Kimberlite genesis from a common carbonate-rich primary melt modified by lithospheric mantle assimilation

Primordial neon and the deep mantle origin of kimberlites

The genesis of kimberlites is unclear despite the economic and scientific interest surrounding these diamond-bearing magmas. One critical question is whether they tap ancient, deep mantle domains or the shallow convecting mantle with partial melting triggered by plumes or plate tectonics. To address this question, we report the He-Ne-Ar isotopic compositions of magmatic fluids trapped in olivine from kimberlites worldwide. The kimberlites which have been least affected by addition of deeply subducted or metasomatic components have Ne isotopes less nucleogenic than the upper mantle, hence requiring a deep-mantle origin. This is corroborated by previous evidence of small negative W isotope anomalies and kimberlite location along age-progressive hot-spot tracks. The lack of strong primordial He isotope signatures indicates overprinting by lithospheric and crustal components, which suggests that Ne isotopes are more robust tracers of deep-mantle contributions in intraplate continental magmas. The most geochemically depleted kimberlites may preserve deep remnants of early-Earth heterogeneities.

Diamond preservation in the lithospheric mantle recorded by olivine in kimberlites

The diamond potential of kimberlites is difficult to assess due to several mantle and magmatic processes affecting diamond content. Traditionally, initial evaluations are based on the compositions of mantle-derived minerals (garnet, chromite, clinopyroxene), which allow an assessment of pressure-temperature conditions and lithologies suitable for diamond formation. Here we explore a complementary approach that considers the conditions of diamonds destruction by interaction with melts/fluids (metasomatism). We test the hypothesis that carbonate-rich metasomatism related to kimberlite melt infiltration into the deep lithosphere is detrimental to diamond preservation. Our results show that high diamond grades in kimberlites worldwide are exclusively associated with high-Mg/Fe olivine, which corresponds to mantle lithosphere minimally affected by kimberlite-related metasomatism. Diamond dissolution in strongly metasomatised lithosphere containing low-Mg/Fe olivine provides a causal link to the empirical associations between low diamond grades, abundant Ti-Zr-rich garnets and kimberlites with high Ti and low Mg contents. This finding show-cases olivine geochemistry as a viable tool in diamond exploration.

Rift-induced disruption of cratonic keels drives kimberlite volcanism

Kimberlites are volatile-rich, occasionally diamond-bearing magmas that have erupted explosively at Earth's surface in the geologic past1-3. These enigmatic magmas, originating from depths exceeding 150 km in Earth's mantle1, occur in stable cratons and in pulses broadly synchronous with supercontinent cyclicity4. Whether their mobilization is driven by mantle plumes5 or by mechanical weakening of cratonic lithosphere4,6 remains unclear. Here we show that most kimberlites spanning the past billion years erupted about 30 million years (Myr) after continental breakup, suggesting an association with rifting processes. Our dynamical and analytical models show that physically steep lithosphere-asthenosphere boundaries (LABs) formed during rifting generate convective instabilities in the asthenosphere that slowly migrate many hundreds to thousands of kilometres inboard of rift zones. These instabilities endure many tens of millions of years after continental breakup and destabilize the basal tens of kilometres of the cratonic lithosphere, or keel. Displaced keel is replaced by a hot, upwelling mixture of asthenosphere and recycled volatile-rich keel in the return flow, causing decompressional partial melting. Our calculations show that this process can generate small-volume, low-degree, volatile-rich melts, closely matching the characteristics expected of kimberlites1-3. Together, these results provide a quantitative and mechanistic link between kimberlite episodicity and supercontinent cycles through progressive disruption of cratonic keels.

Kimberlite eruptions driven by slab flux and subduction angle

Kimberlites are sourced from thermochemical upwellings which can transport diamonds to the surface of the crust. The majority of kimberlites preserved at the Earth's surface erupted between 250 and 50 million years ago, and have been attributed to changes in plate velocity or mantle plumes. However, these mechanisms fail to explain the presence of strong subduction signatures observed in some Cretaceous kimberlites. This raises the question whether there is a subduction process that unifies our understanding of the timing of kimberlite eruptions. We develop a novel formulation for calculating subduction angle based on trench migration, convergence rate, slab thickness and density to connect the influx of slab material into the mantle with the timing of kimberlite eruptions. We find that subduction angles combined with peaks in slab flux predict pulses of kimberlite eruptions. High rates of subducting slab material trigger mantle return flow that stimulates fertile reservoirs in the mantle. These convective instabilities transport slab-influenced melt to the surface at a distance inbound from the trench corresponding to the subduction angle. Our deep-time slab dip formulation has numerous potential applications including modelling the deep carbon and water cycles, and an improved understanding of subduction-related mineral deposits.

Perturbation of the deep-Earth carbon cycle in response to the Cambrian Explosion

Earth's carbon cycle is strongly influenced by subduction of sedimentary material into the mantle. The composition of the sedimentary subduction flux has changed considerably over Earth's history, but the impact of these changes on the mantle carbon cycle is unclear. Here, we show that the carbon isotopes of kimberlite magmas record a fundamental change in their deep-mantle source compositions during the Phanerozoic Eon. The ¹³C/¹²C of kimberlites before ~250 Ma preserves typical mantle values, whereas younger kimberlites exhibit lower and more variable ratios-a switch coincident with a recognized surge in kimberlite magmatism. We attribute these changes to increased deep subduction of organic carbon with low ¹³C/¹²C following the Cambrian Explosion when organic carbon deposition in marine sediments increased significantly. These observations demonstrate that biogeochemical processes at Earth's surface have a profound influence on the deep mantle, revealing an integral link between the deep and shallow carbon cycles.

Light oxygen isotopes in mantle-derived magmas reflect assimilation of sub-continental lithospheric mantle material

Oxygen isotope ratios in mantle-derived magmas that differ from typical mantle values are generally attributed to crustal contamination, deeply subducted crustal material in the mantle source or primordial heterogeneities. Here we provide an alternative view for the origin of light oxygen-isotope signatures in mantle-derived magmas using kimberlites, carbonate-rich magmas that assimilate mantle debris during ascent. Olivine grains in kimberlites are commonly zoned between a mantle-derived core and a magmatic rim, thus constraining the compositions of both mantle wall-rocks and melt phase. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) analyses of olivine in worldwide kimberlites show a remarkable correlation between mean oxygen-isotope compositions of cores and rims from mantle-like ¹⁸O/¹⁶O to lower 'crustal' values. This observation indicates that kimberlites entraining low-¹⁸O/¹⁶O olivine xenocrysts are modified by assimilation of low-¹⁸O/¹⁶O sub-continental lithospheric mantle material. Interaction with geochemically-enriched domains of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle can therefore be an important source of apparently 'crustal' signatures in mantle-derived magmas.

Tungsten-182 evidence for an ancient kimberlite source

Globally distributed kimberlites with broadly chondritic initial ¹⁴³Nd-¹⁷⁶Hf isotopic systematics may be derived from a chemically homogenous, relatively primitive mantle source that remained isolated from the convecting mantle for much of the Earth's history. To assess whether this putative reservoir may have preserved remnants of an early Earth process, we report ¹⁸²W/¹⁸⁴W and ¹⁴²Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd data for "primitive" kimberlites from 10 localities worldwide, ranging in age from 1,153 to 89 Ma. Most are characterized by homogeneous μ¹⁸²W and μ¹⁴²Nd values averaging -5.9 ± 3.6 ppm (2SD, n = 13) and +2.7 ± 2.9 ppm (2SD, n = 6), respectively. The remarkably uniform yet modestly negative μ¹⁸²W values, coupled with chondritic to slightly suprachondritic initial ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd and ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf ratios over a span of nearly 1,000 Mya, provides permissive evidence that these kimberlites were derived from one or more long-lived, early formed mantle reservoirs. Possible causes for negative μ¹⁸²W values among these kimberlites include the transfer of W with low μ¹⁸²W from the core to the mantle source reservoir(s), creation of the source reservoir(s) as a result of early silicate fractionation, or an overabundance of late-accreted materials in the source reservoir(s). By contrast, two younger kimberlites emplaced at 72 and 52 Ma and characterized by distinctly subchondritic initial ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd have μ¹⁸²W values consistent with the modern upper mantle. These isotopic compositions may reflect contamination of the ancient kimberlite source by recycled crustal components with μ¹⁸²W ≥ 0.

Remnants of early Earth differentiation in the deepest mantle-derived lavas

The noble gas isotope systematics of ocean island basalts suggest the existence of primordial mantle signatures in the deep mantle. Yet, the isotopic compositions of lithophile elements (Sr, Nd, Hf) in these lavas require derivation from a mantle source that is geochemically depleted by melt extraction rather than primitive. Here, this apparent contradiction is resolved by employing a compilation of the Sr, Nd, and Hf isotope composition of kimberlites-volcanic rocks that originate at great depth beneath continents. This compilation includes kimberlites as old as 2.06 billion years and shows that kimberlites do not derive from a primitive mantle source but sample the same geochemically depleted component (where geochemical depletion refers to ancient melt extraction) common to most oceanic island basalts, previously called PREMA (prevalent mantle) or FOZO (focal zone). Extrapolation of the Nd and Hf isotopic compositions of the kimberlite source to the age of Earth formation yields a ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd-¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf composition within error of chondrite meteorites, which include the likely parent bodies of Earth. This supports a hypothesis where the source of kimberlites and ocean island basalts contains a long-lived component that formed by melt extraction from a domain with chondritic ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd and ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf shortly after Earth accretion. The geographic distribution of kimberlites containing the PREMA component suggests that these remnants of early Earth differentiation are located in large seismically anomalous regions corresponding to thermochemical piles above the core-mantle boundary. PREMA could have been stored in these structures for most of Earth's history, partially shielded from convective homogenization.

Fluxing of mantle carbon as a physical agent for metallogenic fertilization of the crust

Magmatic systems play a crucial role in enriching the crust with volatiles and elements that reside primarily within the Earth's mantle, including economically important metals like nickel, copper and platinum-group elements. However, transport of these metals within silicate magmas primarily occurs within dense sulfide liquids, which tend to coalesce, settle and not be efficiently transported in ascending magmas. Here we show textural observations, backed up with carbon and oxygen isotope data, which indicate an intimate association between mantle-derived carbonates and sulfides in some mafic-ultramafic magmatic systems emplaced at the base of the continental crust. We propose that carbon, as a buoyant supercritical CO2 fluid, might be a covert agent aiding and promoting the physical transport of sulfides across the mantle-crust transition. This may be a common but cryptic mechanism that facilitates cycling of volatiles and metals from the mantle to the lower-to-mid continental crust, which leaves little footprint behind by the time magmas reach the Earth's surface.