Antidiabetes and antiobesity effect of cryptotanshinone via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase

Mechanism of cryptotanshinone to improve endocrine and metabolic functions in the endometrium of PCOS rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cryptotanshinone is the main bioactive component of Salvia miltiorrhiza, with various mechanisms of action, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular protection, neuroprotection, and hepatoprotection. Salvia miltiorrhiza is used clinically by gynecologists in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) has a significant impact on women's quality of life, leading to infertility and reproductive disorders. Hence, this study aims to assess the pharmacological activity of cryptotanshinone in the treatment of PCOS and investigate its therapeutic mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) combined with insulin is used to simulate a PCOS-like rat model and attempt to discover the abnormal changes that occur and the means by which the pathway acts in this model.

RESULTS

The transcriptome sequencing method is used to identify 292 differential genes that undergo significant changes, of which 219 were upregulated and 73 were downregulated. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the signaling pathways reveals that differential expressed genes are significantly enriched in 23 typical pathways. Estrogen signaling pathways are screened in the cryptotanshinone and model groups, and significant differential changes in Fos, ALOX12, and AQP8 are found. This suggests that these signaling pathways and molecules may be the main signaling targets for regulating the differences in endometrial tissue.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that cryptotanshinone has targets for regulating the proliferation of endometrial tissue via estrogen signaling pathways in PCOS-like rats, providing an experimental basis for the clinical application of cryptotanshinone in the treatment of PCOS.

Tanshinone IIA and Cryptotanshinone Counteract Inflammation by Regulating Gene and miRNA Expression in Human SGBS Adipocytes

Inflammation of the adipose tissue contributes to the onset and progression of several chronic obesity-related diseases. The two most important lipophilic diterpenoid compounds found in the root of Salvia milthorrhiza Bunge (also called Danshen), tanshinone IIA (TIIA) and cryptotanshinone (CRY), have many favorable pharmacological effects. However, their roles in obesity-associated adipocyte inflammation and related sub-networks have not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the gene, miRNAs and protein expression profile of prototypical obesity-associated dysfunction markers in inflamed human adipocytes treated with TIIA and CRY. The results showed that TIIA and CRY prevented tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α induced inflammatory response in adipocytes, by counter-regulating the pattern of secreted cytokines/chemokines associated with adipocyte inflammation (CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL5/RANTES, CXCL1/GRO-α, IL-6, IL-8, MIF and PAI-1/Serpin E1) via the modulation of gene expression (as demonstrated for CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL5/RANTES, CXCL1/GRO-α, and IL-8), as well as related miRNA expression (miR-126-3p, miR-223-3p, miR-124-3p, miR-155-5p, and miR-132-3p), and by attenuating monocyte recruitment. This is the first demonstration of a beneficial effect by TIIA and CRY on adipocyte dysfunction associated with obesity development and complications, offering a new outlook for the prevention and/or treatment of metabolic diseases.

Integrated proteomics and phosphoproteomics profiling reveals the cardioprotective mechanism of bioactive compounds derived from Salvia miltiorrhiza Burge

BACKGROUND

Natural products are an important source for discovering novel drugs due to their various pharmacological activities. Salvia miltiorrhiza Burge (Danshen) has been shown to have promising therapeutic potential in the management of heart diseases, making it a candidate for cardiovascular drug discovery. Currently, there is limited quantitative analysis of the phosphorylation levels of Danshen-derived natural products on a proteome-wide, which may bias the study of their mechanisms of action.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the global signaling perturbation induced by Danshen-derived bioactive compounds and their potential relationship with myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury therapy.

STUDY DESIGN

We employed quantitative proteome and phosphoproteome analysis to identify dysregulated signaling in IR injury hearts from mice. We compared changes induced by Danshen-derived compounds based on IR-associated phospho-events, using an integrative approach that maps relative abundance of proteins and phosphorylation sites.

METHODS

Isobaric chemical tandem mass tags (TMT) labeled multiplexing strategy was used to generate unbiased quantitative proteomics and phosphoproteomics data. Highly accurate and precise TMT quantitation was performed using the Orbitrap Fusion Tribrid Mass Spectrometer with synchronous precursor selection MS3 detection mode. Mass spectrometric raw files were analyzed with MaxQuant (2.0.1.0) and statistical and bioinformatics analysis was conducted with Perseus (1.6.15).

RESULTS

We quantified 3661 proteins and over 11,000 phosphosites in impaired heart tissue of the IR mice model, expanding our knowledge of signaling pathways and other biological processes disrupted in IR injury. Next, 1548 and 5545 differently expressed proteins and phosphosites were identified by quantifying the proteome and phosphoproteome of H9c2 cells treated by five Danshen bioactive compounds respectively. Results revealed the vast differences in abilities of five Danshen-derived bioactive compounds to regulate phosphorylation modifications in cardiomyocytes, with dihydrotanshinone I (DHT) showing potential for protecting against IR injury by modulating the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a new strategy for analyzing drug/natural product-regulated phosphorylation modification levels on a proteome-wide scale, leading to a better understanding of cell signaling pathways and downstream phenotypic responses.

Investigation of the Composition, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Cytotoxicity Properties of Salvia abrotanoides Essential Oil

Medicinal plants present promising attributes in traditional medicine based on earlier published documents. Most of the essential oils derived from vascular plants display a significant role in dealing with microbial and inflammation infections. This research aimed to provide informative knowledge about the composition, antimicrobial, and anticytotoxicity of Salvia abrotanoides essential oil. In this study, the chemical composition of S. abrotanoides was determined using FTIR and GC-MS analysis which demonstrated the significant number of monoterpenes in the constitutes. The antimicrobial activity of EO demonstrated a dose-related effect on several pathogenic bacteria and fungi; among bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria exhibited more sensitivity to the essential oil antimicrobial compounds. On the other hand, S. abrotanoides essential oil did not present antifungal activity as high as Fluconazole on Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans. The total phenolic and flavonoid content of essential oil were determined as 14.70 ± 1.4 mg·GA/g essential oil and 2.93 ± 0.41 mg Q/g essential oil, respectively. The antioxidant activity of essential oils was investigated, and it was not as high as positive controls. Moreover, the microscopic changes of S. aureus and E. coli were investigated using SEM images. The cytotoxicity potential of essential oil was evaluated on L929 and A459 cell lines and also it was estimated to be stronger on A459 cell line than that of L929.

Novel perspectives on the therapeutic role of cryptotanshinone in the management of stem cell behaviors for high-incidence diseases

Cryptotanshinone (CTS), a diterpenoid quinone, is found mostly in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (S. miltiorrhiza) and plays a crucial role in many cellular processes, such as cell proliferation/self-renewal, differentiation and apoptosis. In particular, CTS’s profound physiological impact on various stem cell populations and their maintenance and fate determination could improve the efficiency and accuracy of stem cell therapy for high-incidence disease. However, as much promise CTS holds, these CTS-mediated processes are complex and multifactorial and many of the underlying mechanisms as well as their clinical significance for high-incidence diseases are not yet fully understood. This review aims to shed light on the impact and mechanisms of CTS on the actions of diverse stem cells and the involvement of CTS in the many processes of stem cell behavior and provide new insights for the application of CTS and stem cell therapy in treating high-incidence diseases.

The therapeutic mechanism of PuRenDan for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy: Network pharmacology and experimental verification

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Purendan (PRD), as a Chinese medicinal formula, behaves remarkable therapeutic effects on diabetes and complications in clinical and experimental research. However, the underlying pharmacological mechanism in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy (DN) is still unclear.

AIMS

To investigate the therapeutical effects of PRD on DN and to explore its pharmacological mechanisms using network pharmacology and experimental verification.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The active compounds and putative targets in PRD, and disease-related targets of DN were extracted from public databases. The key targets were identified through the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and module analysis. The GO and KEGG enrichment analysis were performed to discover potential pharmacological mechanisms. The expression of the key targets was detected in kidney tissue in Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) dataset. The affinity between key proteins and corresponding compounds was evaluated by molecular docking and validated by the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assay. The indicators on major pathways and hub genes were verified by in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

In network pharmacology, 137 common targets in PRD for DN treatment were screened. The key targets and main signaling pathways including AGE-RAGE and lipid pathways were identified. The statistical difference in the expression of the key targets was verified in GSE96804 database, confirming the association with DN. The docking scores obtained from molecular docking illustrated good binding force between hub proteins and active compounds. And the good component-protein affinities were validated by SPR assay. Furthermore, the results of animal experiment indicated that PRD could ameliorate the level of serum glucose and renal function in rat model. It could regulate the expression of hub targets (AKT1, MAPK3, and STAT3) and improve indicators related with oxidative stress and lipid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

The key targets and major signaling pathways in the treatment of PRD on DN were identified. The mechanism might relate to regulation of oxidative stress and lipid metabolism.

Amelioration of Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction in Experimental Mice Using the Medicinal Plant Salvia moorcroftiana

Salvia moorcroftiana is medicinally used in various parts of the world to treat a number of diseases. In the literature, the antiamnesic activity of this plant has not yet been reported. Therefore, the current study was aimed at evaluating the in vivo antiamnesic (scopolamine-induced) potential of Salvia moorcroftiana. The major phytochemical groups such as total phenolic (TPC), total tannin (TTC), and total flavonoid content (TFC) in methanolic extract (SlMo-Crd) and subsequent fractions of Salvia moorcroftiana were quantified using standard methods. The in vitro anticholinesterase (against butyryl cholinesterase; BChE and acetylcholinesterase; AChE) and antioxidant (against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; DPPH and 2,2′-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid); ABTS free radicals) potentials of crude (SIMO-Crd) extract and fractions (hexane; SlMo-Hex, chloroform; SlMo-Chl, ethyl acetate; SlMo-Et) were also determined. The SlMo-Crd at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight compared to fractions of 75 and 150 mg/kg body weight (which were 1/10th of the highest dose tested in acute toxicity tests) were evaluated for their memory enhancement and learning behavior in normal and scopolamine-induced mental dysfunction in mice using behavioral memory tests such as the Y-maze test and novel object recognition test (NORT). Moreover, the samples were further evaluated for acetylcholine contents and biochemical markers such as MDA (malondialdehyde), SOD (superoxide dismutase), CAT (catalase), and GSH (glutathione peroxidase) levels. The maximum TPC with a value of 114.81 ± 1.15 mg GAE/g, TTC with a value of 106.79 ± 1.07 mg GAE/g, and TFC with a value of 194.29 ± 0.83 mg RE/g were recorded for the SlMo-Chl fraction. Against the DPPH free radical, the methanolic extract exhibited an IC₅₀ value of 95.29 ± 1.06 µg/mL whereas, among the fractions, the best activity was observed for the SlMo-Chl fraction with an IC₅₀ of 75.02 ± 0.91 µg/mL, followed by SlMoS-Et with an IC₅₀ value of 88.71 ± 0.87 µg/mL. Among the extracts, the SlMo-Chl and SlMo-Et fractions inverted the amnesic effects of scopolamine in mice effectively. Additionally, the SlMo-Chl and SIMO-Et fractions considerably enhanced the percent spontaneous alteration performance in the Y-maze test with values of 65.18 ± 2.61/69.51 ± 2.71 and 54.92 ± 2.49/60.41 ± 2.69, respectively, for the tested doses. The discrimination index (DI) in experimental mice was considerably enhanced by the SlMo-Chl in the NORT with values of 59.81 ± 1.21/61.22 ± 1.31% DI correspondingly for the tested doses, as mentioned above, followed by the SlMo-Et extract. The selected plant in the form of extracts ameliorated the effects of amnesia in mice and could, therefore, be used as a therapy for amnesia; however, this is subject to further exploration in other animal models and the isolation of the responsible compounds.

Comparative Proteomics Analysis Reveals the Reversal Effect of Cryptotanshinone on Gefitinib-Resistant Cells in Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-Mutant Lung Cancer

Cryptotanshinone (CTS) is a lipophilic constituent of Salvia miltiorrhiza, with a broad-spectrum anticancer activity. We have observed that CTS enhances the efficacy of gefitinib in human lung cancer H1975 cells, yet little is known about its molecular mechanism. To explore how CTS enhances H1975 cell sensitivity to gefitinib, we figured out differential proteins of H1975 cells treated by gefitinib alone or in combination with CTS using label-free liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and protein–protein interaction (PPI) bioinformatic analyses of the differential proteins were performed. CTS enhanced H1975 cell sensitivity to gefitinib in vitro and in vivo, with 115 and 128 differential proteins identified, respectively. GO enrichment, KEGG analysis, and PPI network comprehensively demonstrated that CTS mainly impacted the redox process and fatty acid metabolism in H1975 cells. Moreover, three differential proteins, namely, catalase (CAT), heme oxygenase 1 (HMOX1), and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) were validated by RT-qPCR and Western blot. In conclusion, we used a proteomic method to study the mechanism of CTS enhancing gefitinib sensitivity in H1975 cells. Our finding reveals the potential protein targets of CTS in overcoming gefitinib resistance, which may be therapeutical targets in lung cancer.

Potential of Diterpenes as Antidiabetic Agents: Evidence from Clinical and Pre-Clinical Studies

Diterpenes are a diverse group of structurally complex natural products with a wide spectrum of biological activities, including antidiabetic potential. In the last 25 years, numerous diterpenes have been investigated for antidiabetic activity, with some of them reaching the stage of clinical trials. However, these studies have not been comprehensively reviewed in any previous publication. Herein, we critically discussed the literature on the potential of diterpenes as antidiabetic agents, published from 1995 to September, 2021. In the period under review, 427 diterpenes were reported to have varying degrees of antidiabetic activity. Steviol glycosides, stevioside (1) and rebaudioside A (2), were the most investigated diterpenes with promising antidiabetic property using in vitro and in vivo models, as well as human subjects. All the tested pimaranes consistently showed good activity in preclinical evaluations against diabetes. Inhibitions of α-glucosidase and protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP 1B) activities and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPAR-γ) agonistic property, were the most frequently used assays for studying the antidiabetic activity of diterpenes. The molecular mechanisms of action of the diterpenes include increased GLUT4 translocation, and activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent signaling pathways. Our data revealed that diterpenes hold promising antidiabetic potential. Stevioside (1) and rebaudioside A (2) are the only diterpenes that were advanced to the clinical trial stage of the drug discovery pipeline. Diterpenes belonging to the abietane, labdane, pimarane and kaurane class have shown promising activity in in vitro and in vivo models of diabetes and should be further investigated.

The Potential to Fight Obesity with Adipogenesis Modulating Compounds

Obesity is an increasingly severe public health problem, which brings huge social and economic burdens. Increased body adiposity in obesity is not only tightly associated with type 2 diabetes, but also significantly increases the risks of other chronic diseases including cardiovascular diseases, fatty liver diseases and cancers. Adipogenesis describes the process of the differentiation and maturation of adipocytes, which accumulate in distributed adipose tissue at various sites in the body. The major functions of white adipocytes are to store energy as fat during periods when energy intake exceeds expenditure and to mobilize this stored fuel when energy expenditure exceeds intake. Brown/beige adipocytes contribute to non-shivering thermogenesis upon cold exposure and adrenergic stimulation, and thereby promote energy consumption. The imbalance of energy intake and expenditure causes obesity. Recent interest in epigenetics and signaling pathways has utilized small molecule tools aimed at modifying obesity-specific gene expression. In this review, we discuss compounds with adipogenesis-related signaling pathways and epigenetic modulating properties that have been identified as potential therapeutic agents which cast some light on the future treatment of obesity.

Tanshinones and their Derivatives: Heterocyclic Ring-Fused Diterpenes of Biological Interest

The available scientific literature regarding tanshinones is very abundant, and after its review, it is noticeable that most of the articles focus on the properties of tanshinone I, cryptotanshinone, tanshinone IIA, sodium tanshinone IIA sulfonate and the dried root extract of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Tan- Shen). However, although these products have demonstrated important biological properties in both in vitro and in vivo models, their poor solubility and bioavailability have limited their clinical applications. For these reasons, many studies have focused on the search for new pharmaceutical formulations for tanshinones, as well as the synthesis of new derivatives that improve their biological properties. To provide new insights into the critical path ahead, we systemically reviewed the most recent advances (reported since 2015) on tanshinones in scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Medline, Scopus, and Clinical Trials). With a broader perspective, we offer an update on the last five years of new research on these quinones, focusing on their synthesis, biological activity on noncommunicable diseases and drug delivery systems, to support future research on its clinical applications.

Exploring the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effect of Salvia miltiorrhiza in diabetic nephropathy using network pharmacology and molecular docking

The mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effect of Salvia miltiorrhiza (SM) on diabetic nephropathy (DN) were examined using a systematic network pharmacology approach and molecular docking. The Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) database was used to screen active ingredients of SM. Targets were obtained using the SwissTargetPrediction and TCMSP databases. Proteins related to DN were retrieved from the GeneCards and DisGeNET databases. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using common SM/DN targets in the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) database. The Metascape platform was used for Gene Ontology (GO) function analysis, and the Cytoscape plug-in ClueGO was used for Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. Molecular docking was performed using iGEMDOCK and AutoDock Vina software. Pymol and LigPlos were used for network mapping. Sixty-six active ingredients and 189 targets of SM were found. Sixty-four targets overlapped with DN-related proteins. The PPI network revealed that AKT serine/threonine kinase 1 (AKT1), VEGFA, interleukin 6 (IL6), TNF, mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1), tumor protein p53 (TP53), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (MAPK14), and JUN were the ten most relevant targets. GO and KEGG analyses revealed that the common targets of DN and SM were mainly involved in advanced glycation end-products, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and immune regulation. Molecular docking revealed that potential DN-related targets, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF), NOS2, and AKT1, more stably bound with salvianolic acid B than with tanshinone IIA. In conclusion, the present study revealed the active components and potential molecular therapeutic mechanisms of SM in DN and provides a reference for the wide application of SM in clinically managing DN.

Nor-abietane Diterpenoids from Perovskia abrotanoides Roots with Anti-inflammatory Potential

Fractionation of an EtOAc extract of the roots of Perovskia abrotanoides yielded 28 diterpenoids, including 12 new analogues, 1-12. The structures of these diterpenoids were established using comprehensive spectroscopic data analysis, including 1D and 2D NMR, high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, electronic circular dichroism spectroscopy, and comparison with literature data. The extract and some of the tested compounds showed significant anti-inflammatory activity on J774A.1 macrophage cells stimulated with E. coli lipopolysaccharide. In particular, the tested compounds significantly inhibited the release of nitric oxide and the expression of related proinflammatory enzymes, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase.

Plant extracts in prevention of obesity

Obesity has become a worldwide issue and is accompanied by serious complications. Western high energy diet has been identified to be a major factor contributing to the current obesity pandemic. Thus, it is important to optimize dietary composition, bioactive substances, and agents to prevent and treat obesity. To date, extracts from plants, such as vegetables, tea, fruits, and Chinese herbal medicine, have been showed to have the abilities of regulating adipogenesis and attenuating obesity. These plant extracts mainly contain polyphenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids, which could play a significant role in anti-obesity through various signaling pathways and gut microbiota. Those reported anti-obesity mechanisms mainly include inhibiting white adipose tissue growth and lipogenesis, promoting lipolysis, brown/beige adipose tissue development, and muscle thermogenesis. In this review, we summarize the plant extracts and their possible mechanisms responsible for their anti-obesity effects. Based on the current findings, dietary plant extracts and foods containing these bioactive compounds can be potential preventive or therapeutic agents for obesity and its related metabolic diseases.

Cryptotanshinone enhances wound healing in type 2 diabetes with modulatory effects on inflammation, angiogenesis and extracellular matrix remodelling

CONTEXT

Cryptotanshinone (CT) is a diterpene quinone compound from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge. Labiatae has been widely used in cardio-cerebral vascular diseases, which could be potentially effective in treating diabetic wounds.

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluates the wound healing activity of CT by employing an excisional wound splinting model in db/db mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wounds were induced at the dorsum of non-diabetic (db/+) and diabetic (db/db) mice and treated with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Na) or 300 mg/kg/d CT for 16 days. Wound closure was measured every two days. Body weight, fasting blood glucose, re-epithelialization, granulation, leukocyte infiltration, capillary density, collagen deposition and expressions of CXCL1, CXCL2, VEGF, Ang-1, p-eNOS, eNOS, α-SMA, MMP2 and MMP9 were analysed. Expression of VEGF and tube formation was measured in vitro with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

RESULTS

CT significantly accelerated rate of wound closure, as the contraction ratio increased from 68% (non-treated group) to 83% (CT-treated group) at days 16 post-injury. A significant increase was observed in re-epithelialization and granulation tissue formation. Mechanistically, CT suppressed leukocyte infiltration and CXCL1 and CXCL2 expression. CT treatment also increased blood vessel density and expression level of VEGF, Ang-1 and p-eNOS. In vitro, CT boosted expression of VEGF and tube formation of endothelial cells. Moreover, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling was enhanced by CT via promoting fibroblast transformation and inhibiting MMP2 and MMP9.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides evidence that CT could be developed as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of chronic diabetic wound healing.

Development of simultaneous interaction prediction approach (SiPA) for the expansion of interaction network of traditional Chinese medicine

Background

Due to the lack of enough interaction data among compositions, targets and diseases, it is difficult to construct a complete network of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) that comprehensively reflects active compositions and their synergistic network in terms of specific diseases. Therefore, mapping of the full spectrum of interaction between compounds and their targets is of central importance when we use network pharmacology approach to explore the therapeutic potential of the TCM.

Methods

To address this challenge, we developed a large-scale simultaneous interaction prediction approach (SiPA) integrated one interaction network based simple inference model (SIM), focusing on ‘logical relevance’ between compounds, proteins or diseases, and another compound-target correlation space based interaction prediction model (CTCS-IPM) that was built on the basis of the canonical correlation analysis (CCA) to estimate the position of compounds (or targets) in compound-protein correlated space. Then SiPA was applied to discover reliable multiple interactions for interaction network expansion of a TCM, compound Salvia miltiorrhiza. By means of network analysis, potential active compounds and their related network synergy underlying cardiovascular diseases were evaluated between expanded and original interaction networks. Part of new interactions were validated with existing experimental evidence and molecular docking.

Results

As evaluated with known test dataset, the established combination approach was proved to make highly accurate prediction, showing a well prediction performance for the SIM and a high recall rate of 85.2% for the CTCS-IPM. Then 710 pairs of new compound-target interactions, 24 pairs of new compound-cardiovascular disease interactions and 294 pairs of new cardiovascular disease-protein interactions were predicted for compound Salvia miltiorrhiza. Results of network analysis suggested the network expansion could dramatically improve the completeness and effectiveness of the network. Validation results of literature and molecular docking manifested that inferred interactions had good reliability.

Conclusions

We provided a practical and efficient way for large-scale inference of multiple interactions of TCM ingredients, which was not limited by the lack of negative samples, sample size and target 3D structures. SiPA could help researchers more accurately prioritize the effective compounds and more completely explore network synergy of TCM for treating specific diseases, indicating a potential way for effectively identifying candidate compound (or target) in drug discovery.

48Biochemical mechanisms of the anti-obesity effect of a triterpenoid-enriched extract of Cynomorium songaricum in mice with high-fat-diet-induced obesity

BACKGROUND

HCY2, a triterpenoid-enriched extract of Cynomorii Herba, has been shown to reduce body weight and adiposity and attenuate manifestations of the associated metabolic syndrome in high-fat-diet (HFD)-fed mice.

PURPOSE

The current study aimed to investigate the biochemical mechanism underlying the anti-obesity effect produced by HCY2.

STUDY DESIGN

An HCY2-containing extract was examined for its effects on the regulation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator-1 (PGC1) pathways and the protein expression related to mitochondrial uncoupling and biogenesis in skeletal muscle using an HFD-induced obese mouse model.

METHODS

The obese mouse model was produced by providing HFD (60% kcal from fat) ad libitum. The effects and signaling mechanisms of HCY2 were examined using analytical procedures which included enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits, Western blot analysis, and the use of a Clark-type oxygen electrode.

RESULTS

The current study revealed that the weight reduction produced by HCY2 is associated with the activation of the AMPK signaling pathway, with resultant increases in mitochondrial biogenesis and expression of uncoupling protein 3 in skeletal muscle in vivo. The use of a recoupler, ketocholestanol, delineated the precise role of mitochondrial uncoupling in the anti-obesity effect afforded by HCY2 in obese mice.

CONCLUSION

Our experimental findings offer a promising prospect for the use of HCY2 in the management of obesity through the regulation of AMPK/PGC1 pathways.

Endophytic Fungi of Native Salvia abrotanoides Plants Reveal High Taxonomic Diversity and Unique Profiles of Secondary Metabolites

Endophytic fungi are often embedded in their host's metabolic networks, which can result in alterations of metabolite production and higher amounts of active compounds in medicinal plants. This study reports the occurrence, diversity, and secondary metabolite profiles of endophytic fungi isolated from Salvia abrotanoides plants obtained from three geographically distinct sites in Iran. A total of 56 endophytic fungi were isolated from roots and leaves of S. abrotanoides; site-specificity and root-dominated colonization was found to be a general characteristic of the endophytes. Based on molecular identification, the endophytic fungi were classified into 15 genera. Mycelial extracts of these isolates were subjected to high-resolution mass spectrometry analyses and revealed a broad spectrum of secondary metabolites. Our results demonstrated that Penicillium canescens, P. murcianum, Paraphoma radicina, and Coniolariella hispanica are producers of cryptotanshinone, which is a main bioactive compound of S. abrotanoides. Moreover, it was shown that it can be produced independent of the host plant. The effect of exogenous gibberellin on S. abrotanoides and endophytic fungi was shown to have a positive effect on increasing the cryptotanshinone production in the plant as well as in endophytic fungi cultivated under axenic conditions. Our findings provide further evidence that endophytic fungi play an important role in the production plant bioactive metabolites. Moreover, they provide an exploitable basis to increase cryptotanshinone production in S. abrotanoides.

Unwinding Complexities of Diabetic Alzheimer by Potent Novel Molecules

Diabetes mellitus is one of the aggressive disorders in global society. No pharmacotherapy is available for permanent diabetes cure, although management is possible with drugs and physical activities. One of the recent complications noticed in type 2 diabetes mellitus includes diabetes-induced Alzheimer. It has been proposed that the possible diabetes-induced Alzheimer could be of type 3 diabetes. A variety of cross-sectional studies have proved that type 2 diabetes mellitus is one of the factors responsible for the pathophysiology of Alzheimer. New drug molecules developed by pharmaceutical companies with adequate neuroprotective effect have demonstrated their efficacy in treatment of Alzheimer in various preclinical diabetic studies. Patients of type 2 diabetes mellitus may show the benefit with existing drugs but may not cause complete cure. Extensive studies are being carried out to find new drug molecules that show their potential as antidiabetic drug and could treat type 2 diabetes-induced Alzheimer as well. This review provides an overview about the recent advancement in pharmacotherapy of diabetes-induced Alzheimer. The pathomechanistic links between diabetes and Alzheimer as well as neurochemical changes in diabetes-induced Alzheimer are also briefed.

Cryptotanshinone attenuates allergic airway inflammation through negative regulation of NF-κB and p38 MAPK

This study is to determine the role and mechanism of cryptotanshinone (CTS) in allergic airway inflammation. Asthma induced by OVA was established in BALB/c mice. We found increased airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), increased inflammatory cell infiltration, elevated levels of TNF-α, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-13, decreased interferon gamma (IFN-γ) in lung tissue, increased content of total immunoglobulin E (IgE), OVA specific IgE, Eotaxin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in lung tissue. However, the administration of CTS significantly decreased AHR in asthmatic mice, reduced inflammation around the bronchioles and inflammatory cells around airway, regulated cytokine production, reduced the total IgE and OVA-specific IgE levels, and inhibited NF-κB activation and p38 MAPK phosphorylation. In vitro experiments in 16 HBE cells revealed that CTS attenuated CAM-1 and IL-6 expression. These results indicate that CTS alleviates allergic airway inflammation by modulating p38 MAPK phosphorylation and NF-κB activation.

Cryptotanshinone and tanshinone IIA from Salvia milthorrhiza Bunge (Danshen) as a new class of potential pancreatic lipase inhibitors

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge extract was investigated for the first time for its inhibitory activity against pancreatic lipase (PL), an important enzyme involved in the digestion of dietary fats. It showed a concentration-dependent activity with an IC₅₀ value of 3.54 ± 0.22 mg/mL. Two compounds, cryptotanshinone and tanshinone IIA (the major lipophilic constituents of S. miltiorrhiza), have been selected as potential ligands of PL. Cryptotanshinone showed a higher lipase inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 6.86 ± 0.43 µM) compared to the parent tanshinone IIA. Molecular docking studies were undertaken to establish whether a direct interaction of the principal constituents of the S. miltiorrhiza extract with the human pancreatic lipase could be evoked. All these findings provided new insights into the understanding of the interactions between natural constituents of S. miltiorrhiza extract and PL, also suggesting that cryptotanshinone could be used as lead compound for the development of efficacious PL inhibitors.

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. Extract Inhibits Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Production and Fat Accumulation in 3T3-L1 Cells by Activating an AMP-Dependent Kinase Signaling Pathway

Obesity is one of the major public health problems in the world because it is implicated in metabolic syndromes, such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases. The objective of this study was to investigate whether Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. (EAP) extract suppresses reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and fat accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells by activating an AMP-dependent kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway. Our results showed that EAP water extract significantly inhibits ROS production, adipogenesis, and lipogenesis during differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. In addition, EAP decreased mRNA and protein levels of proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha (C/EBPα). Moreover, EAP suppressed mRNA expressions of fatty acid synthase (FAS), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), adipocyte protein 2 (aP2) in a dose-dependent manner. Whereas, EAP upregulated adiponectin expression, phosphorylation levels of AMPK and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1) protein level during differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. These results suggest that EAP water extract can exert ROS-linked anti-obesity effect through the mechanism that might involve inhibition of ROS production, adipogenesis and lipogenesis via an activating AMPK signaling pathway.

Fridamycin A, a Microbial Natural Product, Stimulates Glucose Uptake without Inducing Adipogenesis

Type 2 diabetes is a complex, heterogeneous, and polygenic disease. Currently, available drugs for treating type 2 diabetes predominantly include sulfonylureas, α-glucosidase inhibitors, and biguanides. However, long-term treatment with these therapeutic drugs is often accompanied by undesirable side effects, which have driven interest in the development of more effective and safer antidiabetic agents. To address the urgent need for new chemical solutions, we focused on the analysis of structurally novel and/or biologically new metabolites produced by insect-associated microbes as they have recently been recognized as a rich source of natural products. Comparative LC/MS-based analysis of Actinomadura sp. RB99, isolated from a fungus-growing termite, led to the identification of the type II polyketide synthase-derived fridamycin A. The structure of fridamycin A was confirmed by ¹H NMR data and LC/MS analysis. The natural microbial product, fridamycin A, was examined for its antidiabetic properties in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, which demonstrated that fridamycin A induced glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 cells by activating the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway but did not affect adipocyte differentiation, suggesting that the glucose uptake took place through activation of the AMPK signaling pathway without inducing adipogenesis. Our results suggest that fridamycin A has potential to induce fewer side effects such as weight gain compared to rosiglitazone, a commonly used antidiabetic drug, and that fridamycin A could be a novel potential therapeutic candidate for the management of type 2 diabetes.

Cryptotanshinone inhibits the growth and invasion of colon cancer by suppressing inflammation and tumor angiogenesis through modulating MMP/TIMP system, PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and HIF-1α nuclear translocation

The aim of this study was to evaluate the pharmacological effects of CPT on CT26 colon cancer cells in vivo and in vitro, and to reveal the potential mechanism. CPT suppressed the proliferation and growth of CT26 colon cancer in vitro and in vivo. CPT inhibited the invasion of CT26 cells in vitro, and decreased the protein expressions of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 but increased those of tissue inhibitor of metallopeptidase-1 (TIMP-1) and TIMP-2 in vitro and in vivo. It also inhibited tumor cell-induced angiogenesis of endothelial cells in vitro and rat aortic ring angiogenesis ex vivo, and possibly by suppressing angiogenesis-associated factors. CPT suppressed the expressions of inflammatory factors in vivo and in vitro. Mechanism studies showed that CPT inhibited the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, as evidenced by decreased expressions of phospho-PI3K (p-PI3K), p-Akt and p-mTOR. Moreover, CPT significantly suppressed the nuclear expression but increased the cytosolic expression of hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). Collectively, CPT inhibited the growth, invasion, inflammation and angiogenesis in CT26 colon cancer, and at least partly, by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling and the nuclear translocation of HIF-1α.

Cryptotanshinone Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis of NSCLC Cells through the PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β Pathway

Cryptotanshinone (CTT) is a natural product and a quinoid diterpene isolated from the root of the Asian medicinal plant, Salvia miltiorrhizabunge. Notably, CTT has a variety of anti-cancer actions, including the activation of apoptosis, anti-proliferation, and reduction in angiogenesis. We further investigated the anti-cancer effects of CTT using MTS, LDH, and Annexin V assay, DAPI staining, cell cycle arrest, and Western blot analysis in NSCLC cell lines. NSCLC cells treated with CTT reduced cell growth through PI3K/Akt/GSK3β pathway inhibition, G0/G1 cell cycle arrest, and the activation of apoptosis. CTT induced an increase of caspase-3, caspase-9, poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP), and Bax, as well as inhibition of Bcl-2, survivin, and cellular-inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 and 2 (cIAP-1 and -2). It also induced G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest by decreasing the expression of the cyclin A, cyclin D, cyclin E, Cdk 2, and Cdk 4. These results highlight anti-proliferation the latent of CTT as natural therapeutic agent for NSCLC. Therefore, we investigated the possibility of CTT as an anti-cancer agent by comparing with GF, which is a representative anti-cancer drug.

Natural products for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Pharmacology and mechanisms

Epidemiological studies have implied that diabetes mellitus (DM) will become an epidemic accompany with metabolic and endocrine disorders worldwide. Most of DM patients are affected by type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with insulin resistance and insulin secretion defect. Generally, the strategies to treat T2DM are diet control, moderate exercise, hypoglycemic and lipid-lowing agents. Despite the therapeutic benefits for the treatment of T2DM, most of the drugs can produce some undesirable side effects. Considering the pathogenesis of T2DM, natural products (NPs) have become the important resources of bioactive agents for anti-T2DM drug discovery. Recently, more and more natural components have been elucidated to possess anti-T2DM properties, and many efforts have been carried out to elucidate the possible mechanisms. The aim of this paper was to overview the activities and underlying mechanisms of NPs against T2DM. Developments of anti-T2DM agents will be greatly promoted with the increasing comprehensions of NPs for their multiple regulating effects on various targets and signal pathways.

Cryptotanshinone exhibits therapeutical effects on cerebral stroke through the PI3K/AKT‑eNOS signaling pathway

Cerebral stroke is a kind of acute cerebrovascular disease with high incidence, morbidity and disability. Treatments against various types of cerebral stroke are limited at preventive measurements due to the lack of effective therapeutic method. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of cryptotanshinone (CPT) on cerebral stroke, and investigate the possible mechanism involved in order to develop a novel therapy against stoke. The phosphoinositide 3‑kinase membrane translocation of cerebral stroke rats pretreated with CPT at various concentrations were measured, as well as the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). Additionally, the expression level of B‑cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‑2), Bcl‑2‑associated X protein (Bax) and vascular endothelial growth factor were also assessed using western blotting and reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Furthermore, biochemical tests were used to measure the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) in both the cerebral cortex and peripheral blood. As a result, CPT‑pretreated rats presented declined phosphoinositide 3‑kinase (PI3K) and AKT expression levels, indicating that the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was inhibited. Increased Bcl‑2 and NO levels in both the cerebral cortex and peripheral blood demonstrated the anti‑apoptosis and blood vessel protection effect of CPT. Furthermore, increased SOD activity and declined MDA levels demonstrated suppressed lipid peroxidation. In conclusion, CPT exhibited a protective effect against cerebral stroke through inhibition of the PI3K/AKT‑eNOS signaling pathway. These results suggested the potential of CPT as a promising agent in the treatment of cerebral stroke.

Cryptotanshinone promotes commitment to the brown adipocyte lineage and mitochondrial biogenesis in C3H10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells via AMPK and p38-MAPK signaling

Although white adipose tissue (WAT) stores triglycerides and contributes to obesity, brown adipose tissue (BAT) dissipates energy as heat. Therefore, browning of WAT is regarded as an attractive way to counteract obesity. Our previous studies have revealed that treatment with cryptotanshinone (CT) during adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells inhibits their differentiation. Here, we found that pretreatment of C3H10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells with CT before exposure to adipogenic hormonal stimuli promotes the commitment of these mesenchymal stem cells to the adipocyte lineage as confirmed by increased triglyceride accumulation. Furthermore, CT treatment induced the expression of early B-cell factor 2 (Ebf2) and bone morphogenetic protein 7 (Bmp7), which are known to drive differentiation of C3H10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells toward preadipocytes and to the commitment to brown adipocytes. Consequently, CT treatment yielded brown-adipocyte-like features as evidenced by elevated expression of brown-fat signature genes including Ucp1, Prdm16, Pgc-1α, Cidea, Zic1, and beige-cell-specific genes such as CD137, Hspb7, Cox2, and Tmem26. Additionally, CT treatment induced mitochondrial biogenesis through upregulation of Sirt1, Tfam, Nrf1, and Cox7a and increased mitochondrial mass and DNA content. Our data also showed that cotreatment with CT and BMP4 was more effective at activating brown-adipocyte-specific genes. Mechanistic experiments revealed that treatment with CT activated AMPKα and p38-MAPK via their phosphorylation: the two major signaling pathways regulating energy metabolism. Thus, these findings suggest that CT is a candidate therapeutic agent against obesity working via activation of browning and mitochondrial biogenesis in C3H10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells.

Therapeutic effect of Cryptotanshinone on experimental rheumatoid arthritis through downregulating p300 mediated-STAT3 acetylation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The balance between T helper 17 (Th17) cells and regulatory T (Treg) cells, plays a critical role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The differentiation of Th17 cells requires the activation of STAT3, which determines the balance of Th17/Treg. Here, we investigated the therapeutic effect of Cryptotanshinone (CTS) on collagen induced mouse arthritis and explored the underlying mechanisms.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Arthritis was induced in DBA/1 mice with bovine collagen type II and complete Freund's adjuvant. CTS was given at 20mgkg^-1d^-1 or 60mgkg^-1d^-1 by gavage for 6weeks. The immuno-inflammation and joint destruction were evaluated and the balance of Th17/Treg was determined. STAT3 acetylation and phosphorylation were detected by western blotting, and the involvement of p300 was investigated by siRNA and plasmid overexpression.

KEY RESULTS

CTS at a dose of 60mgkg^-1d^-1 ameliorated the inflammation and joint destruction in CIA mice. It improved Th17/Treg imbalance, and inhibited both acetylation and phosphorylation of STAT3. CTS reduced p300 expression and its binding to STAT3, but increased phosphorylated AMPK. Knockdown of p300 mimicked the inhibitory effect of CTS on STAT3 acetylation and phosphorylation, which could be partially rescued by overexpression of p300-WT, but not p300-dominant negative (DN) construct.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Our study suggested that the anti-arthritis effects of CTS were attained through suppression of p300-mediated STAT3 acetylation. Our data suggest that CTS might be a potential immune modulator for RA treatment.

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass improves glucose homeostasis, reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in livers of obese rats and in Kupffer cells via an AMPK-dependent pathway

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress and inflammation are implicated in the pathogenesis of steatohepatitis. We hypothesize that Roux-en-Y gastric bypass reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver of obese rats via activation of AMPK-α.

METHODS

Obese Sprague-Dawley male rats underwent either sham operation or Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Hepatic TNF-α, NF-κB, IRS-2, PI3 kinase, PKC-ζ, NOX2, and AMPK-α were measured. Mechanistic studies were done in a rat Kupffer cell line (RKC1) that was treated with free fatty acids to mimic lipotoxicity and then transfected with AMPK-α siRNA. Reactive oxygen species, TNF-α, NF-κB, AMPK-α, p-AMPK-α, PPAR-γ, and NOX2 were measured. A t test was used.

RESULTS

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass lowered nonfasting serum glucose, improved the glucose tolerance test, and induced IRS2/PI3 kinase interaction. Additionally, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass decreased hepatic NOX2, PKC-ζ, TNF-α expression and activation of NF-κB. Free fatty acids increased reactive oxygen species, TNF-α protein, NOX2 protein, and activated NF-κB. Rosiglitazone attenuated the free fatty acids-induced increase in reactive oxygen species, TNF-α, NOX2, and NF-κB; blocking AMPK-α by siRNA abolished the effects of rosiglitazone.

CONCLUSION

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass exhibits antidiabetic properties and is associated with downregulation of proinflammation genes and oxidative stress in the liver and within Kupffer cells via activation of AMPK-α.

Cryptotanshinone inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin pathway is dependent on oestrogen receptor alpha in breast cancer

Cryptotanshinone (CPT) has been demonstrated to inhibit proliferation and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. However, the same results are unable to be repeated in MDA-MB-231 cells. Given the main difference of oestrogen receptor α (ERα) between two types of breast cancer cells, It is possibly suggested that CPT inhibits mTOR pathway dependent on ERα in breast cancer. CPT could significantly inhibit cell proliferation of ERα-positive cancer cells, whereas ERα-negative cancer cells are insensitive to CPT. The molecular docking results indicated that CPT has a high affinity with ERα, and the oestrogen receptor element luciferase reporter verified CPT distinct anti-oestrogen effect. Furthermore, CPT inhibits mTOR signalling in MCF-7 cells, but not in MDA-MB-231 cells, which is independent on binding to the FKBP12 and disrupting the mTOR complex. Meanwhile, increased expression of phosphorylation AKT and insulin receptor substrate (IRS1) induced by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) was antagonized by CPT, but other molecules of IGF-1/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway such as phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K) were negatively affected. Finally, the MCF-7 cells transfected with shERα for silencing ERα show resistant to CPT, and p-AKT, phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase 1 (p-S6K1) and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) were partially recovered, suggesting ERα is required for CPT inhibition of mTOR signalling. Overall, CPT inhibition of mTOR is dependent on ERα in breast cancer and should be a potential anti-oestrogen agent and a natural adjuvant for application in endocrine resistance therapy.

Chemical composition and biological activities of Salvia officinalis essential oil from Tunisia

The aim of this study is to evaluate the chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial, insecticidal and allelopathic activities of Tunisia Salvia officinalis essential oil (SoEO). The SoEO was characterized by the presence of 49 components with camphor (25.14 %), α-thujone (18.83 %), 1,8-cineole (14.14 %), viridiflorol (7.98 %), β-thujone (4.46 %) and β-caryophyllene (3.30 %) as the major components, determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The level of antioxidant activity, determined by complementary tests, namely 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging (IC50= 6.7 mg/mL), linoleic acid peroxidation (IC50= 9.6 mg/mL) and ferric reducing assays (IC50= 28.4 mg/mL), was relatively moderate. The SoEO was also screened for its antimicrobial activity. Good to moderate inhibitions were recorded for most of tested microorganisms. It also exhibited important insecticidal activity against Spodoptera littoralis larvae and Tribolium castaneum adults with LC50 values of 55.99 and 97.43 µl/L air, respectively. The effect of the SoEO on seeds germination and growth showed different activities against radical and hypocotyl elongation of the tested species. These results suggest the potential use of the SoEO as natural antimicrobial preservative in cosmetic, pharmaceutical industry and in pest management.

Cryptotanshinone Inhibits STAT3 Signaling to Alleviate Cardiac Fibrosis in Type 1-like Diabetic Rats

Cryptotanshinone is an active principal ingredient isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen), a medicinal plant used in China to treat cardiac disorders. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of cryptotanshinone on myocardial fibrosis in diabetic rats. In streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetic model hyperglycemic rats (STZ-treated rats), fasting blood glucose levels and heart weight/body weight ratio were markedly increased but both were not modified by cryptotanshinone. Additionally, cardiac performance in catheterized STZ-treated rats was improved. The histological results from Masson staining showed that cryptotanshinone attenuated cardiac fibrosis in STZ-treated rats. Moreover, both the mRNA and protein levels of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), matrix metalloproteinase-9, and connective tissue growth factor were reduced by cryptotanshinone in high glucose-cultured cardiomyocytes, similar to the reductions observed in the hearts of STZ-treated rats. In conclusion, while STAT3 regulates matrix metalloproteinase-9 and connective tissue growth factor expression in diabetic rats with cardiac fibrosis, cryptotanshinone inhibited fibrosis to improve cardiac function by suppressing the STAT3 pathway. Cryptotanshinone is suitable as an alternative remedy for therapy of cardiac fibrosis. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Cryptotanshinone activates AMPK-TSC2 axis leading to inhibition of mTORC1 signaling in cancer cells

Background

Cryptotanshinone (CPT), a fat-soluble phenanthraquinone from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, has been demonstrated to inhibit phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), a couple of direct downstream effectors of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), resulting in cancer cell arrested in G0 phase and subsequent inhibition of proliferation. However, its concrete molecular mechanism about how CPT inhibits mTORC1 signaling pathway is unclear.

Methods

one solution was used to check cell viability and western blotting for determining expression of the indicated proteins. Molecular docking was performed to assess the binding of CPT with mTOR. The co-immunoprecipitation assay was to analyze whether CPT could disrupt the mTORC1 and TSC1/TSC2 complex. Recombinant adenoviral dominant-negative AMPKα was used to downregulate expression of AMPKα and lentiviral AMPK and TSC2 to silence the AMPK and TSC2 in Rh30 cells.

Results

Primarily, Rh30 cells expressing rapamycin-resistant mutant mTOR are also sensitive to CPT, while the molecular docking result for CPT binding to mTOR is negative, suggesting that CPT inhibition of mTORC1 is different from rapamycin. Then the related proteins of PTEN-PI3K pathway was proved not to be affected, but the phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was activated by a concentration- and time- dependent manner, meaning that it may be associated with AMPK. Further results indicated that compound C, inhibitor of AMPK, could clearly reversed CPT inhibitory effect on Rh30 cells, and dominant-negative AMPK in cancer cells conferred resistance to CPT inhibition of 4E-BP1 and phosphorylation of S6K1, as well as sh-AMPK. Furthermore, compared with AMPK-positive MEF cells, AMPK-negative MEF cells are less sensitive to CPT by the findings that 4E-BP1 and phosphorylation of S6K1 express comparatively more. Additionally, phosphorylation of tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2) was activated under the treatment of CPT, and down-expression of TSC2 by shRNA slightly recovered expression of 4E-BP1 and phosphorylation of S6K1, while co-immunoprecipitation of TSC2 did not alter expression of TSC1 by CPT.

Conclusion

CPT inhibiting mTORC1 pathway was mostly due to activation of AMPK-TSC2 axis rather than specific binding to mTORC1. CPT is a potent anticancer agent targeting AMPK.

Anti-adipocyte Differentiation Activity and Chemical Composition of Essential Oil from Artemisia annua

Artemisia annua L. essential oil (AAEO) has diverse properties including antibacterial, antioxidant, antinociceptive, and antimicrobial activities. However, the effect of AAEO on obesity remains to be investigated. In this study, we analyzed the compounds of AAEO and explored the effect of AAEO on the differentiation of preadipocyte into adipocyte using preadipocyte cell line 3T3-L1. Total yield of AAEO from 20 kg A. annua leaf and flower was 0.5%, v/w. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis showed that AAEO contained 34 compounds. 3T3-L1 cells incubated in 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine / dexamethasone / insulin (MDI)-containing medium showed increased accumulation of lipid droplets. This increased response was suppressed by treatment with AAEO. Expressions of obesity-related proteins (PPARγ, C/EBPα, SREBP-1c, FAS, and ACC) were increased in 3T3-L1 cells cultured in MDI medium and these responses were decreased by treatment with AAEO. These findings demonstrate that AAEO may suppress 3T3-L1 cell differentiation by inhibiting adipogenesis and activation of lipid metabolism-related proteins.

AMPK activators: mechanisms of action and physiological activities

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central regulator of energy homeostasis, which coordinates metabolic pathways and thus balances nutrient supply with energy demand. Because of the favorable physiological outcomes of AMPK activation on metabolism, AMPK has been considered to be an important therapeutic target for controlling human diseases including metabolic syndrome and cancer. Thus, activators of AMPK may have potential as novel therapeutics for these diseases. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of both indirect and direct AMPK activators and their modes of action in relation to the structure of AMPK. We discuss the functional differences among isoform-specific AMPK complexes and their significance regarding the development of novel AMPK activators and the potential for combining different AMPK activators in the treatment of human disease.

Cryptotanshinone, a compound of Salvia miltiorrhiza inhibits pre-adipocytes differentiation by regulation of adipogenesis-related genes expression via STAT3 signaling

BACKGROUND

Cryptotanshinone (CT), a major tanshinone found in Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Lamiaceae), has various pharmacological effects such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Despite its well-documented benefits in a wide range of diseases, the effect of CT on adipocyte differentiation has not been well characterized.

PURPOSE

The present study was designed to determine the in vitro anti-adipogenic effect and underlying molecular mechanisms of CT using 3T3-L1 murine pre-adipocytes.

METHODS

We measured the levels of intracellular triglyceride accumulation and mRNA and protein expression of key adipogenic transcription factors and their target genes.

RESULTS

Treatment with CT drastically reduced lipid accumulation in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Molecular assays showed that CT effectively suppressed the expression of C/EBPβ, C/EBPα, and PPARγ and of their target adipocyte-specific genes aP2, adiponectin, and GLUT4 but activated the expression of anti-adipogenic genes such as GATA2, CHOP10, and TNF-α. CT treatment also inhibited the phosphorylation of STAT3 in the early phase of adipogenesis. A small-interfering-RNA-mediated knock-down of STAT3 potentiated the anti-adipogenic effect of CT.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the results suggest that CT may be a good anti-adipogenic candidate because it regulates STAT3 during early adipogenesis.

Effects of yam dioscorin interventions on improvements of the metabolic syndrome in high-fat diet-induced obese rats

BACKGROUND

The metabolic syndrome (MS) is termed a cluster of multiple metabolic risk criteria which is positively correlated with cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). Yam dioscorins have been reported to exhibit biological activities, however, little is known their preventive effects on the MS. Therefore, a high-fat (HF) diet was used to induce Wistar rat obesity and then yam dioscorin (50 mg/kg, dio50) was intervened daily concurrent HF diet (HF diet + dio50) for five weeks to check the changes of weights of body and tissues, blood pressures, and impaired glucose tolerances. The in vitro peptic hydrolysates of dioscorin with molecular mass between 3 kDa and 10 kDa and less than 3 kDa were used to determine dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV) inhibitory activities which DPP IV inhibitor has been reported to prevent and treat type 2 DM.

RESULTS

There were no significant difference in body weights, feed intakes, feed conversion, and weights of adipose tissues of obese rats in groups of HF and (HF diet + dio50). However, the systolic blood pressures in obese rats of 2-, 3- and 4-week dioscorin interventions were showed significantly lower (P < 0.05) compared to the HF group. The dioscorin intervention (HF+ dio50) was showed significantly different (P < 0.05) and improved the impaired glucose tolerances compared to HF group in obese rats by the oral glucose tolerance tests. It was also found that the fraction with different molecular mass of dioscorin peptic hydrolysates (5 mg/ml) showed inhibitory activities against DPP IV using sitagliptin phosphate as positive controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Yam dioscorins exhibit improved MS activities in obese rats which the related mechanisms may need further investigations.

Cryptotanshinone inhibits breast cancer cell growth by suppressing estrogen receptor signaling

Estrogen receptor (ER) is a major therapeutic target for the treatment of breast cancer, because of the crucial role of estrogen signaling deregulation in the development and progression of breast cancer. In this study, we report the identification of a novel ERα binding compound, cryptotanshinone (CPT), by screening the CADD database. We also show that CPT effectively inhibits estrogen-induced ER transactivation and gene expression of ER target genes. Furthermore, we showed that CPT suppressed breast cancer cell growth mainly in an ERα dependent manner. Finally, we confirmed the potential therapeutic efficiency of CPT using xenograft experiments in vivo. Taken together, our results describe a novel mechanism for the anticancer activity of CPT and provide supporting evidence for its use as a potential therapeutic agent to treat patients with ERα positive breast cancer.

Bardoxolone Methyl Prevents Mesenteric Fat Deposition and Inflammation in High-Fat Diet Mice

Mesenteric fat belongs to visceral fat. An increased deposition of mesenteric fat contributes to obesity associated complications such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. We have investigated the therapeutic effects of bardoxolone methyl (BARD) on mesenteric adipose tissue of mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD). Male C57BL/6J mice were administered oral BARD during HFD feeding (HFD/BARD), only fed a high-fat diet (HFD), or fed low-fat diet (LFD) for 21 weeks. Histology and immunohistochemistry were used to analyse mesenteric morphology and macrophages, while Western blot was used to assess the expression of inflammatory, oxidative stress, and energy expenditure proteins. Supplementation of drinking water with BARD prevented mesenteric fat deposition, as determined by a reduction in large adipocytes. BARD prevented inflammation as there were fewer inflammatory macrophages and reduced proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1 beta and tumour necrosis factor alpha). BARD reduced the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt, suggesting an antioxidative stress effect. BARD upregulates energy expenditure proteins, judged by the increased activity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α), and uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) proteins. Overall, BARD induces preventive effect in HFD mice through regulation of mesenteric adipose tissue.

Irisin improves fatty acid oxidation and glucose utilization in type 2 diabetes by regulating the AMPK signaling pathway

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

It has been reported that irisin regulated exercise-mediated adipocyte browning; however, the systematical effects of irisin on the metabolism of glucose and lipid in diabetes are largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the role and underlying mechanism of irisin in glucose utilization and lipid metabolism in diabetic mice.

METHODS

A mouse model of diabetes was established by feeding C57BL/6 mice with high-fat diet. The diabetic mice were then treated with irisin. To mimic type 2 diabetes in vitro, myocytes and hepatocytes were cultured in a medium of high glucose and high fat. Glucose uptake, fatty acid oxidation and the expression of related protein were evaluated.

RESULTS

Irisin improved glucose tolerance and glucose uptake as evidenced by increased (18)F-FDG accumulation and GLUT4 translocation in diabetic skeletal muscle. Irisin also increased glucose uptake in myocytes cultured in high glucose/high fatty acid medium. In contrast, irisin reduced the expression of PEPCK and G6Pase, which are involved in gluconeogenesis, in diabetic liver. Consistently, irisin reduced fat weight and serum total cholesterol and triglyceride levels in diabetic mice, but increased acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase-β phosphorylation in muscle tissue and uncoupling protein 1 expression in fat tissue. In addition, irisin increased the oxidation of fatty acid in myocytes. Knockdown of the adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) attenuated the effects of irisin on glucose uptake and fatty acid β-oxidation in myocytes. Similarly, inhibition of AMPK by a specific inhibitor reduced the effects of irisin on PEPCK and G6Pase expression in hepatocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that irisin has an essential role in glucose utilization and lipid metabolism, and irisin is a promising pharmacological target for the treatment of diabetes and its complications.

Antidiabetic effects of flavonoids from Sophora flavescens EtOAc extract in type 2 diabetic KK-ay mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Bitter and cold Chinese medicines have been long used for the treatment for diabetes mellitus (DM) for thousands of years in China. The roots of Sophora flavescens Ait., one of bitter and cold Chinese medicines commonly used to remove lung heat have been used to counteract DM and exerted good clinical effects for diabetic patients in some folk hospitals in Fujian province, PR China. However, the corresponding active principles and antidiabetic mechanism of this Traditional Chinese Medicine remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, we aim at chemical profiling of the active principles, validating the potential antidiabetic effects of the active EtOAc extract (SF-EtOAc) in vitro and in vivo, and elucidating its probable antidiabetic mechanism as well as evaluating its acute oral toxicity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An off-line semi-preparative LC-NMR and LC-UV-ESI MS protocol was developed to determine the chemical principles of the active EtOAc extract rapidly and unambiguously. The effect of SF-EtOAc on the glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) translocation in L6 myotubes was examined. T2DM KK-Ay mice were induced by high-fat diet. SF-EtOAc was orally administration at the dose of 30, 60 and 120 mg/kg/d, for 21 days. Metformin was used as positive control. Body weight, plasma glucose, oral glucose tolerance test, serum insulin and blood-lipid indexes were measured. Phosphorylation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) expression in liver was measured.

RESULTS

We found that SF-EtOAc significantly improved oral glucose tolerance, increased serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and reduced body weight, blood glucose levels and other related blood-lipid indexes. Mechanistically, SF-EtOAc elevated phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and stimulated membrane translocation of GLUT4. Moreover, it was unveiled that oral median lethal dose (LD50) of SF-EtOAc was more than 7500 mg/kg, suggesting that SF-EtOAc was practically non-toxic for mice.

CONCLUSIONS

SF-EtOAc improves glucose tolerance, reduces hyperglycemia and resumes insulin levels, at least in part, by activating GLUT4 translocation which may be modulated by AMPK pathway. According to the results of the present study, SF-EtOAc possesses a potent antidiabetic activity and could be used as a safe remedy for the treatment of diabetes.

Cryptotanshinone, an orally bioactive herbal compound from Danshen, attenuates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice: role of lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cryptotanshinone (CTS) is a major bioactive diterpenoid isolated from Danshen, an eminent medicinal herb that is used to treat cardiovascular disorders in Asian medicine. However, it is not known whether CTS can prevent experimental atherosclerosis. The present study was designed to investigate the protective effects of CTS on atherosclerosis and its molecular mechanisms of action.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE(-/-)) mice, fed an atherogenic diet, were dosed daily with CTS (15, 45 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) by oral gavage. In vitro studies were carried out in oxidized LDL (oxLDL)-stimulated HUVECs treated with or without CTS.

KEY RESULTS

CTS significantly attenuated atherosclerotic plaque formation and enhanced plaque stability in ApoE(-/-) mice by inhibiting the expression of lectin-like oxLDL receptor-1 (LOX-1) and MMP-9, as well as inhibiting reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and NF-κB activation. CTS treatment significantly decreased the levels of serum pro-inflammatory mediators without altering the serum lipid profile. In vitro, CTS decreased oxLDL-induced LOX-1 mRNA and protein expression and, thereby, inhibited LOX-1-mediated adhesion of monocytes to HUVECs, by reducing the expression of adhesion molecules (intracellular adhesion molecule 1 and vascular cellular adhesion molecule 1). Furthermore, CTS inhibited NADPH oxidase subunit 4 (NOX4)-mediated ROS generation and consequent activation of NF-κB in HUVECs.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

CTS was shown to have anti-atherosclerotic activity, which was mediated through inhibition of the LOX-1-mediated signalling pathway. This suggests that CTS is a vasculoprotective drug that has potential therapeutic value for the clinical treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases.

Cryptotanshinone induces G1 cell cycle arrest and autophagic cell death by activating the AMP-activated protein kinase signal pathway in HepG2 hepatoma

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) performs a pivotal function in energy homeostasis via the monitoring of intracellular energy status. Once activated under the various metabolic stress conditions, AMPK regulates a multitude of metabolic pathways to balance cellular energy. In addition, AMPK also induces cell cycle arrest or apoptosis through several tumor suppressors including LKB1, TSC2, and p53. LKB1 is a direct upstream kinase of AMPK, while TSC2 and p53 are direct substrates of AMPK. Therefore, it is expected that activators of AMPK signal pathway might be useful for treatment or prevention of cancer. In the present study, we report that cryptotanshinone, a natural compound isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza, robustly activated AMPK signaling pathway, including LKB1, p53, TSC2, thereby leading to suppression of mTORC1 in a number of LKB1-expressing cancer cells including HepG2 human hepatoma, but not in LKB1-deficient cancer cells. Cryptotanshinone induced HepG2 cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase in an AMPK-dependent manner, and a portion of cells underwent apoptosis as a result of long-term treatment. It also induced autophagic HepG2 cell death in an AMPK-dependent manner. Cryptotanshinone significantly attenuated tumor growth in an HCT116 cancer xenograft in vivo model, with a substantial activation of AMPK signal pathways. Collectively, we demonstrate for the first time that cryptotanshinone harbors the therapeutic potential for the treatment of cancer through AMPK activation.