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Extremely Thermoacidophilic Metallosphaera Species Mediate Mobilization and Oxidation of Vanadium and Molybdenum Oxides. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:AEM.02805-18. [PMID: 30578261 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02805-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain species from the extremely thermoacidophilic genus Metallosphaera directly oxidize Fe(II) to Fe(III), which in turn catalyzes abiotic solubilization of copper from chalcopyrite to facilitate recovery of this valuable metal. In this process, the redox status of copper does not change as it is mobilized. Metallosphaera species can also catalyze the release of metals from ores with a change in the metal's redox state. For example, Metallosphae ra sedula catalyzes the mobilization of uranium from the solid oxide U3O8, concomitant with the generation of soluble U(VI). Here, the mobilization of metals from solid oxides (V2O3, Cu2O, FeO, MnO, CoO, SnO, MoO2, Cr2O3, Ti2O3, and Rh2O3) was examined for M. sedula and M. prunae at 70°C and pH 2.0. Of these oxides, only V and Mo were solubilized, a process accelerated in the presence of FeCl3 However, it was not clear whether the solubilization and oxidation of these metals could be attributed entirely to an Fe-mediated indirect mechanism. Transcriptomic analysis for growth on molybdenum and vanadium oxides revealed transcriptional patterns not previously observed for growth on other energetic substrates (i.e., iron, chalcopyrite, organic compounds, reduced sulfur compounds, and molecular hydrogen). Of particular interest was the upregulation of Msed_1191, which encodes a Rieske cytochrome b 6 fusion protein (Rcbf, referred to here as V/MoxA) that was not transcriptomically responsive during iron biooxidation. These results suggest that direct oxidation of V and Mo occurs, in addition to Fe-mediated oxidation, such that both direct and indirect mechanisms are involved in the mobilization of redox-active metals by Metallosphaera species.IMPORTANCE In order to effectively leverage extremely thermoacidophilic archaea for the microbially based solubilization of solid-phase metal substrates (e.g., sulfides and oxides), understanding the mechanisms by which these archaea solubilize metals is important. Physiological analysis of Metallosphaera species growth in the presence of molybdenum and vanadium oxides revealed an indirect mode of metal mobilization, catalyzed by iron cycling. However, since the mobilized metals exist in more than one oxidation state, they could potentially serve directly as energetic substrates. Transcriptomic response to molybdenum and vanadium oxides provided evidence for new biomolecules participating in direct metal biooxidation. The findings expand the knowledge on the physiological versatility of these extremely thermoacidophilic archaea.
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Wang R, Lin JQ, Liu XM, Pang X, Zhang CJ, Yang CL, Gao XY, Lin CM, Li YQ, Li Y, Lin JQ, Chen LX. Sulfur Oxidation in the Acidophilic Autotrophic Acidithiobacillus spp. Front Microbiol 2019; 9:3290. [PMID: 30687275 PMCID: PMC6335251 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfur oxidation is an essential component of the earth's sulfur cycle. Acidithiobacillus spp. can oxidize various reduced inorganic sulfur compounds (RISCs) with high efficiency to obtain electrons for their autotrophic growth. Strains in this genus have been widely applied in bioleaching and biological desulfurization. Diverse sulfur-metabolic pathways and corresponding regulatory systems have been discovered in these acidophilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. The sulfur-metabolic enzymes in Acidithiobacillus spp. can be categorized as elemental sulfur oxidation enzymes (sulfur dioxygenase, sulfur oxygenase reductase, and Hdr-like complex), enzymes in thiosulfate oxidation pathways (tetrathionate intermediate thiosulfate oxidation (S4I) pathway, the sulfur oxidizing enzyme (Sox) system and thiosulfate dehydrogenase), sulfide oxidation enzymes (sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase) and sulfite oxidation pathways/enzymes. The two-component systems (TCSs) are the typical regulation elements for periplasmic thiosulfate metabolism in these autotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. Examples are RsrS/RsrR responsible for S4I pathway regulation and TspS/TspR for Sox system regulation. The proposal of sulfur metabolic and regulatory models provide new insights and overall understanding of the sulfur-metabolic processes in Acidithiobacillus spp. The future research directions and existing barriers in the bacterial sulfur metabolism are also emphasized here and the breakthroughs in these areas will accelerate the research on the sulfur oxidation in Acidithiobacillus spp. and other sulfur oxidizers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jian-Qun Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lin-Xu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
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Johnson DB, Hedrich S, Pakostova E. Indirect Redox Transformations of Iron, Copper, and Chromium Catalyzed by Extremely Acidophilic Bacteria. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:211. [PMID: 28239375 PMCID: PMC5301019 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Experiments were carried out to examine redox transformations of copper and chromium by acidophilic bacteria (Acidithiobacillus, Leptospirillum, and Acidiphilium), and also of iron (III) reduction by Acidithiobacillus spp. under aerobic conditions. Reduction of iron (III) was found with all five species of Acidithiobacillus tested, grown aerobically on elemental sulfur. Cultures maintained at pH 1.0 for protracted periods displayed increasing propensity for aerobic iron (III) reduction, which was observed with cell-free culture liquors as well as those containing bacteria. At. caldus grown on hydrogen also reduced iron (III) under aerobic conditions, confirming that the unknown metabolite(s) responsible for iron (III) reduction were not (exclusively) sulfur intermediates. Reduction of copper (II) by aerobic cultures of sulfur-grown Acidithiobacillus spp. showed similar trends to iron (III) reduction in being more pronounced as culture pH declined, and occurring in both the presence and absence of cells. Cultures of Acidithiobacillus grown anaerobically on hydrogen only reduced copper (II) when iron (III) (which was also reduced) was also included; identical results were found with Acidiphilium cryptum grown micro-aerobically on glucose. Harvested biomass of hydrogen-grown At. ferridurans oxidized iron (II) but not copper (I), and copper (I) was only oxidized by growing cultures of Acidithiobacillus spp. when iron (II) was also included. The data confirmed that oxidation and reduction of copper were both mediated by acidophilic bacteria indirectly, via iron (II) and iron (III). No oxidation of chromium (III) by acidophilic bacteria was observed even when, in the case of Leptospirillum spp., the redox potential of oxidized cultures exceeded +900 mV. Cultures of At. ferridurans and A. cryptum reduced chromium (VI), though only when iron (III) was also present, confirming an indirect mechanism and contradicting an earlier report of direct chromium reduction by A. cryptum. Measurements of redox potentials of iron, copper and chromium couples in acidic, sulfate-containing liquors showed that these differed from situations where metals are not complexed by inorganic ligands, and supported the current observations of indirect copper oxido-reduction and chromium reduction mediated by acidophilic bacteria. The implications of these results for both industrial applications of acidophiles and for exobiology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Barrie Johnson
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Bangor University Bangor, UK
| | - Sabrina Hedrich
- Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources Hannover, Germany
| | - Eva Pakostova
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Bangor University Bangor, UK
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4
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Sun W, Xiao E, Kalin M, Krumins V, Dong Y, Ning Z, Liu T, Sun M, Zhao Y, Wu S, Mao J, Xiao T. Remediation of antimony-rich mine waters: Assessment of antimony removal and shifts in the microbial community of an onsite field-scale bioreactor. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 215:213-222. [PMID: 27208755 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
An on-site field-scale bioreactor for passive treatment of antimony (Sb) contamination was installed downstream of an active Sb mine in Southwest China, and operated for one year (including a six month monitoring period). This bioreactor consisted of five treatment units, including one pre-aerobic cell, two aerobic cells, and two microaerobic cells. With the aerobic cells inoculated with indigenous mine water microflora, the bioreactor removed more than 90% of total soluble Sb and 80% of soluble antimonite (Sb(III)). An increase in pH and decrease of oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) was also observed along the flow direction. High-throughput sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene variable (V4) region revealed that taxonomically diverse microbial communities developed in the bioreactor. Metal (loid)-oxidizing bacteria including Ferrovum, Thiomonas, Gallionella, and Leptospirillum, were highly enriched in the bioreactor cells where the highest total Sb and Sb(III) removal occurred. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) indicated that a suite of in situ physicochemical parameters including pH and Eh were substantially correlated with the overall microbial communities. Based on an UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean) tree and PCoA (Principal Coordinates Analysis), the microbial composition of each cell was distinct, indicating these in situ physicochemical parameters had an effect in shaping the indigenous microbial communities. Overall, this study was the first to employ a field-scale bioreactor to treat Sb-rich mine water onsite and, moreover, the findings suggest the feasibility of the bioreactor in removing elevated Sb from mine waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weimin Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China; Guangdong Institute of Eco-environment and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou, 510650, China; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Enzong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | | | - Valdis Krumins
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Yiran Dong
- Department of Geology, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Zengping Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China
| | - Tong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Min Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yanlong Zhao
- Water Resources Protection Bureau of Pearl River Water Resources Commission, Guangzhou, 510611, China
| | - Shiliang Wu
- Water Resources Protection Bureau of Pearl River Water Resources Commission, Guangzhou, 510611, China
| | - Jianzhong Mao
- Yunnan Provincial Bureau of Hydrology and Water Resources, Kunming 650106, China
| | - Tangfu Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China.
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6
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Kirk Nordstrom D. Aqueous Pyrite Oxidation and the Consequent Formation of Secondary Iron Minerals. SSSA SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS 2015. [DOI: 10.2136/sssaspecpub10.c3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Darrell Kirk Nordstrom
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Clark Hall; Univ. of Virginia; Charlottesville VA 22903
- Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey; 345 Middlefield Road Menlo Park CA 94025
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8
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Rawlings DE. Characteristics and adaptability of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms used for the recovery of metals from minerals and their concentrates. Microb Cell Fact 2005; 4:13. [PMID: 15877814 PMCID: PMC1142338 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-4-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2005] [Accepted: 05/06/2005] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms are used in large-scale heap or tank aeration processes for the commercial extraction of a variety of metals from their ores or concentrates. These include copper, cobalt, gold and, in the past, uranium. The metal solubilization processes are considered to be largely chemical with the microorganisms providing the chemicals and the space (exopolysaccharide layer) where the mineral dissolution reactions occur. Temperatures at which these processes are carried out can vary from ambient to 80 degrees C and the types of organisms present depends to a large extent on the process temperature used. Irrespective of the operation temperature, biomining microbes have several characteristics in common. One shared characteristic is their ability to produce the ferric iron and sulfuric acid required to degrade the mineral and facilitate metal recovery. Other characteristics are their ability to grow autotrophically, their acid-tolerance and their inherent metal resistance or ability to acquire metal resistance. Although the microorganisms that drive the process have the above properties in common, biomining microbes usually occur in consortia in which cross-feeding may occur such that a combination of microbes including some with heterotrophic tendencies may contribute to the efficiency of the process. The remarkable adaptability of these organisms is assisted by several of the processes being continuous-flow systems that enable the continual selection of microorganisms that are more efficient at mineral degradation. Adaptability is also assisted by the processes being open and non-sterile thereby permitting new organisms to enter. This openness allows for the possibility of new genes that improve cell fitness to be selected from the horizontal gene pool. Characteristics that biomining microorganisms have in common and examples of their remarkable adaptability are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas E Rawlings
- Department of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Private BagX1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa.
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9
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Martínez JP, Garay E, Alcaide E, Hernández E. The genus thiobacillus: Physiology and industrial applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1002/abio.370030202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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10
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Elzeky M, Attia Y. Effect of bacterial adaptation on kinetics and mechanisms of bioleaching ferrous sulfides. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0923-0467(94)06086-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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11
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Electron transfer from acetate to the surface of MnO2 particles by a marine bacterium. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01569912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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12
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Sugio T, Hirayama K, Inagaki K, Tanaka H, Tano T. Molybdenum Oxidation by
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Appl Environ Microbiol 1992; 58:1768-71. [PMID: 16348710 PMCID: PMC195670 DOI: 10.1128/aem.58.5.1768-1771.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
AP19-3 oxidized molybdenum blue (Mo
5+
) enzymatically. Molybdenum oxidase in the plasma membrane of this bacterium was purified ca. 77-fold compared with molybdenum oxidase in cell extract. A purified molybdenum oxidase showed characteristic absorption maxima due to reduced-type cytochrome oxidase at 438 and 595 nm but did not show absorption peaks specific for
c
-type cytochrome. The optimum pH of molybdenum oxidase was 5.5. The activity of molybdenum oxidase was completely inhibited by sodium cyanide (5 mM) or carbon monoxide, and an oxidized type of cytochrome oxidase in a purified molybdenum oxidase was reduced by molybdenum blue, indicating that cytochrome oxidase in the enzyme plays a crucial role in molybdenum blue oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Sugio
- Department of Biological Function and Genetic Resources Science and Department of Bioresources Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Okayama University, 1-1-1 Tsushima Naka, Okayama 700, Japan
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13
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Attia Y, Elzeky M. Bioleaching of non-ferrous sulfides with adapted thiophillic bacteria. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0300-9467(90)80064-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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14
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Sugio T, Tsujita Y, Inagaki K, Tano T. Reduction of Cupric Ions with Elemental Sulfur by
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990; 56:693-6. [PMID: 16348143 PMCID: PMC183407 DOI: 10.1128/aem.56.3.693-696.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In anaerobic or aerobic conditions in the presence of 5 mM sodium cyanide, an inhibitor of iron oxidase, cupric ion (Cu
2+
) was reduced enzymatically with elemental sulfur (S
0
) by washed intact cells of
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
AP19-3 to give cuprous ion (Cu
+
). The rate of Cu
2+
reduction was proportional to the concentrations of S
0
and Cu
2+
added to the reaction mixture. The pH optimum for the cupric ion-reducing system was 5.0, and the activity was completely destroyed by 10-min incubation of cells at 70°C. The activity of Cu
2+
reduction with S
0
by this strain was strongly inhibited by inhibitors of hydrogen sulfide: ferric ion oxidoreductase (SFORase), such as α,α′-dipyridyl, 4,5-dihydroxy-
m
-benzene disulfonic acid disodium salts, and diazine dicarboxylic acid bis-(
N, N
-dimethylamide). A SFORase purified from this strain, which catalyzes oxidation of both hydrogen sulfide and S
0
with Fe
3+
or Mo
6+
as an electron acceptor in the presence of glutathione, catalyzed a reduction of Cu
2+
by S
0
, and the Michaelis constant of SFORase for Cu
2+
was 7.2 mM, indicating that a SFORase catalyzes the reduction of not only Fe
3+
and Mo
6+
but also Cu
2+
.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Sugio
- Division of Biological Function and Genetic Resources Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Okayama University, 1-1-1 Tsushima Naka, Okayama 700, Japan
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15
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Olson GJ, Brinckman FE. Inorganic Materials Biotechnology: A New Industrial Measurement Challenge. J Res Natl Bur Stand (1977) 1986; 91:139-147. [PMID: 34345078 PMCID: PMC6658434 DOI: 10.6028/jres.091.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Biotechnological processing of inorganic, heavy elements has only begun to emerge as we start to understand microbial strategies and mechanisms of heavy element transformations. Chemical speciation of key, diagnostic intermediates and products of bioprocessing in gas, liquid, and cellular phases, and on surfaces, is required to understand and optimize important reactions. Recent discoveries of microorganisms in metal-enriched thermal environments, and further investigations into production of exocellular metal transforming metabolites, offer exciting prospects for development of new technologies for strategic and precious materials recovery and processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Olson
- National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
| | - F E Brinckman
- National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
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16
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In bacteria which grow on simple reductants, generation of a proton gradient involves extracytoplasmic oxidation of substrate. Microbiol Rev 1985; 49:140-57. [PMID: 2989673 PMCID: PMC373027 DOI: 10.1128/mr.49.2.140-157.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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17
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Braddock JF, Luong HV, Brown EJ. Growth Kinetics of
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
Isolated from Arsenic Mine Drainage. Appl Environ Microbiol 1984; 48:48-55. [PMID: 16346599 PMCID: PMC240304 DOI: 10.1128/aem.48.1.48-55.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
is found in many Alaskan and Canadian drainages contaminated by metals dissolved from placer and lode gold mines. We have examined the iron-limited growth and iron oxidation kinetics of a
T. ferrooxidans
isolate, AK1, by using batch and continuous cultures. Strain AK1 is an arsenic-tolerant isolate obtained from placer gold mine drainage containing large amounts of dissolved arsenic. The steady-state growth kinetics are described with equations modified for threshold ferrous iron concentrations. The maximal specific growth rate (μ
max
) for isolate AK1 at 22.5°C was 0.070 h
−1
, and the ferrous iron concentration at which the half-maximal growth rate occurred (
K
μ
) was 0.78 mM. Cell yields varied inversely with growth rate. The iron oxidation kinetics of this organism were dependent on biomass. We found no evidence of ferric inhibition of ferrous iron oxidation for ferrous iron concentrations between 9.0 and 23.3 mM. A supplement to the ferrous medium of 2.67 mM sodium arsenite did not result in an increased steady-state biomass, nor did it appear to affect the steady-state growth kinetics observed in continuous cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Braddock
- Institute of Water Resources/Engineering Experiment Station, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
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18
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DiSpirito AA, Tuovinen OH. Uranous ion oxidation and carbon dioxide fixation byThiobacillus ferrooxidans. Arch Microbiol 1982. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00943765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Chapter 6.3 Oxidative Reactions in the Sulfur Cycle. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-1116(08)71064-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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21
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Torma AE. The role of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans in hydrometallurgical processes. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 1977. [DOI: 10.1007/3-540-08363-4_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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22
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Tuovinen OH, Kelly DP. Biology of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans in relation to the microbiological leaching of sulphide ores. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ALLGEMEINE MIKROBIOLOGIE 1972; 12:311-46. [PMID: 4561082 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3630120406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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