Imaging the Pore Structure of Geomaterials

Quality Evaluation of Epoxy Pore Casts Using Silicon Micromodels: Application to Confocal Imaging of Carbonate Samples

Pore casting refers to filling the void spaces of porous materials with an extraneous fluid, usually epoxy resin, to obtain a high-strength composite material, stabilize a fragile porous structure, produce a three-dimensional replica of the pore space, or provide imaging contrast. Epoxy pore casting may be accompanied by additional procedures, such as etching, in which the material matrix is dissolved, leaving a clean cast. Moreover, an epoxy resin may be mixed with fluorophore substances to allow fluorescence imaging. Our work aims to investigate and optimize the epoxy pore casting procedure parameters, for example, impregnation pressure. We use silicon micromodels as a reference to validate the key parameters of high-pressure resin impregnation. We demonstrate possible artifacts and defects that might develop during impregnation with resin, e.g., resin shrinkage and gas trapping. In the end, we developed an optimized protocol to produce high-quality resin pore casts for high-resolution 3D imaging and the description of microporosity in micritic carbonates. In our applications, the high-quality pore casts were acid-etched to remove the non-transparent carbonate material, making the pore casts suitable for imaging with Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM). In addition, we evaluate the quality of our etching procedure using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) scans of the pre- and post-etched samples and demonstrate that the etched epoxy pore casts represent the pore space of microporous carbonate rock samples with high fidelity.

Visualization of materials using the confocal laser scanning microscopy technique

The development of materials science always benefits from advanced characterizations. Currently, imaging techniques are of great technological importance in both fundamental and applied research on materials. In comparison to conventional visualization methods, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is non-invasive, with macroscale and high-contrast scanning, a simple and fast sample preparation procedure as well as easy operation. In addition, CLSM allows rapid acquisition of longitudinal and cross-sectional images at any position in a material. Therefore, the CLSM-based visualization technique could provide direct and model-independent insight into material characterizations. This review summarizes the recent applications of CLSM in materials science. The current CLSM approaches for the visualization of surface structures, internal structures, spatial structures and reaction processes are discussed in detail. Finally, we provide our thoughts and predictions on the future development of CLSM in materials science. The purpose of this review is to guide researchers to build a suitable CLSM approach for material characterizations, and to open viable opportunities and inspirations for the development of new strategies aiming at the preparation of advanced materials. We hope that this review will be useful for a wide range of research communities of materials science, chemistry, and engineering.

Pore scale investigation on scaling-up micro-macro capillary number and wettability on trapping and mobilization of residual fluid

The mobilization mechanism of the trapped phases controlled by the viscous force and capillary force in porous media is crucial to various engineering applications. In this paper, pore scale water flooding process in rock models with nonuniform wettability is simulated by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) using the volume of fluid (VOF) model. Four types of rock are imaged by micro-CT (μ-CT) and adopted as inputs to generate the structured mesh models. The simulations of two-phase flow are carried out to study the immiscible displacement process in the development of oil fields. The scaling-up critical capillary number at micro-macro scale are acquired and validated, the effects of which on relative permeability, residual oil recovery and immiscible displacement efficiency are analyzed. The simulation results indicate that the critical capillary number at microscopic scale ranges from 10^-6 to 10^-5 for water-wetted and oil-wetted rock respectively, and approaches to 1 at the macro scale. The effect of wettability on oil recovery is positive for intermediate-wetted or weak water-wetted rock, while negative for strong wettability.

Visualizing pore architecture and molecular transport boundaries in catalyst bodies with fluorescent nanoprobes

The performances of porous materials are closely related to the accessibility and interconnectivity of their porous domains. Visualizing pore architecture and its role on functionality-for example, mass transport-has been a challenge so far, and traditional bulk and often non-visual pore measurements have to suffice in most cases. Here, we present an integrated, facile fluorescence microscopy approach to visualize the pore accessibility and interconnectivity of industrial-grade catalyst bodies, and link it unequivocally with their catalytic performance. Fluorescent nanoprobes of various sizes were imaged and correlated with the molecular transport of fluorescent molecules formed during a separate catalytic reaction. A direct visual relationship between the pore architecture-which depends on the pore sizes and interconnectivity of the material selected-and molecular transport was established. This approach can be applied to other porous materials, and the insight gained may prove useful in the design of more efficient heterogeneous catalysts.

Imaging the Pore Structure of Geological Materials with Bifunctional Nanoparticles

Analysis of complex pore structure of geomaterials is a fundamental issue in geoscience. Here bifunctional nanoparticles with magnetic and fluorescent properties are introduced as novel markers for optical imaging of pore structure in geomaterials. Using the paramagnetic property, powder of the nanoparticle is driven into pores under an external magnetic field, avoiding a tedious sample preparation and eliminating artificial damage of sample preparation in conventional methods. Meanwhile, the fluorescent nanoparticle marker offers a sharp contrast imaging between the rock matrix (black) and pores (bright) under microscopy. Furthermore, fluorescent nanoparticles with different sizes and colors are designed to demonstrate the potential of the method for describing pore throat sizes. Combining the merits of the paramagnetic and fluorescent properties of nanoparticles, a convenient and practical sample preparation is proposed to promote optical imaging analysis of the pore structure in geomaterials.

Characterization of reactive flow-induced evolution of carbonate rocks using digital core analysis - part 2: Calculation of the evolution of percolation and transport properties

Percolation of reactive fluids in carbonate rocks affects the rock microstructure and hence changes the rock macroscopic properties. In Part 1 paper, we examined the voxel-wise evolution of microstructure of the rock in terms of mineral dissolution/detachment, mineral deposition, and unchanged regions. In the present work, we investigate the relationships between changes in two characteristic transport properties, i.e. permeability and electrical conductivity and two critical parameters of the pore phase, i.e. the fraction of the pore space connecting the inlet and outlet faces of the core sample and the critical pore-throat diameter. We calculate the aforementioned properties on the images of the sample, wherein a homogeneous modification of pore structure occurred in order to ensure the representativeness of the calculated transport properties at the core scale. From images, the evolution of pore connectivity and the potential role of micropores on the connectivity are quantified. It is found that the changing permeability and electrical conductivity distributions along the core length are generally in good agreement with the longitudinal evolution of macro-connected macroporosity and the critical pore-throat diameter. We incorporate microporosity into critical length and permeability calculations and show how microporosity locally plays a role in permeability. It is shown that the Katz-Thompson model reasonably predicts the post-alteration permeability in terms of pre-alteration simulated parameters. This suggests that the evolution of permeability and electrical conductivity of the studied complex carbonate core are controlled by the changes in the macro-connected macroporosity as well as the smallest pore-throats between the connected macropores.

Methane and CO2 Adsorption Capacities of Kerogen in the Eagle Ford Shale from Molecular Simulation

Over the past decade, the United States has become a world leader in natural gas production, thanks in part to a large-fold increase in recovery from unconventional resources, i.e., shale rock and tight oil reservoirs. In an attempt to help mitigate climate change, these depleted formations are being considered for their long-term CO₂ storage potential. Because of the variability in mineral and structural composition from one formation to the next (even within the same region), it is imperative to understand the adsorption behavior of CH₄ and CO₂ in the context of specific conditions and pore surface chemistry, i.e., relative total organic content (TOC), clay, and surface functionality. This study examines two Eagle Ford shale samples, both recovered from shale that was extracted at depths of approximately 3800 m and having low clay content (i.e., less than 5%) and similar mineral compositions but distinct TOCs (i.e., 2% and 5%, respectively). Experimentally validated models of kerogen were used to the estimate CH₄ and CO₂ adsorption capacities. The pore size distributions modeled were derived from low-pressure adsorption isotherm data using CO₂ and N₂ as probe gases for micropores and mesopores, respectively. Given the presence of water in these natural systems, the role of surface chemistry on modeled kerogen pore surfaces was investigated. Several functional groups associated with surface-dissociated water were considered. Pressure conditions from 10 to 50 bar were investigated using grand canonical Monte Carlo simulations along with typical outgassing temperatures used in many shale characterization and adsorption studies (i.e., 60 and 250 °C). Both CO₂ and N₂ were used as probe gases to determine the total pore volume available for gas adsorption spanning pore diameters ranging from 0.3 to 30 nm. The impacts of surface chemistry, outgassing temperature, and the inclusion of nanopores with diameters of less than 1.5 nm were determined for applications of CH₄ and CO₂ storage from samples of the gas-producing region of the Eagle Ford Shale. At 50 bar and temperatures of 60 and 250 °C, CH₄ adsorption increased across all surface chemistries considered by 60% and 2-fold, respectively. In the case of CO₂, the surface chemistry played a role at both 10 and 50 bar. For instance, at temperatures of 60 and 250 °C, CO₂ adsorption increased across all surface chemistries by 6-fold and just over 2-fold, respectively. It was also found that at both 10 and 50 bar, if too low an outgassing temperature is used, this may lead to a 2-fold underestimation of gas in place. Finally, neglecting to include pores with diameters of less than 1.5 nm has the potential to underestimate pore volume by up to 28%. Taking into consideration these aspects of kerogen and shale characterization in general will lead to improvements in estimating the CH₄ and CO₂ storage potential of gas shales.

Numerical research on the anisotropic transport of thermal neutron in heterogeneous porous media with micron X-ray computed tomography

The anisotropic transport of thermal neutron in heterogeneous porous media is of great research interests in many fields. In this paper, it is the first time that a new model based on micron X-ray computed tomography (CT) has been proposed to simultaneously consider both the separation of matrix and pore and the distribution of mineral components. We apply the Monte Carlo method to simulate thermal neutrons transporting through the model along different directions, and meanwhile detect those unreacted thermal neutrons by an array detector on the other side of the model. Therefore, the anisotropy of pore structure can be imaged by the amount of received thermal neutrons, due to the difference of rock matrix and pore-filling fluids in the macroscopic reaction cross section (MRCS). The new model has been verified by the consistent between the simulated data and the pore distribution from X-ray CT. The results show that the evaluation of porosity can be affected by the anisotropy of media. Based on the research, a new formula is developed to describe the correlation between the resolution of array detectors and the quality of imaging. The formula can be further used to analyze the critical resolution and the suitable number of thermal neutrons emitted in each simulation. Unconventionally, we find that a higher resolution cannot always lead to a better image.

Automatic framework for extraction and characterization of wetting front propagation using tomographic image sequences of water infiltrated soils

This paper presents a new automatic framework for extracting and characterizing the dynamic shape of the 3D wetting front and its propagation, based in a sequence of tomographic images acquired as water (moisture) infiltrates in unsaturated soils. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the shape of the 3D wetting front and its propagation and progress over time has not been previously produced as a whole by methods in existing literature. The proposed automatic framework is composed two important and integrated modules: i) extraction of the 3D wetting front, and ii) characterization and description of the 3D wetting front to obtain important information about infiltration process. The 3D wetting front surface is segmented from 3D CT imagery provided as input via a 3D stochastic region merging strategy using quadric-regressed bilateral space-scale representations. Based on the 3D segmentation results, the normal directions at local curvature maxima of the wetting front surface are computed for 3D images of soil moisture, and its propagation is analyzed at the local directions in sites of maximal water adsorption, and described using histograms of curvature changes over time in response to sample saturation. These curvature change descriptors provide indirect measurements of moisture infiltration in soils, and soil saturation. Results using a field tomograph equipment specific for soil studies are encouraging, and suggest that the proposed automatic framework can be applied to estimate the infiltration of water in soils in 3D and in time.

Three-dimensional imaging of sulfides in silicate rocks at submicron resolution with multiphoton microscopy

We report the first application of multiphoton microscopy (MPM) to generate three-dimensional (3D) images of natural minerals (micron-sized sulfides) in thick (∼120 μm) rock sections. First, reflection mode (RM) using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), combined with differential interference contrast (DIC), was tested on polished sections. Second, two-photon fluorescence (TPF) and second harmonic signal (SHG) images were generated using a femtosecond-laser on the same rock section without impregnation by a fluorescent dye. CSLM results show that the silicate matrix is revealed with DIC and RM, while sulfides can be imaged in 3D at low resolution by RM. Sulfides yield strong autofluorescence from 392 to 715 nm with TPF, while SHG is only produced by the embedding medium. Simultaneous recording of TPF and SHG images enables efficient discrimination between different components of silicate rocks. Image stacks obtained with MPM enable complete reconstruction of the 3D structure of a rock slice and of sulfide morphology at submicron resolution, which has not been previously reported for 3D imaging of minerals. Our work suggests that MPM is a highly efficient tool for 3D studies of microstructures and morphologies of minerals in silicate rocks, which may find other applications in geosciences.

Fluids in porous media. I. A hard sponge model

The morphology of many porous materials is spongelike. Despite the abundance of such materials, simple models which allow for a theoretical description of these materials are still lacking. Here, we propose a hard sponge model which is made by digging spherical cavities in a solid continuum. We found an analytical expression for describing the interaction potential between fluid particles and the spongelike porous matrix. The diagrammatic expansions of different correlation functions are derived as well as that of grand potential. We derived also the Ornstein-Zernike (OZ) equations for this model. In contrast to Madden-Glandt model of random porous media [W. G. Madden and E. D. Glandt, J. Stat. Phys. 51, 537 (1988)], the OZ equations for a fluid confined in our hard sponge model have some similarity to the OZ equations of a three-component fluid mixture. We show also how the replica method can be extended to study our sponge model and that the same OZ equations can be derived also from the extended replica method.

Optically transparent porous medium for nondestructive studies of microbial biofilm architecture and transport dynamics

We describe a novel and noninvasive, microscopy-based method for visualizing the structure and dynamics of microbial biofilms, individual fluorescent microbial cells, and inorganic colloids within a model porous medium. Biofilms growing in flow cells packed with granules of an amorphous fluoropolymer could be visualized as a consequence of refractive index matching between the solid fluoropolymer grains and the aqueous immersion medium. In conjunction with the capabilities of confocal microscopy for nondestructive optical sectioning, the use of amorphous fluoropolymers as a solid matrix permits observation of organisms and dynamic processes to a depth of 2 to 3 mm, whereas sediment biofilms growing in sand-filled flow cells can only be visualized in the region adjacent to the flow cell wall. This method differs fundamentally from other refractive index-matching applications in that optical transparency was achieved by matching a solid phase to water (and not vice versa), thereby permitting real-time microscopic studies of particulate-containing, low-refractive-index media such as biological and chromatographic systems.

Evaluation of synchrotron X-ray computerized microtomography for the visualization of transport processes in low-porosity materials

Synchrotron-source X-ray computerized microtomography (CMT) is evaluated as a method to visualize transport processes. We conclude that CMT is adequate for visualization of transport experiments if the right conditions exist. Namely, 1) not much more than one-order-of-magnitude range in concentration data is needed for the study, 2) the pore space in the samples are greater than approximately 2--50 mum, depending on the sample size and system setup; 3) the sample is fine-grained enough so that a representative elemental volume (REV) can be contained by a 2--10 mm diameter sample, and 4) the transport process is slow enough that significant changes do not occur within the 25--50 min (and possibly less in the future) needed to collect data for one three-dimensional image. Absorption edge difference imaging (AEDI) in association with CMT is introduced as a method to enhance pore-space visualization. We successfully imaged the pore space in a low-porosity granodiorite, diorite and fine-grained granite cores and a higher-porosity soil aggregate sample. We found that the pore space important to transport in the core samples was smaller than what we were able to visualize with CMT. We also made rudimentary associations of minerals with pore-space location.

Angstrom-to-millimeter characterization of sedimentary rock microstructure

Backscatter SEM imaging and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) data are combined within a statistical framework to quantify the microstructure of a porous solid in terms of a continuous pore-size distribution spanning over five orders of magnitude of length scale, from 10 A to 500 microm. The method is demonstrated on a sample of natural sandstone and the results are tested against mercury porosimetry (MP) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation data. The rock microstructure is fractal (D=2.47) in the pore-size range 10 A-50 microm and Euclidean for larger length scales. The pore-size distribution is consistent with that determined by MP. The NMR data show a bimodal distribution of proton T(2) relaxation times, which is interpreted quantitatively using a model of relaxation in fractal pores. Pore-length scales derived from the NMR data are consistent with the geometrical parameters derived from both the SEM/SANS and MP data. The combined SANS/BSEM method furnishes new microstructural information that should facilitate the study of capillary phenomena in hydrocarbon reservoir rocks and other porous solids exhibiting broad pore-size distributions.

Novel NMR techniques for porous media research

Diffusion in porous media has been used as a probe of pore geometry in various NMR techniques. We will examine the effect of time-dependent diffusion in CPMG by showing that the diffusion time in CPMG is approximately the echo time, even in grossly inhomogeneous magnetic fields. Extension of the diffusion time in modified CPMG sequences is discussed. Diffusion in the susceptibility-contrast induced internal field is discussed as a means to probe pore size and pore shape. Finally, we present the general concept of two-dimensional relaxation-type experiments for study of molecules, fluids, materials and their dynamics that are characterized by spin relaxation and diffusion.

Pore structure analysis of swollen dextran-methacrylate hydrogels by SEM and mercury intrusion porosimetry

The objectives of this study were to visually examine the surface and interior morphology of a new class of biodegradable hydrogels based on dextran-methacrylate and to quantify the porous structure of these hydrogels in swollen state. Two techniques (scanning electron microscopy and mercury intrusion porosimetry) were used to analyze pore structure of dextran-methacrylate hydrogels as a function of the degree of methacrylate substitution. SEM was used to observe 3-dimensional network structure of cryofixed and fractured swollen dextran-methacrylate hydrogels. Image analysis of the SEM data revealed different pore shapes and sizes, depending on the degree of substitution and the location within the hydrogel. A higher methacrylate-substituted dextran hydrogel showed a compact and rigid pore structure, while a lower substituted hydrogel showed a delicate and fragile pore structure. Mercury intrusion porosimetry analysis of the pore structure of dextran-methacrylate hydrogels provided useful and more reliable quantitative data of pore characteristics, such as total pore area, average pore diameter, their distribution, and bulk density. The total pore area and average pore diameter of swollen dextran-methacrylate hydrogels decreased with an increase in degree of methacrylate substitution, while bulk density increased with an increase in degree of substitution.

Geometric and Topological Analysis of Three-Dimensional Porous Media: Pore Space Partitioning Based on Morphological Skeletonization

This article presents a versatile, rigorous, and efficient methodology for extracting various geometric and topological parameters of 3D discrete porous media. The new approach takes advantage of the morphological skeleton of the pore structure-a lower dimensional representation of the pore space akin to the topological "deformation retract". The skeleton is derived by a fully parallel thinning algorithm that fulfils two essential requirements: it generates a medial axis and preserves the connectivity of the pore space. Topological analysis is accomplished by classifying all skeleton points as node or link (branch) points according to the concept of lambda-adjacency in 3D discrete space. In this manner, node coordination number and link length distributions are directly obtained from the skeleton. Pore necks (throats) are identified through a search for minima in the hydraulic radius of individual pore space channels outlined by skeleton links. In addition to the determination of the size distribution of the constrictions (pore necks) that control nonwetting phase invasion, improved estimates of the distributions of effective hydraulic and electric conductivity of individual pore space channels are obtained. Furthermore, erection of planes at the location of pore necks results in partitioning of the pore space into its constituent pores. This enables the characterization of the pore space in terms of a pore volume distribution. The new methodology is illustrated by application to a regular cubic pore network and irregularly shaped 2D and 3D pore networks generated by stochastic simulation. In the latter case, important new results are obtained concerning the sensitivity of geometric and topological properties of the microstructure to the parameters of stochastic simulation, namely, the porosity and correlation function. It is found that model porous media reconstructed from the same porosity and correlation function can exhibit marked differences in geometry and connectivity, which correlate with differences in specific surface area. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.