The Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPAR)-γ Antagonist 2-Chloro-5-Nitro-N-Phenylbenzamide (GW9662) Triggers Perilipin 2 Expression via PPARδ and Induces Lipogenesis and Triglyceride Accumulation in Human THP-1 Macrophages

Modulation of PPAR-γ/Nrf2 and AGE/RAGE signaling contributes to the chrysin cardioprotection against myocardial damage following ischemia/reperfusion in diabetic rats

OBJECTIVE

Advanced glycation end products/receptor for AGEs (AGE/RAGE) signaling has a well-established role in the etiology of diabetic-related cardiovascular disorders. The purpose of the study was to elucidate the role of chrysin, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) agonist, against ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury in diabetic rats and its functional interaction with the AGE/RAGE signaling pathway.

METHODS

A single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ, 70 mg/kg) was administered to rats for induction of diabetes. Rats having blood glucose levels more than 300 mg/dl following a 72 hr STZ injection were classified as diabetic. PPAR-γ antagonist GW9662 (1 mg/kg, i.p.), chrysin (60 mg/kg, p.o.), or both were administered to diabetic rats for 4 weeks. On the 29th day, rats were given ischemia for 45 min and then reperfusion for 1 hr to induce myocardial infarction (MI).

KEY FINDINGS

Pretreatment with chrysin significantly improved hemodynamic status, ventricular functions, and cardiac injury markers in diabetic myocardium. Increased PPAR-γ/Nrf2 and decreased RAGE protein expressions were linked to this improvement. Chrysin pretreatment resulted in the upregulation of endogenous antioxidants and reduced TBARS levels. Moreover, chrysin significantly decreased inflammation and apoptosis in diabetic myocardium.

CONCLUSION

PPAR-γ/Nrf2 co-activation by chrysin ameliorated IR-induced MI in diabetic rats, possibly via modulating AGE/RAGE signaling.

PPAR-γ in Melanoma and Immune Cells: Insights into Disease Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Implications

Changes in skin pigmentation, like hyperpigmentation or moles, can affect appearance and social life. Unlike locally containable moles, malignant melanomas are aggressive and can spread rapidly, disproportionately affecting younger individuals with a high potential for metastasis. Research has shown that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) and its ligands exhibit protective effects against melanoma. As a transcription factor, PPAR-γ is crucial in functions like fatty acid storage and glucose metabolism. Activation of PPAR-γ promotes lipid uptake and enhances sensitivity to insulin. In many cases, it also inhibits the growth of cancer cell lines, like breast, gastric, lung, and prostate cancer. In melanoma, PPAR-γ regulates cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and survival. During tumorigenesis, it controls metabolic changes and the immunogenicity of stromal cells. PPAR-γ agonists can target hypoxia-induced angiogenesis in tumor therapy, but their effects on tumors can be suppressive or promotional, depending on the tumor environment. Published data show that PPAR-γ-targeting agents can be effective in specific groups of patients, but further studies are needed to understand lesser-known biological effects of PPAR-γ and address the existing safety concerns. This review provides a summary of the current understanding of PPAR-γ and its involvement in melanoma.

Naturally Occurring Compounds Targeting Peroxisome Proliferator Receptors: Potential Molecular Mechanisms and Future Perspectives for Promoting Human Health

Background: Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) constitute nuclear transcription factors controlling gene expression associated with cell growth and proliferation, diverse proteins, lipids, and glucose metabolism, being related to several other pathophysiological states such as metabolic disorders, atherogenesis, carcinogenesis, etc. The present survey aims to analyze the natural compounds that can act as agonists for the PPAR-α, PPAR-β/δ, and PPAR-γ system targeting, highlighting how the amazing biochemical diversity of natural compounds can yield new insights into this “hotspot” of the scientific field. Methods: A narrative review was performed by searching the recent international literature for the last two decades in the most authoritative scientific databases, like PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase, using appropriate keywords. Results: Several natural compounds and/or their synthetic derivatives can act as ligands of PPARs, stimulating their transcriptional activity and enabling their use as preventive and/or therapeutic agents for several disease states, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, metabolic disturbances, atherogenesis, and carcinogenesis. Although synthetic compounds are increasingly used as drugs to manage health problems, serious side effects have been observed, while their natural analogues exhibit only few minor side effects. Conclusions: Further clinical studies on natural compounds such as ligands of PPARs and the evaluation of the related molecular mechanisms are needed to implement an effective strategy concerning the pharmaco-technology, food chemistry, and nutrition to introduce them as part of clinical and dietary practice.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) modulates bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) proteome in vitro

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a group of natural isomers of the n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) linoleic acid, exerting biological effects on cow physiology. This study assessed the impact of the mixture 50:50 (vol:vol) of CLA isomers (cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12) on bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) proteome, identifying 1608 quantifiable proteins. A supervised multivariate statistical analysis, sparse variant partial least squares - discriminant analysis (sPLS-DA) for paired data identified 407 discriminant proteins (DP), allowing the clustering between the CLA and controls. The ProteINSIDE workflow found that DP with higher abundance in the CLA group included proteins related to innate immune defenses (PLIN2, CD36, C3, C4, and AGP), with antiapoptotic (SERPINF2 and ITIH4) and antioxidant effects (HMOX1). These results demonstrated that CLA modulates the bovine PBMC proteome, supports the antiapoptotic and immunomodulatory effects observed in previous in vitro studies on bovine PBMC, and suggests a cytoprotective role against oxidative stress. SIGNIFICANCE: In this study, we report for the first time that the mixture 50:50 (vol:vol) of cis-9, trans-11, and trans-10, cis-12-CLA isomers modulates the bovine PBMC proteome. Our results support the immunomodulatory and antiapoptotic effects observed in bovine PBMC in vitro. In addition, the present study proposes a cytoprotective role of CLA mixture against oxidative stress. We suggest a molecular signature of CLA treatment based on combining a multivariate sparse discriminant analysis and a clustering method. This demonstrates the great value of sPLS-DA as an alternative option to identify discriminant proteins with relevant biological significance.

Fasting upregulates the monocarboxylate transporter MCT1 at the rat blood-brain barrier through PPAR δ activation

BACKGROUND

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is pivotal for the maintenance of brain homeostasis and it strictly regulates the cerebral transport of a wide range of endogenous compounds and drugs. While fasting is increasingly recognized as a potential therapeutic intervention in neurology and psychiatry, its impact upon the BBB has not been studied. This study was designed to assess the global impact of fasting upon the repertoire of BBB transporters.

METHODS

We used a combination of in vivo and in vitro experiments to assess the response of the brain endothelium in male rats that were fed ad libitum or fasted for one to three days. Brain endothelial cells were acutely purified and transcriptionaly profiled using RNA-Seq. Isolated brain microvessels were used to assess the protein expression of selected BBB transporters through western blot. The molecular mechanisms involved in the adaptation to fasting were investigated in primary cultured rat brain endothelial cells. MCT1 activity was probed by in situ brain perfusion.

RESULTS

Fasting did not change the expression of the main drug efflux ATP-binding cassette transporters or P-glycoprotein activity at the BBB but modulated a restrictive set of solute carrier transporters. These included the ketone bodies transporter MCT1, which is pivotal for the brain adaptation to fasting. Our findings in vivo suggested that PPAR δ, a major lipid sensor, was selectively activated in brain endothelial cells in response to fasting. This was confirmed in vitro where pharmacological agonists and free fatty acids selectively activated PPAR δ, resulting in the upregulation of MCT1 expression. Moreover, dosing rats with a specific PPAR δ antagonist blocked the upregulation of MCT1 expression and activity induced by fasting.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, our study shows that fasting affects a selected set of BBB transporters which does not include the main drug efflux transporters. Moreover, we describe a previously unknown selective adaptive response of the brain vasculature to fasting which involves PPAR δ and is responsible for the up-regulation of MCT1 expression and activity. Our study opens new perspectives for the metabolic manipulation of the BBB in the healthy or diseased brain.

Regulation of low-density lipoprotein on lipid metabolism in macrophages of large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea)

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is the main carrier of cholesterol transport in plasma, which participates in regulating lipid homeostasis. Studies in mammals have shown that high levels of LDL in plasma absorbed by macrophages trigger the formation of lipid-rich foam cells, leading to the development of atherosclerotic plaques. Although lipid-rich atherosclerosis-like lesions have been discovered in the aorta of several fish species, the physiological function of LDL in fish macrophages remains poorly understood. In the present study, LDL was isolated from the plasma of large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea), and mass spectrometry analysis identified two truncated forms of apolipoprotein B100 in the LDL protein profile. Transcriptomic analysis of LDL-stimulated macrophages revealed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in various pathways related to lipid metabolism, as confirmed by the fact that LDL increased total cholesterol and cholesteryl esters content. Meanwhile, the gene and protein expression levels of perilipin2 (PLIN2), a DEG enriched in the PPAR signaling pathway, were upregulated in response to LDL stimulation. Importantly, knocking down plin2 significantly attenuates LDL-induced cholesterol accumulation and promotes cholesterol efflux. Furthermore, the transcription factor PPARγ, which is upregulated in response to LDL stimulation, can enhance the promoter activity of plin2. In conclusion, this study suggests that LDL may upregulate plin2 expression through PPARγ, resulting in cholesterol accumulation in fish macrophages. This study will facilitate the investigation of the function of LDL in regulating lipid homeostasis in macrophages and shed light on the evolutionary origin of LDL metabolism in vertebrates.

An Integrated Multi-OMICS Approach Highlights Elevated Non-Esterified Fatty Acids Impact BeWo Trophoblast Metabolism and Lipid Processing

Maternal obesity and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are linked with impaired placental function and early onset of non-communicable cardiometabolic diseases in offspring. Previous studies have highlighted that the dietary non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) palmitate (PA) and oleate (OA), key dietary metabolites associated with maternal obesity and GDM, are potential modulators of placental lipid processing. Using the BeWo cell line model, the current study integrated transcriptomic (mRNA microarray), metabolomic, and lipidomic readouts to characterize the underlying impacts of exogenous PA and OA on placental villous trophoblast cell metabolism. Targeted gas chromatography and thin-layer chromatography highlighted that saturated and monounsaturated NEFAs differentially impact BeWo cell lipid profiles. Furthermore, cellular lipid profiles differed when exposed to single and multiple NEFA species. Additional multi-omic analyses suggested that PA exposure is associated with enrichment in β-oxidation pathways, while OA exposure is associated with enrichment in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant pathways. Overall, this study further demonstrated that dietary PA and OA are important regulators of placental lipid metabolism. Encouraging appropriate dietary advice and implementing dietary interventions to maintain appropriate placental function by limiting excessive exposure to saturated NEFAs remain crucial in managing at-risk obese and GDM pregnancies.

Targeting PPARs for therapy of atherosclerosis: A review

Atherosclerosis, a chief pathogenic factor of cardiovascular disease, is associated with many factors including inflammation, dyslipidemia, and oxidative stress. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors and are widely expressed with tissue- and cell-specificity. They control multiple genes that are involved in lipid metabolism, inflammatory response, and redox homeostasis. Given the diverse biological functions of PPARs, they have been extensively studied since their discovery in 1990s. Although controversies exist, accumulating evidence have demonstrated that PPAR activation attenuates atherosclerosis. Recent advances are valuable for understanding the mechanisms of action of PPAR activation. This article reviews the recent findings, mainly from the year of 2018 to present, including endogenous molecules in regulation of PPARs, roles of PPARs in atherosclerosis by focusing on lipid metabolism, inflammation, and oxidative stress, and synthesized PPAR modulators. This article provides information valuable for researchers in the field of basic cardiovascular research, for pharmacologists that are interested in developing novel PPAR agonists and antagonists with lower side effects as well as for clinicians.

The Effect of Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells on NAFLD Treatment in High-Fat Diet-Fed Rats

Background

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are 2 common liver diseases that currently lack effective treatment options.

Objectives

This study aimed to investigate the effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) on NAFLD treatment in an animal model.

Methods

Male Wistar rats were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) to induce NAFLD for 7 weeks. The rats were then categorized into 3 groups: Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC), MSC + LPS, and fenofibrate (FENO) groups. Liver and body weight were measured, and the expression of genes involved in fatty acid biosynthesis, β-oxidation, and inflammatory responses was assessed.

Results

Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated ADSCs were more effective in regulating liver and body weight gain and reducing liver triglyceride (TG) levels compared to the other groups. Treatment with LPS-stimulated ADSCs effectively corrected liver enzymes, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and lipid factors, including low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) values, better than treatment with both FENO and MSCs. ADSCs + LPS treatment significantly decreased transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) and genes associated with inflammatory responses. Additionally, there was a significant reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in the rats treated with ADSCs + LPS.

Conclusions

Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated ADSCs showed potential in alleviating NAFLD by reducing inflammatory genes and ROS levels in HFD rats, demonstrating better results than treatment with ADSCs and FENO groups alone.

Aberrant hepatic lipid metabolism associated with gut microbiota dysbiosis triggers hepatotoxicity of novel PFOS alternatives in adult zebrafish

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) has been reported to induce hepatotoxicity in wildlife and humans. Novel PFOS alternatives have been widely used following restrictions on PFOS, but little is known about their potential toxicity. Here, the first comprehensive investigation on the chronic hepatotoxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms of PFOS, 6:2Cl-PFESA (F-53B), and sodium p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate (OBS) was carried out on adult zebrafish through a histopathological examination, biochemical measurement, and multi-omics analysis. PFOS and its alternatives caused changes in liver histopathology and liver function indices in the order of F-53B > PFOS > OBS, which was consistent with their concentration in the liver. In silico modeling and transcriptional profiles suggested that the aberrant hepatic lipid metabolism induced by F-53B and PFOS was initiated by the action on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), which triggered changes in downstream genes transcription and led to an imbalance between lipid synthesis and expenditure. Gut microbiome analysis provided another novel mechanistic perspective that changes in the abundance of Legionella, Ralstonia, Brevundimonas, Alphaproteobacteria, Plesiomonas, and Hyphomicrobium might link to alterations in the PPAR pathway based on their significant correlation. This study provides insight into the molecular mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by PFOS and its novel alternatives and highlights the need for concern about their environmental exposure risks.

Honokiol alleviates ulcerative colitis by targeting PPAR-γ-TLR4-NF-κB signaling and suppressing gasdermin-D-mediated pyroptosis in vivo and in vitro

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, idiopathic relapsing inflammatory bowel disease. Honokiol is a major active component of the traditional Chinese medicinal herb Magnolia officinalis, which has been widely used in traditional prescriptions to treat tumors, inflammation, and gastrointestinal disorders. In this study, we investigated the ability of this polyphenolic compound to suppress UC in mice and the possible regulatory mechanism. A mouse model of UC induced with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in 40 male C57BL/6J mice was used for the in vivo study, and in vitro experiments were performed in mouse RAW264.7 macrophages. Lipopolysaccharide was used to induce the inflammatory response. The mouse bodyweights, stool consistency, and bleeding were determined and the disease activity indices calculated. RAW264.7 macrophages were cultured with or without either honokiol or lipopolysaccharide. Gene and protein expression was analyzed with RT-PCR and western blotting, respectively. GW6471 and GW9662 were used to interrupt the transcription of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α) and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ). Both the in vivo and in vitro experimental results showed that the oral administration of honokiol markedly attenuated the severity of UC by reducing the inflammatory signals and restoring the integrity of the colon. Honokiol dramatically reduced the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL6, IL1β, and IFN-γ in mice with DSS-induced UC. It also upregulated PPAR-γ expression, and downregulated the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, honokiol inhibited gasdermin-D-mediated cell pyroptosis. These findings demonstrate for the first time that honokiol exerts a strong anti-inflammatory effect in a mouse model of UC, and that its underlying mechanism is associated with the activation of the PPAR-γ-TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway and gasdermin-D-mediated macrophage pyroptosis. Therefore, honokiol may be a promising new drug for the clinical management of UC.

Baohuoside I Inhibits Tumor Angiogenesis in Multiple Myeloma via the Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ/Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Signaling Pathway

Angiogenesis plays an important role in the development of multiple myeloma (MM). Baohuoside I (BI) is a core flavonoid monomer with anticancer property. However, the mechanism of BI on MM-stimulated angiogenesis has not been revealed. In this study, we demonstrated that BI inhibits MM-induced angiogenesis in vitro and angiogenesis in a xenograft mouse model in vivo. We further showed that peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor γ (PPARγ) transcriptional activity was mediated by a direct physical association between BI and PPARγ. Meanwhile, inhibition of PPARγ using lentivirus transfection of shRNA in human myeloma cell lines showed that the facilitation of PPARγ blocked angiogenesis and PPARγ repressed vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) transcription. Furthermore, BI treatment decreased VEGF expression, whereas VEGF expression remained unchanged after PPARγ knockdown when exposed to BI. Overall, our study is the first to reveal that BI inhibits MM angiogenesis by the PPARγ–VEGF signaling axis.

PPARγ Gene Polymorphisms, Metabolic Disorders, and Coronary Artery Disease

Being activated by endogenous and exogenous ligands, nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) enhances insulin sensitivity, promotes adipocyte differentiation, stimulates adipogenesis, and has the properties of anti-atherosclerosis, anti-inflammation, and anti-oxidation. The Human PPARγ gene (PPARG) contains thousands of polymorphic loci, among them two polymorphisms (rs10865710 and rs7649970) in the promoter region and two polymorphisms (rs1801282 and rs3856806) in the exonic region were widely reported to be significantly associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). Mechanistically, PPARG polymorphisms lead to abnormal expression of PPARG gene and/or dysfunction of PPARγ protein, causing metabolic disorders such as hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia, and thereby increasing susceptibility to CAD.

Comparative Effects of Sulforaphane and Allyl Isothiocyanate on 3T3-L1 Adipogenesis

Sulforaphane and allyl isothiocyanate, naturally occurring isothiocyanates, have been reported to inhibit adipocyte differentiation, but little is known about how they compare in terms of their potency and mechanism of action. In the present study, we compared the effects of sulforaphane and allyl isothiocyanate on the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. A mixture of insulin, dexamethasone, and 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine was used to establish a differentiation medium. We found that, at a concentration as low as one-tenth that of allyl isothiocyanate, sulforaphane reduced triacylglycerol levels, lipid-filled adipocyte quantity, and mRNA and protein levels of CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). These results suggested that sulforaphane may be a more potent adipocyte differentiation inhibitor than allyl isothiocyanate. Our results may provide insight into possible strategies for the prevention of obesity and related conditions.

G Allele of the rs1801282 Polymorphism in PPARγ Gene Confers an Increased Risk of Obesity and Hypercholesterolemia, While T Allele of the rs3856806 Polymorphism Displays a Protective Role Against Dyslipidemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The relationships between the rs1801282 and rs3856806 polymorphisms in nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) gene and obesity indexes as well as serum lipid levels have been extensively investigated in various studies, but the results were inconsistent and even contradictory.

METHODS

PubMed, Google Scholar, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Wanfang, CNKI and VIP databases were searched for eligible studies. The random-effTPDEects model was used, and standardized mean difference (SMD) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated to estimate the differences in obesity indexes and serum lipid levels between the subjects with different genotypes in a dominant model. Heterogeneity among studies was assessed by Cochran's x²-based Q-statistic test. Publication bias was identified by using Begg's test.

RESULTS

One hundred and twenty studies (70,317 subjects) and 33 studies (18,353 subjects) were identified in the analyses for the rs1801282 and rs3856806 polymorphisms, respectively. The G allele carriers of the rs1801282 polymorphism had higher levels of body mass index (SMD = 0.08 kg/m², 95% CI = 0.04 to 0.12 kg/m², p < 0.001), waist circumference (SMD = 0.12 cm, 95% CI = 0.06 to 0.18 cm, p < 0.001) and total cholesterol (SMD = 0.07 mmol/L, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.11 mmol/L, p < 0.01) than the CC homozygotes. The T allele carriers of the rs3856806 polymorphism had lower levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (SMD = -0.09 mmol/L, 95% CI = -0.15 to -0.03 mmol/L, p < 0.01) and higher levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (SMD = 0.06 mmol/L, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.10 mmol/L, p < 0.01) than the CC homozygotes.

CONCLUSIONS

The meta-analysis suggests that the G allele of the rs1801282 polymorphism confers an increased risk of obesity and hypercholesterolemia, while the T allele of the rs3856806 polymorphism displays a protective role against dyslipidemia, which can partly explain the associations between these polymorphisms and cardiovascular disease.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier [CRD42022319347].

Intestinal microbe-dependent ω3 lipid metabolite αKetoA prevents inflammatory diseases in mice and cynomolgus macaques

Dietary ω3 fatty acids have important health benefits and exert their potent bioactivity through conversion to lipid mediators. Here, we demonstrate that microbiota play an essential role in the body's use of dietary lipids for the control of inflammatory diseases. We found that amounts of 10-hydroxy-cis-12-cis-15-octadecadienoic acid (αHYA) and 10-oxo-cis-12-cis-15-octadecadienoic acid (αKetoA) increased in the feces and serum of specific-pathogen-free, but not germ-free, mice when they were maintained on a linseed oil diet, which is high in α-linolenic acid. Intake of αKetoA, but not αHYA, exerted anti-inflammatory properties through a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ-dependent pathway and ameliorated hapten-induced contact hypersensitivity by inhibiting the development of inducible skin-associated lymphoid tissue through suppression of chemokine secretion from macrophages and inhibition of NF-κB activation in mice and cynomolgus macaques. Administering αKetoA also improved diabetic glucose intolerance by inhibiting adipose tissue inflammation and fibrosis through decreased macrophage infiltration in adipose tissues and altering macrophage M1/M2 polarization in mice fed a high-fat diet. These results collectively indicate that αKetoA is a novel postbiotic derived from α-linolenic acid, which controls macrophage-associated inflammatory diseases and may have potential for developing therapeutic drugs as well as probiotic food products.

Dispersion and utilization of lipid droplets mediates respiratory syncytial virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness

BACKGROUND

Respiratory viral infections (RSV) can induce acute asthma attacks, thereby destroying lung function and accelerating the progression of the disease. However, medications in the stable phase of asthma are often not effective for acute attacks induced by viral infections. We aimed to clarify the possible mechanism of viral infection-induced asthma through fatty acid metabolism.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The airway resistances, inflammatory injuries, and oxidative stress in the RSV-induced animal models were significantly higher than those in the control group at acute phase (7 days) and chronic phase (28 days). Moreover, the concentrations of the medium- and long-chain fatty acids in lung tissue at (28 days) were significantly increased, including 14:0 (myristic acid), 16:0 (palmitic acid, PA), 18:1 (oleic acid, OA), and 18:2 (linoleic acid, LA) using non-targeted metabonomics. Airway epithelial cells treated with RSV showed the reduced expression of FSP27, RAB8A, and PLIN5, which caused the fusion and growth of lipid droplet (LD), and increased expression of the LD dispersion gene perilipin 2. There was also a decrease in PPARγ expression and an increase in the fatty acid catabolism gene PPARα, causing lipid oxidation, free fatty acid releases, and an upsurge in IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6 expression, which could be abrogated by GPR40 inhibitor. Treated mice or epithelial cells with C18 fatty acid exhibited inhibition of epithelial proliferation, increases of inflammation, and oxidative damage.

CONCLUSIONS

RSV promoted lipid dispersion and utilization, causing enlarged oxidative injuries and an upsurge in the pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to the progression of airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR).

The α-tocopherol-derived long-chain metabolite α-13'-COOH mediates endotoxin tolerance and modulates the inflammatory response via MAPK and NFκB pathways

SCOPE

The long-chain metabolites of (LCM) vitamin E are proposed as the active regulatory metabolites of vitamin E providing, with their anti-inflammatory properties, an explanatory approach for the inconsistent effects of vitamin E on inflammatory-driven diseases. We examined the modulation of cytokine expression and release from macrophages, a fundamental process in many diseases, to gain insights into the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of the α-tocopherol-derived LCM α-13'-COOH.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Suppressed gene expression of C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (Ccl2), tumor necrosis factor (Tnf), and interleukin (Il) 6 in response to lipopolysaccharides by 24 h pre-treatment with α-13'-COOH in RAW264.7 macrophages was revealed using quantitative reverse transcription PCR. Further, reduced secretion of IL1β and CCL2 was found in this setup using flow cytometry. In contrast, 1 h pre-treatment suppressed only CCL2. Consequent gene expression analysis within 24 h of α-13'-COOH treatment revealed the induction of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) negative feedback regulators including the 'master regulators' dual-specificity phosphatase 1 (Dusp1/Mkp1) and tumor necrosis factor induced protein 3 (Tnfaip3/A20). Approaches with immunoblots and chemical antagonists suggest a feedback induction via activation of extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK), p38 MAPK and NFκB pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

CCL2 is suppressed in murine macrophages by α-13'-COOH and the indirect suppression of MAPK and NFκB pathways is likely a relevant process contributing to anti-inflammatory actions of α-13'-COOH. These results improve the understanding of the effects of α-13'-COOH and provide a basis for new research strategies in the context of inflammatory diseases.

The Cell Protective Effect of Adenine on Hypoxia-Reoxygenation Injury through PPAR Delta Activation

Ischemia followed by blood supply reperfusion in cardiomyocytes leads to an overproduction of free radicals and a rapid decrease of adenosine triphosphate concentration. The cardioprotective effect of a potential drug, adenine, was evaluated using H9c2 rat cardiomyoblasts. After hypoxia–reoxygenation (HR) treatment consisting of hypoxia for 21 h followed by reoxygenation for 6 h, it was revealed that pretreatment with 200 µM adenine for 2 h effectively prevented HR-induced cell death. Adenine also significantly decreased the production of reactive oxygen species and reduced cell apoptosis after HR injury. The antioxidant effect of adenine was also revealed in this study. Adenine pretreatment significantly reduced the expression of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) proteins, and protein disulfide isomerase induced a protective effect on mitochondria after HR stimulation. Intracellular adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ), and perilipin levels were increased by adenine after HR stimulation. Adenine had a protective effect in HR-damaged H9c2 cells. It may be used in multiple preventive medicines in the future.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress induces hepatic steatosis by transcriptional upregulating lipid droplet protein perilipin2

Previous studies have shown that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress contributes to hepatic steatosis in several manners. However, how lipid droplet (LD) proteins participate in this process has rarely been reported. In the present study, ER stress was induced at both in vitro and in vivo levels with tunicamycin in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea). Effects of LD protein perilipin2 (PLIN2) on hepatic lipid accumulation and lipoprotein transport under normal physiological condition and ER stress were then explored using dsRNA mediated knockdown. Subsequently, the transcriptional regulation of plin2 expression by transcription factors generated in the unfolded protein response (UPR) was determined by dual-luciferase reporter assays, chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility-shift assay. We demonstrated that ER stress could promote LDs accumulation and inhibit lipoprotein transport by transcriptionally upregulating PLIN2 in liver. Among the transcription factors generated by UPR, spliced X-box binding protein1 can directly upregulated the expression of plin2, whereas C/EBP homologous protein can upregulate the expression of plin2 through peroxisome proliferator activated-receptor α. These results revealed that the LD protein PLIN2 played an important role in ER stress-induced hepatic steatosis, which might be a novel mechanism explaining hepatic steatosis triggered by ER stress.

Lysosome-Dependent LXR and PPARδ Activation Upon Efferocytosis in Human Macrophages

Efferocytosis is critical for tissue homeostasis, as its deregulation is associated with several autoimmune pathologies. While engulfing apoptotic cells, phagocytes activate transcription factors, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) or liver X receptors (LXR) that orchestrate metabolic, phagocytic, and inflammatory responses towards the ingested material. Coordination of these transcription factors in efferocytotic human macrophages is not fully understood. In this study, we evaluated the transcriptional profile of macrophages following the uptake of apoptotic Jurkat T cells using RNA-seq analysis. Results indicated upregulation of PPAR and LXR pathways but downregulation of sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBP) target genes. Pharmacological inhibition and RNA interference pointed to LXR and PPARδ as relevant transcriptional regulators, while PPARγ did not substantially contribute to gene regulation. Mechanistically, lysosomal digestion and lysosomal acid lipase (LIPA) were required for PPAR and LXR activation, while PPARδ activation also demanded an active lysosomal phospholipase A₂ (PLA2G15). Pharmacological interference with LXR signaling attenuated ABCA1-dependent cholesterol efflux from efferocytotic macrophages, but suppression of inflammatory responses following efferocytosis occurred independently of LXR and PPARδ. These data provide mechanistic details on LXR and PPARδ activation in efferocytotic human macrophages.

Aurka deficiency in the intestinal epithelium promotes age-induced obesity via propionate-mediated AKT activation

Aurora-A kinase, a serine/threonine mitotic kinase involved in mitosis, is overexpressed in several human cancers. A recent study showed that Aurora-A mediates glucose metabolism via SOX8/FOXK1 in ovarian cancer. However, the roles of Aurora-A in metabolic diseases remain unclear. This study found that Aurka loss in the intestinal epithelium promoted age-induced obesity and enlargement of lipid droplets in parallel with an increase in infiltrated macrophages in the white adipocyte tissue (WAT) of male mice. Moreover, loss of Aurka induced the expression of lipid metabolism regulatory genes, including acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase 1 (Acc1), in association with an increase in the levels of p-AKT in the intestinal epithelium as well as WAT. Blockade of AKT activation reduced the expression of lipid metabolism regulatory genes. In subsequent experiments, we found that the Firmicutes abundance and the levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the gut were dramatically increased in Aurka^f/+;Villin^Cre/+ mice compared with Aurka^f/+ mice. Additionally, propionate increased the phosphorylation of AKT in vitro. These observations indicated that Aurka loss in the intestinal epithelium contributed to gut microbiota dysbiosis and higher levels of SCFAs, especially propionate, leading to AKT activation and lipid metabolism regulatory gene expression, which in turn promoted age-induced obesity.