was then compared using in vitro transporter assays and in vivo microdialysis in rat nucleus accumbens. For the PK study, we found that methylone and MDC peaked early (Tmax=15-45 min) and were short lived (t1/2=60-90 min), while HHMC and HMMC peaked later (Tmax=60-120 min) and persisted (t1/2=120-180 min). Area-under-the-curve values for methylone and MDC were greater than dose-proportional, suggesting non-linear accumulation. Methylone produced significant locomotor activation, which was correlated with plasma methylone, MDC, and HHMC concentrations. Methylone, MDC, and HHMC were substrate-type releasers at monoamine transporters as determined in vitro, but only methylone and MDC (1, 3 mg/kg, iv) produced significant elevations in brain extracellular dopamine and 5-HT in vivo. Our findings demonstrate that methylone is extensively metabolized in rats, but MDC is the only centrally active metabolite that could contribute to overall effects of the drug in vivo.
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Štefková K, Židková M, Horsley RR, Pinterová N, Šíchová K, Uttl L, Balíková M, Danda H, Kuchař M, Páleníček T. Pharmacokinetic, Ambulatory, and Hyperthermic Effects of 3,4-Methylenedioxy- N-Methylcathinone (Methylone) in Rats. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:232. [PMID: 29204126 PMCID: PMC5698284 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Methylone (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone) is a synthetic cathinone analog of the recreational drug ecstasy. Although it is marketed to recreational users as relatively safe, fatalities due to hyperthermia, serotonin syndrome, and multi-organ system failure have been reported. Since psychopharmacological data remain scarce, we have focused our research on pharmacokinetics, and on a detailed evaluation of temporal effects of methylone and its metabolite nor-methylone on behavior and body temperature in rats. Methylone [5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg subcutaneously (s.c.)] and nor-methylone (10 mg/kg s.c.) were used in adolescent male Wistar rats across three behavioral/physiological procedures and in two temporal windows from administration (15 and 60 min) in order to test: locomotor effects in the open field, sensorimotor gating in the test of prepulse inhibition (PPI), and effects on rectal temperature in individually and group-housed rats. Serum and brain pharmacokinetics after 10 mg/kg s.c. over 8 h were analyzed using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Serum and brain levels of methylone and nor-methylone peaked at 30 min after administration, both drugs readily penetrated the brain with serum: brain ratio 1:7.97. Methylone dose-dependently increased overall locomotion. It also decrease the amount of time spent in the center of open field arena in dose 20 mg/kg and additionally this dose induced stereotyped circling around the arena walls. The maximum of effects corresponded to the peak of its brain concentrations. Nor-methylone had approximately the same behavioral potency. Methylone also has weak potency to disturb PPI. Behavioral testing was not performed with 40 mg/kg, because it was surprisingly lethal to some animals. Methylone 10 and 20 mg/kg s.c. induced hyperthermic reaction which was more pronounced in group-housed condition relative to individually housed rats. To conclude, methylone increased exploration and/or decreased anxiety in the open field arena and with nor-methylone had short duration of action with effects typical for mixed indirect dopamine-serotonin agonists such as 3,4-metyhlenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or amphetamine. Given the fact that the toxicity was even higher than the known for MDMA and that it can cause hyperthermia it possess a threat to users with the risk for serotonin syndrome especially when used in crowded conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristýna Štefková
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Monika Židková
- First Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Rachel R Horsley
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Nikola Pinterová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Klára Šíchová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia
| | - Libor Uttl
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Marie Balíková
- First Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Hynek Danda
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Compounds, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
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Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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Valente MJ, Araújo AM, Bastos MDL, Fernandes E, Carvalho F, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M. Editor's Highlight: Characterization of Hepatotoxicity Mechanisms Triggered by Designer Cathinone Drugs (β-Keto Amphetamines). Toxicol Sci 2016; 153:89-102. [PMID: 27255387 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of cathinone designer drugs in recreational settings has been associated with severe toxic effects, including liver damage. The precise mechanisms by which cathinones induce hepatotoxicity and whether they act by common pathways remain to be elucidated. Herein, we assessed the toxicity of the cathinones methylone, pentedrone, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) in primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) and HepaRG cells, and compared with that of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). MDPV and pentedrone were significantly more toxic than MDMA, while methylone was the least cytotoxic compound. Importantly, PRH revealed to be the most sensitive experimental model and was thus used to explore the mechanisms underlying the observed toxicity. All drugs elicited the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS), but more markedly for methylone, pentedrone and 4-MEC. GSH depletion was also a common effect at the highest concentration tested, whereas only MDPV and pentedrone caused a significant decrease in ATP levels. The antioxidants ascorbic acid or N-acetyl-L-cysteine partially attenuated the observed cell death. All cathinones triggered significant caspase activation and apoptosis, which was partially reversed by the caspase inhibitor Ac-LETD-CHO. In conclusion, the present data shows that (1) cathinones induce in vitro hepatotoxic effects that vary in magnitude among the different analogues, (2) oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction play a role in cathinones-induced hepatic injury, and (3) apoptosis appears to be an important pathway of cell death elicited by these novel drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Valente
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;
| | - Ana Margarida Araújo
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Fernandes
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Guedes de Pinho
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Márcia Carvalho
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; FP-ENAS, CEBIMED, Fundação Ensino e Cultura Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal
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39
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Ellefsen KN, Concheiro M, Huestis MA. Synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetics, analytical methods, and toxicological findings from human performance and postmortem cases. Drug Metab Rev 2016; 48:237-65. [PMID: 27249313 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2016.1188937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are commonly abused novel psychoactive substances (NPS). We present a comprehensive systematic review addressing in vitro and in vivo synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetics, analytical methods for detection and quantification in biological matrices, and toxicological findings from human performance and postmortem toxicology cases. Few preclinical administration studies examined synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetic profiles (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion), and only one investigated metabolite pharmacokinetics. Synthetic cathinone metabolic profiling studies, primarily with human liver microsomes, elucidated metabolite structures and identified suitable biomarkers to extend detection windows beyond those provided by parent compounds. Generally, cathinone derivatives underwent ketone reduction, carbonylation of the pyrrolidine ring, and oxidative reactions, with phase II metabolites also detected. Reliable analytical methods are necessary for cathinone identification in biological matrices to document intake and link adverse events to specific compounds and concentrations. NPS analytical methods are constrained in their ability to detect new emerging synthetic cathinones due to limited commercially available reference standards and continuous development of new analogs. Immunoassay screening methods are especially affected, but also gas-chromatography and liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry confirmation methods. Non-targeted high-resolution-mass spectrometry screening methods are advantageous, as they allow for retrospective data analysis and easier addition of new synthetic cathinones to existing methods. Lack of controlled administration studies in humans complicate interpretation of synthetic cathinones in biological matrices, as dosing information is typically unknown. Furthermore, antemortem and postmortem concentrations often overlap and the presence of other psychoactive substances are typically found in combination with cathinones derivatives, further confounding result interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla N Ellefsen
- a Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP , National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health , Baltimore , MD , USA ;,b Program in Toxicology , University of Maryland Baltimore , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Marta Concheiro
- c Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice , City University of New York , New York , NY , USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- a Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP , National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health , Baltimore , MD , USA
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Pantano F, Tittarelli R, Mannocchi G, Zaami S, Ricci S, Giorgetti R, Terranova D, Busardò FP, Marinelli E. Hepatotoxicity Induced by "the 3Ks": Kava, Kratom and Khat. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:580. [PMID: 27092496 PMCID: PMC4849036 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17040580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The 3Ks (kava, kratom and khat) are herbals that can potentially induce liver injuries. On the one hand, growing controversial data have been reported about the hepatotoxicity of kratom, while, on the other hand, even though kava and khat hepatotoxicity has been investigated, the hepatotoxic effects are still not clear. Chronic recreational use of kratom has been associated with rare instances of acute liver injury. Several studies and case reports have suggested that khat is hepatotoxic, leading to deranged liver enzymes and also histopathological evidence of acute hepatocellular degeneration. Numerous reports of severe hepatotoxicity potentially induced by kava have also been highlighted, both in the USA and Europe. The aim of this review is to focus on the different patterns and the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by “the 3Ks”, while trying to clarify the numerous aspects that still need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flaminia Pantano
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Roberta Tittarelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giulio Mannocchi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Serafino Ricci
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Section of Legal Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy.
| | - Daniela Terranova
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco P Busardò
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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41
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Karch SB. Cathinone neurotoxicity ("The "3Ms"). Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 13:21-5. [PMID: 26074741 PMCID: PMC4462040 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666141210225009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Revised: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are designer drugs of the phenethylamine class, structurally and pharmacologically similar to amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cathinone and other related substances. New analogues, legal at least, until formally banned (a time consuming process), are introduced almost daily The United Nations estimates nearly 250 new drug analogues are produced per year. Various combinations of these drugs are sold under the name of “bath salts”. They can be ingested by any route and some appear capable of causing great harm, mostly behavioral. One drug in particular, MDVP, appears to frequently cause symptoms indistinguishable from the classic findings in Excited Delirium Syndrome (ExDS). Little is known about the pathology or clinical toxicology of these drugs but their molecular mechanism of action seems to be identical with that of cocaine. This mini-review examines what little is known on the subject and explains the suspected
mechanisms of excited delirium syndrome.
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Abstract
The use of khat (Catha edulis) while on medication may alter treatment outcome. In particular, the influence of khat on the metabolic activities of drug-metabolizing enzymes is not known. We performed a comparative 1-way crossover study to evaluate the effect of khat on cytochrome P450 (CYP)2D6 and CYP3A4 enzyme activity. After 1 week of khat abstinence, baseline CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 metabolic activities were determined in 40 Ethiopian male volunteers using 30 mg dextromethorphan (DM) as a probe drug and then repeated after 1 week of daily use of 400 g fresh khat leaves. Urinary concentrations of cathinone and cathine were determined to monitor the subjects' compliance to the study protocol. Genotyping for CYP2D6*3 and CYP2D6*4 was done. Plasma DM, dextrorphan and 3-methoxymorphinan concentrations were quantified. CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 enzyme activities were assessed by comparing plasma log DM/dextrorphan and log DM/methoxymorphinan metabolic ratio (MR) respectively in the presence and absence of khat. Cytochrome 2D6 MR was significantly increased from baseline by concurrent khat use (paired t test, P = 0.003; geometric mean ratio, 1.38; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.12-1.53). Moreover, the inhibition of CYP2D6 activity by khat was more pronounced in CYP2D6*1/*1 compared with CYP2D6*1/*4 genotypes (P = 0.01). A marginal inhibition of CYP3A4 activity in the presence of khat was observed (P = 0.24). The mean percentage increase of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 MR from baseline by khat use was 46% (95% CI, 20-72) and 31% (95% CI, 8-54), respectively. This is the first report linking khat use with significant inhibition of CYP2D6 metabolic activity in humans.
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Nielsen LM, Holm NB, Olsen L, Linnet K. Cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of the synthetic cannabinoids UR-144 and XLR-11. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:792-800. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Line Marie Nielsen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Frederik V's Vej 11, 3 DK-2100 Denmark
- Biostructural Research, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Jagtvej 162 DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Niels Bjerre Holm
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Frederik V's Vej 11, 3 DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Lars Olsen
- Biostructural Research, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Jagtvej 162 DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Frederik V's Vej 11, 3 DK-2100 Denmark
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44
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Zawilska JB. "Legal Highs"--An Emerging Epidemic of Novel Psychoactive Substances. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 120:273-300. [PMID: 26070762 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
During the last decade, there has been an increase in the availability and use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS), also known as "legal highs," across the world. They include a wide range of products, from natural plant-originated substances to synthetic compounds, that can be purchased both online and from high street retailers. "Legal highs" mimic psychoactive effects of illicit drugs of abuse. However, they are claimed to consist of compounds that are legal to sell, possess, and use, often labeled as "not for human consumption" to circumvent drug abuse legislation. Based on the spectrum of their actions on cognitive processes, mood, and behavior, "legal highs" can be classified into four basis categories: amphetamine- and ecstasy-like stimulants, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), hallucinogenic/dissociative, and opioid-like compounds. NPS may, however, exhibit a combination of these actions due to their designed chemical structure. Although the prevalence and pattern of NPS use differ between various countries, the most popular groups are SCs and psychostimulants, described in this chapter. Currently, there is limited information available on the potential acute toxicity (harms) associated with the use of these substances. However, the number of intoxicated people presenting with emergencies is constantly increasing, providing evidence that negative health and social consequences may indeed seriously affect recreational and chronic users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta B Zawilska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Institute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lodz, Poland.
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45
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Quantification of methylone and metabolites in rat and human plasma by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-015-0263-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Dinger J, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. In vitro cytochrome P450 inhibition potential of methylenedioxy-derived designer drugs studied with a two-cocktail approach. Arch Toxicol 2014; 90:305-18. [PMID: 25417051 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1412-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In vitro cytochrome P450 (CYP) inhibition assays are common approaches for testing the inhibition potential of drugs for predicting potential interactions. In contrast to marketed medicaments, drugs of abuse, particularly the so-called novel psychoactive substances, were not tested before distribution and consumption. Therefore, the inhibition potential of methylenedioxy-derived designer drugs (MDD) of different drug classes such as aminoindanes, amphetamines, benzofurans, cathinones, piperazines, pyrrolidinophenones, and tryptamines should be elucidated. The FDA-preferred test substrates, split in two cocktails, were incubated with pooled human liver microsomes and analysed after protein precipitation using LC-high-resolution-MS/MS. IC50 values were determined of MDD showing more than 50 % inhibition in the prescreening. Values were calculated by plotting the relative metabolite concentration formed over the logarithm of the inhibitor concentration. All MDD showed inhibition against CYP2D6 activity and most of them in the range of the clinically relevant CYP2D6 inhibitors quinidine and fluoxetine. In addition, the beta-keto compounds showed inhibition of the activity of CYP2B6, 5,6-MD-DALT of CYP1A2 and CYP3A, and MDAI of CYP2A6, all in the range of clinically relevant inhibitors. In summary, all MDD showed inhibition of the activity of CYP2D6, six of CYP1A2, three of CYP2A6, 13 of CYP2B6, two of CYP2C9, six of CYP2C19, one of CYP2E1, and six of CYP3A. These results showed that the CYP inhibition by MDD might be clinically relevant, but further studies are needed for final conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Dinger
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany.
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47
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Development of an in vitro cytochrome P450 cocktail inhibition assay for assessing the inhibition risk of drugs of abuse. Toxicol Lett 2014; 230:28-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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48
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Electrochemical simulation of phase I metabolism for 21 drugs using four different working electrodes in an automated screening setup with MS detection. Bioanalysis 2014; 6:2607-21. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Electrochemical conversion of xenobiotics has been shown to mimic human phase I metabolism for a few compounds. Materials & methods: Twenty-one compounds were analyzed with a semiautomated electrochemical setup and mass spectrometry detection. Results: The system was able to mimic some metabolic pathways, such as oxygen gain, dealkylation and deiodination, but many of the expected and known metabolites were not produced. Conclusion: Electrochemical conversion is a useful approach for the preparative synthesis of some types of metabolites, but as a screening method for unknown phase I metabolites, the method is, in our opinion, inferior to incubation with human liver microsomes and in vivo experiments with laboratory animals, for example.
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49
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Schneir A, Ly BT, Casagrande K, Darracq M, Offerman SR, Thornton S, Smollin C, Vohra R, Rangun C, Tomaszewski C, Gerona RR. Comprehensive analysis of “bath salts” purchased from California stores and the internet. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 52:651-8. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.933231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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50
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Helfer AG, Turcant A, Boels D, Ferec S, Lelièvre B, Welter J, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Elucidation of the metabolites of the novel psychoactive substance 4-methyl-N-ethyl-cathinone (4-MEC) in human urine and pooled liver microsomes by GC-MS and LC-HR-MS/MS techniques and of its detectability by GC-MS or LC-MSnstandard screening approaches. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:368-75. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas G. Helfer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Alain Turcant
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - David Boels
- Centre Anti-Poison; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - Séverine Ferec
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - Bénédicte Lelièvre
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire; Angers France
| | - Jessica Welter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology; Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
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