Mechanism of copper-mediated inactivation of herpes simplex virus

A Novel Vision of Reinforcing Nanofibrous Masks with Metal Nanoparticles: Antiviral Mechanisms Investigation

Prevention of spreading viral respiratory disease, especially in case of a pandemic such as coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19), has been proved impossible without considering obligatory face mask-wearing protocols for both healthy and contaminated populations. The widespread application of face masks for long hours and almost everywhere increases the risks of bacterial growth in the warm and humid environment inside the mask. On the other hand, in the absence of antiviral agents on the surface of the mask, the virus may have a chance to stay alive and be carried to different places or even put the wearers at risk of contamination when touching or disposing the masks. In this article, the antiviral activity and mechanism of action of some of the potent metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in the role of promising virucidal agents have been reviewed, and incorporation of them in an electrospun nanofibrous structure has been considered an applicable method for the fabrication of innovative respiratory protecting materials with upgraded safety levels.

Graphical Abstract

State-of-art high-performance Nano-systems for mutated coronavirus infection management: From Lab to Clinic

The emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants made emerging novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) pandemic/endemic/or both more severe and difficult to manage due to increased worry about the efficacy and efficiency of present preventative, therapeutic, and sensing measures. To deal with these unexpected circumstances, the development of novel nano-systems with tuneable optical, electrical, magnetic, and morphological properties can lead to novel research needed for (1) COVID-19 infection (anti-microbial systems against SARS-CoV-2), (2) early detection of mutated SARS-CoV-2, and (3) targeted delivery of therapeutics using nano-systems, i.e., nanomedicine. However, there is a knowledge gap in understanding all these nano-biotechnology potentials for managing mutated SARS-CoV-2 on a single platform. To bring up the aspects of nanotechnology to tackle SARS-CoV-2 variants related COVID-19 pandemic, this article emphasizes improvements in the high-performance of nano-systems to combat SARS-CoV-2 strains/variants with a goal of managing COVID-19 infection via trapping, eradication, detection/sensing, and treatment of virus. The potential of state-of-the-art nano-assisted approaches has been demonstrated as an efficient drug delivery systems, viral disinfectants, vaccine productive cargos, anti-viral activity, and biosensors suitable for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. Furthermore, the process linked with the efficacy of nanosystems to neutralize and eliminate SARS-CoV-2 is extensively highligthed in this report. The challenges and opportunities associated with managing COVID-19 using nanotechnology as part of regulations are also well-covered. The outcomes of this review will help researchers to design, investigate, and develop an appropriate nano system to manage COVID-19 infection, with a focus on the detection and eradication of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. This article is unique in that it discusses every aspect of high-performance nanotechnology for ideal COVID pandemic management.

Can iron, zinc, copper and selenium status be a prognostic determinant in COVID-19 patients?

In severe COVID-19, the levels of iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se), do not only regulate host immune responses, but modify the viral genome, as well. While low serum Fe concentration is an independent risk factor for the increased death rate, Zn controls oxidative stress, synthesis of inflammatory cytokines and viral replication. Therefore, Zn deficiency associates with a worse prognosis. Although Cu exposure inactivates the viral genome and exhibits spike protein dispersal, increase in Cu/Zn due to high serum Cu levels, are correlated with enhanced risk of infections. Se levels are significantly higher in surviving COVID-19 patients. Meanwhile, both Zn and Se suppress the replication of SARS-CoV-2. Since the balance between the deficiency and oversupply of these metals due to a reciprocal relationship, has decisive effect on the prognosis of the SARS-CoV-2 infection, monitoring their concentrations may facilitate improved outcomes for patients suffering from COVID-19.

Exploring the Role of Heavy Metals and Their Derivatives on the Pathophysiology of COVID-19

Many aspects of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its disease, COVID-19, have been studied to determine its properties, transmission mechanisms, and pathology. These efforts are aimed at identifying potential approaches to control or treat the disease. Early treatment of novel SARS-CoV-2 infection to minimize symptom progression has minimal evidence; however, many researchers and firms are working on vaccines, and only a few vaccines exist. COVID-19 is affected by several heavy metals and their nanoparticles. We investigated the effects of heavy metals and heavy metal nanoparticles on SARS-CoV-2 and their roles in COVID-19 pathogenesis. AgNPs, AuNPs, gold-silver hybrid NPs, copper nanoparticles, zinc oxide, vanadium, gallium, bismuth, titanium, palladium, silver grafted graphene oxide, and some quantum dots were tested to see if they could minimize the severity or duration of symptoms in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection when compared to standard therapy.

The Bright and Dark Sides of Reactive Oxygen Species Generated by Copper–Peptide Complexes

Copper ions bind to biomolecules (e.g., peptides and proteins) playing an essential role in many biological and physiological pathways in the human body. The resulting complexes may contribute to the initiation of neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and bacterial and viral diseases, or act as therapeutics. Some compounds can chemically damage biological macromolecules and initiate the development of pathogenic states. Conversely, a number of these compounds may have antibacterial, antiviral, and even anticancer properties. One of the most significant current discussions in Cu biochemistry relates to the mechanisms of the positive and negative actions of Cu ions based on the generation of reactive oxygen species, including radicals that can interact with DNA molecules. This review aims to analyze various peptide–copper complexes and the mechanism of their action.

Dietary Zinc, Copper, and Selenium Intake and High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Infection among American Women: Data from NHANES 2011-2016

Studies have shown that the micronutrients, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se) are associated with the HPV-associated cervical cancer, yet between dietary Zn/Cu/Se intake and high-risk HPV (hrHPV) infection remain unclear. We obtained publicly available data in the present cross-sectional study from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) performed between 2011 and 2016. Dietary Zn, Cu, and Se intakes were assessed from two 24-h diet recalls. A total of 4628 female with the age of 18-59 years were included in this secondary analysis. Comparing the highest with the lowest quartiles of Zn intake, the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) for hrHPV infection was 0.72 (95% CI, 0.54-0.98). The aOR upon comparison of the quartile three with the lowest quartile of Cu intake was 0.67 (95% CI, 0.50-0.90). Whereas no significant association was found between intakes of Se and hrHPV infection in multivariate analysis. Moreover, compared with those below the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), hrHPV infection risk was significantly decreased among women who met the RDA for Cu (aOR: 0.74; 95% CI = 0.60-0.92), but not for Zn and Se. In conclusion, high dietary Zn and moderate copper intakes were independently and negatively associated with hrHPV infection in addition to Se.

Application of Copper Iodide Nanoparticle-Doped Film and Fabric To Inactivate SARS-CoV-2 via the Virucidal Activity of Cuprous Ions (Cu+)

As a result of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, strengthening control measures against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become an urgent global issue. In addition to antiviral therapy and vaccination strategies, applying available virucidal substances for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation is also a target of research to prevent the spread of infection. Here, we evaluated the SARS-CoV-2 inactivation activity of a copper iodide (CuI) nanoparticle dispersion, which provides Cu+ ions having high virucidal activity, and its mode of actions. In addition, the utility of CuI-doped film and fabric for SARS-CoV-2 inactivation was evaluated. The CuI dispersion exhibited time-dependent rapid virucidal activity. Analyses of the modes of action of CuI performed by Western blotting and real-time reverse transcription-PCR targeting viral proteins and the genome revealed that CuI treatment induced the destruction of these viral components. In this setting, the indirect action of CuI-derived reactive oxygen species contributed to the destruction of viral protein. Moreover, the CuI-doped film and fabric demonstrated rapid inactivation of the SARS-CoV-2 solution in which the viral titer was high. These findings indicated the utility of the CuI-doped film and fabric as anti-SARS-CoV-2 materials for the protection of high-touch environmental surfaces and surgical masks/protective clothes. Throughout this study, we demonstrated the effectiveness of CuI nanoparticles for inactivating SARS-CoV-2 and revealed a part of its virucidal mechanism of action. IMPORTANCE The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an unprecedented number of infections and deaths. As the spread of the disease is rapid and the risk of infection is severe, hand and environmental hygiene may contribute to suppressing contact transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we evaluated the SARS-CoV-2 inactivation activity of CuI nanoparticles, which provide the Cu+ ion as an antiviral agent, and we provided advanced findings of the virucidal mechanisms of action of Cu+. Our results showed that the CuI dispersion, as well as CuI-doped film and fabric, rapidly inactivated SARS-CoV-2 with a high viral titer. We also demonstrated the CuI's virucidal mechanisms of action, specifically the destruction of viral proteins and the genome by CuI treatment. Protein destruction largely depended on CuI-derived reactive oxygen species. This study provides novel information about the utility and mechanisms of action of promising virucidal material against SARS-CoV-2.

Efficacy and safety evaluation of a hypertonic seawater solution enriched with manganese and copper salts

Background: Nasal irrigation is commonly recommended as an adjuvant treatment for blocked nose. In the present study, the safety and efficacy profile of Stérimar Blocked Nose (SBN), a hypertonic seawater solution enriched with manganese and copper salts, has been evaluated on nasal epithelium, in vitro. Methodology: 3D reconstituted human nasal epithelium tissue model, MucilAir™, has been used to investigate the safety of SBN on nasal epithelium by measuring trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER), cytotoxicity (lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release) and phlogosis-related effects (interleukin-8 secretion). Efficacy assessment was measured by ciliary beat frequency (CBF), mucociliary clearance (MCC) and antimicrobial activities (against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Results: Four-day SBN treatment did not compromise the nasal epithelium integrity as TEER values were over the tissue integrity limit. SBN treatment did not exert cytotoxic (LDH release) or pro-inflammatory effects (IL-8 secretion). SBN treatment significantly increased the CBF and MCC rates compared to untreated cells. SBN treatment exerted a bactericidal effect on S. aureus and P. aeruginosa cultures, whereas seawater not enriched in copper and manganese had only a bacteriostatic effect. Conclusions: The results demonstrate that SBN is a safe formula for use on human nasal epithelium. The results also suggest a better potential therapeutic role for SBN in comparison to not-enriched seawater when used to control nasal congestion and inhibit bacterial growth which may cause nasal congestion.

Can Copper Products and Surfaces Reduce the Spread of Infectious Microorganisms and Hospital-Acquired Infections?

Pathogen transfer and infection in the built environment are globally significant events, leading to the spread of disease and an increase in subsequent morbidity and mortality rates. There are numerous strategies followed in healthcare facilities to minimize pathogen transfer, but complete infection control has not, as yet, been achieved. However, based on traditional use in many cultures, the introduction of copper products and surfaces to significantly and positively retard pathogen transmission invites further investigation. For example, many microbes are rendered unviable upon contact exposure to copper or copper alloys, either immediately or within a short time. In addition, many disease-causing bacteria such as E. coli O157:H7, hospital superbugs, and several viruses (including SARS-CoV-2) are also susceptible to exposure to copper surfaces. It is thus suggested that replacing common touch surfaces in healthcare facilities, food industries, and public places (including public transport) with copper or alloys of copper may substantially contribute to limiting transmission. Subsequent hospital admissions and mortality rates will consequently be lowered, with a concomitant saving of lives and considerable levels of resources. This consideration is very significant in times of the COVID-19 pandemic and the upcoming epidemics, as it is becoming clear that all forms of possible infection control measures should be practiced in order to protect community well-being and promote healthy outcomes.

Potential molecular mechanisms of zinc- and copper-mediated antiviral activity on COVID-19

Novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread across the globe; and surprisingly, no potentially protective or therapeutic antiviral molecules are available to treat severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. However, zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) have been shown to exert protective effects due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties. Therefore, it is hypothesized that supplementation with Zn and Cu alone or as an adjuvant may be beneficial with promising efficacy and a favorable safety profile to mitigate symptoms, as well as halt progression of the severe form of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The objective of this review is to discuss the proposed underlying molecular mechanisms and their implications for combating SARS-CoV-2 infection in response to Zn and Cu administration. Several clinical trials have also included the use of Zn as an adjuvant therapy with dietary regimens/antiviral drugs against COVID-19 infection. Overall, this review summarizes that nutritional intervention with Zn and Cu may offer an alternative treatment strategy by eliciting their virucidal effects through several fundamental molecular cascades, such as, modulation of immune responses, redox signaling, autophagy, and obstruction of viral entry and genome replication during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

New perspectives for evaluating relative risks of African swine fever virus contamination in global feed ingredient supply chains

There are no published reports indicating that the African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been detected in feed ingredients or complete feed. This is primarily because there are only a few laboratories in the world that have the biosecurity and analytical capabilities of detecting ASFV in feed. Several in vitro studies have been conducted to evaluate ASFV concentration, viability and inactivation when ASFV was added to various feed ingredients and complete feed. These inoculation studies have shown that some feed matrices support virus survival longer than others and the reasons for this are unknown. Current analytical methodologies have significant limitations in sensitivity, repeatability, ability to detect viable virus particles and association with infectivity. As a result, interpretation of findings using various measures may lead to misleading conclusions. Because of analytical and technical challenges, as well as the lack of ASFV contamination data in feed supply chains, quantitative risk assessments have not been conducted. A few qualitative risk assessments have been conducted, but they have not considered differences in potential scenarios for ASFV contamination between various types of feed ingredient supply chains. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a more holistic understanding of the relative potential risks of ASFV contamination in various global feed ingredient supply chains and provide recommendations for addressing the challenges identified.

Study on the decay characteristics and transmission risk of respiratory viruses on the surface of objects

The complex and changeable environment is a brand-new living condition for the viruses and pathogens released by the infected people to the indoor air or deposited on the surface of objects, which is an important external condition affecting the decay and transmission risk of the viruses. Exposure to contaminated surfaces is one of the main routes of respiratory diseases transmission. Therefore, it is very important for epidemic prevention and control to study the law of virus decay and the environmental coupling effect on various surfaces. Based on the analysis of the influencing mechanism, a large amount of experimental evidence on the survival of viruses on the surface of objects were excavated in this paper, and the effects of various factors, such as surface peripheral temperature, relative humidity, virus-containing droplet volume, surface materials and virus types, on the decay rate constants of viruses were comprehensively analyzed. It was found that although the experimental methods, virus types and experimental conditions varied widely in different experiments, the virus concentrations on the surface of objects all followed the exponential decay law, and the coupling effect of various factors was reflected in the decay rate constant k. Under different experimental conditions, k values ranged from 0.001 to 100 h^-1, with a difference of 5 orders of magnitude, corresponding to the characteristic time t₉₉ between 500 and 0.1 h when the virus concentration decreased by 99%. This indicates a large variation in the risk of virus transmission in different scenarios. By revealing the common law and individuality of the virus decay on the surface of objects, the essential relationship between the experimental observation phenomenon and virus decay was analyzed. This paper points out the huge difference in virus transmission risk on the surface at different time nodes, and discusses the prevention and control strategies to grasp the main contradictions in the different situations.

Assessment of Antimicrobic, Antivirotic and Cytotoxic Potential of Alginate Beads Cross-Linked by Bivalent Ions for Vaginal Administration

Antimicrobial agent abuse poses a serious threat for future pharmacotherapy, including vaginal administration. The solution can be found in simple polymeric systems with inherent antimicrobial properties without the need to incorporate drugs, for instance alginate beads cross-linked by bivalent ions. The main goal of the presented study was to provide improvement on the well-documented cytotoxicity of Cu²⁺ cross-linked alginate. Alginate beads were prepared by external ionotropic gelation by cross-linking with Cu²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺ ions, separately and in mixtures. Morphological properties, swelling capacity, ion release and efficacy against the most common vaginal pathogens (C. albicans, E. coli, E. faecalis and virus strain—human herpesvirus type 1) were evaluated. The prepared particles (particle size 1455.68 ± 18.71–1756.31 ± 16.58 µm) had very good sphericity (0.86 ± 0.04–0.97 ± 0.06). In mixture samples, Cu²⁺ hampered second ion loading, and was also released incompletely (18.75–44.8%) compared to the single ion Cu²⁺ sample (71.4%). Efficacy against the selected pathogens was confirmed in almost all samples. Although anticipating otherwise, ion mixture samples did not show betterment over a Cu²⁺ cross-linked sample in cytotoxicity–pathogen efficacy relation. However, the desired improvement was found in a single ion Zn²⁺ sample whose minimal inhibition concentrations against the pathogens (0.6–6.12 mM) were close to, or in the same mathematical order as, its toxic concentration of 50 (1.891 mM). In summary, these findings combined with alginate’s biocompatibility and biodegradability give the combination solid potential in antimicrobial use.

Hard Nanomaterials in Time of Viral Pandemics

The SARS-Cov-2 pandemic has spread worldwide during 2020, setting up an uncertain start of this decade. The measures to contain infection taken by many governments have been extremely severe by imposing home lockdown and industrial production shutdown, making this the biggest crisis since the second world war. Additionally, the continuous colonization of wild natural lands may touch unknown virus reservoirs, causing the spread of epidemics. Apart from SARS-Cov-2, the recent history has seen the spread of several viral pandemics such as H2N2 and H3N3 flu, HIV, and SARS, while MERS and Ebola viruses are considered still in a prepandemic phase. Hard nanomaterials (HNMs) have been recently used as antimicrobial agents, potentially being next-generation drugs to fight viral infections. HNMs can block infection at early (disinfection, entrance inhibition) and middle (inside the host cells) stages and are also able to mitigate the immune response. This review is focused on the application of HNMs as antiviral agents. In particular, mechanisms of actions, biological outputs, and limitations for each HNM will be systematically presented and analyzed from a material chemistry point-of-view. The antiviral activity will be discussed in the context of the different pandemic viruses. We acknowledge that HNM antiviral research is still at its early stage, however, we believe that this field will rapidly blossom in the next period.

Antiviral effect of copper chloride on feline calicivirus and synergy with ribavirin in vitro

Background

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common and highly prevalent pathogen causing upper respiratory diseases in kittens and felines in recent years. Due to the substantial genetic variability of the viral genes, existing vaccines cannot provide complete protection. Therefore, research on FCV antiviral drugs has received much attention.

Results

In this study, we found that copper chloride had dose-dependent antiviral effects on FCV in F81 cells. We also found that the combination of copper chloride and ribavirin had a synergistic protective effect against FCV in F81 cells. In contrast, the combination of copper chloride and horse anti-FCV immunoglobulin F (ab’)₂ showed an antagonistic effect, likely because copper chloride has an effect on F (ab’)₂ immunoglobulin; however, further research is needed to clarify this supposition.

Conclusions

In summary, we found that copper chloride had low cytotoxicity and significant antiviral effects on FCV in F81 cells, providing a new drug candidate for the prevention and treatment of FCV infection.

Coronaviruses widespread on nonliving surfaces: important questions and promising answers

The world is facing, while writing this review, a global pandemic due to one of the types of the coronaviruses (i.e., COVID-19), which is a new virus. Among the most important reasons for the transmission of infection between humans is the presence of this virus active on the surfaces and materials. Here, we addressed important questions such as do coronaviruses remain active on the inanimate surfaces? Do the types of inanimate surfaces affect the activity of coronaviruses? What are the most suitable ingredients that used to inactivate viruses? This review article addressed many of the works that were done in the previous periods on the survival of many viruses from the coronaviruses family on various surfaces such as steel, glass, plastic, Teflon, ceramic tiles, silicon rubber and stainless steel copper alloys, Al surface, sterile sponges, surgical gloves and sterile latex. The impacts of environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity were presented and discussed. The most important active ingredients that can deactivate viruses on the surfaces were reported here. We hope that these active ingredients will have the same effect on COVID-19.

COVID-19: The Potential Role of Copper and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in a Combination of Candidate Antiviral Treatments Against SARS-CoV-2

BACKGROUND

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) a pandemic. Since then, thousands of people have suffered and died, making the need for a treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) more crucial than ever.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The authors carried out a search in PubMed, ClinicalTrials.gov and New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) for COVID-19 to provide information on the most promising treatments against SARS-CoV-2.

RESULTS

Possible COVID-19 agents with promising efficacy and favorable safety profile were identified. The results support the combination of copper, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), colchicine and nitric oxide (NO) with candidate antiviral agents, remdesivir or EIDD-2801, as a treatment for patients positive for SARS-CoV-2.

CONCLUSION

The authors propose to study the effects of the combination of copper, NAC, colchicine, NO and currently used experimental antiviral agents, remdesivir or EIDD-2801, as a potential treatment scheme for SARS-COV-2.

Optimization of non-detergent treatment for enveloped virus inactivation using the Taguchi design of experimental methodology (DOE)

In mammalian cell culture technology, viral contamination is one of the main challenges; and, so far, various strategies have been taken to remove or inactivate viruses in the cell-line production process. The suitability and feasibility of each method are determined by different factors including effectiveness in target virus inactivation, maintaining recombinant protein stability, easiness-in terms of the process condition, cost-effectiveness, and eco-friendliness. In this research, Taguchi design-of-experiments (DOE) methodology was used to optimize a non-detergent viral inactivation method via considering four factors of temperature, time, pH, and alcohol concentration in an unbiased (orthogonal) fashion with low influence of nuisance factors. Herpes Simplex Virus-1 (HSV1) and Vero cell-line were used as models for enveloped viruses and cell-line, respectively. Examining the cytopathic effects (CPE) in different dilutions showed that pH (4), alcohol (15%), time (120 min), and temperature (25 °C) were the optimal points for viral inactivation. Evaluating the significance of each parameter in the HSV-1 inactivation using Taguchi and ANOVA analyses, the contributions of pH, alcohol, temperature and time were 56.5%, 19.2%, 12%, and 12%, respectively. Examining the impact of the optimal viral treatment condition on the stability of model recombinant protein-recombinant human erythropoietin, no destabilization was detected.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Antimicrobial Activity of Novel Sulfonated Copper-Triazine Complexes

Metallotriazine complexes possess interesting biological and medicinal properties, and the present study focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial activity of four novel copper-triazine derivatives in search of potent antibacterial and antifungal drug leads. In this study, 3-(2-pyridyl)-5,6-diphenyl-1,2,4-triazine-4,4′-disulfonic acid monosodium salt (L1, ferrozine) and 3-(2-pyridyl)-5,6-di(2-furyl)-1,2,4-triazine-5,5′-disulfonic acid disodium salt (L2, ferene) have been used as ligands to study the complexation towards copper(II). The synthesized complexes, [CuCl₂(ferrozine)]·7H₂O·MeOH (1), [CuCl₂(ferrozine)₂]·5H₂O·MeOH (2), [CuCl₂(ferene)]·H₂O·MeOH (3), and [CuCl₂(ferene)₂]·H₂O·MeOH (4), have been characterized spectroscopically, and preliminary bioassays have been carried out. FTIR spectroscopic data have shown that N=N and C=N stretching frequencies of complexes have been shifted towards lower frequencies in comparison with that of the ligands, confirming new bond formation between Cu and N, which in turn lowers the strength of N=N and C=N bonds. In addition, a bathochromic shift has been observed for UV-visible spectra of complexes (1), (2), (3), and (4). Furthermore, elemental analysis data have been useful to obtain empirical formulas of these complexes and to establish the purity of each complex. Complexes (1) and (2) have shown antibacterial activity for both S. aureus (ATCC® 25923) and E. coli (ATCC® 25922) at 1 mg/disc concentration, and ferrozine has shown a larger inhibition zone against the clinical sample of C. albicans at 1 mg/disc concentration in comparison with the positive control, fluconazole.

A smart multi-functional coating based on anti-pathogen micelles tethered with copper nanoparticlesviaa biosynthesis method usingl-vitamin C

A multi-functional anti-pathogen coating with “release-killing”, “contact-killing” and “anti-adhesion” properties was prepared from biocompatible polymer encapsulated chlorine dioxide (ClO₂) which protected the active ingredient from the outside environment.

The efficacy and sterilisation of human decellularised dermal allografts with combinations of cupric ions and hydrogen peroxide

Decellularised tissue allografts have been used in reconstructive surgical applications and transplantation for many years. Some of the current methods of sterilisation have a detrimental effect on the tissue graft structure and function. The anti-microbial activity of cupric ions and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) are well known however their combined application is not currently utilised as a decontamination agent in the tissue banking world sector. The aim of this study was to determine the combined concentrations of copper chloride (CuCl₂) and H₂O₂ that have the optimal bactericidal and sporicidal activity on decellularised (dCELL) human dermis. The first part of this study established the decimal reduction time (D-value) of CuCl₂ (0.1 mg/L and 1 mg/L) together with H₂O₂ (0.01, 0.1, 0.5 and 1%) for Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis spores. The second part of this study identified the most effective CuCl₂ and H₂O₂ concentration that decontaminated dCELL human dermis inoculated with these pathogens. Of all the concentrations tested, 0.1 mg/L CuCl₂ in combination with 1% H₂O₂ had the shortest D-value; S. epidermidis D = 3.15 min, E. coli D = 2.62 min and B. subtilis spores D = 18.05 min. However when adsorbed onto dCELL dermis, S. epidermidis and E. coli were more susceptible to 1 mg/L CuCl₂ together with 0.5% H₂O₂. These studies show promise of CuCl₂-H₂O₂ formulations as potential sterilants for decellularised dermal allografts.

Biological Effects of Drug-Free Alginate Beads Cross-Linked by Copper Ions Prepared Using External Ionotropic Gelation

External ionotropic gelation offers a unique possibility to entrap multivalent ions in a polymer structure. The aim of this experimental study was to prepare new drug-free sodium alginate (ALG) particles cross-linked by Cu²⁺ ions and to investigate their technological parameters (particle size, sphericity, surface topology, swelling capacity, copper content, release of Cu²⁺ ions, mucoadhesivity) and biological activity (cytotoxicity and efficiency against the most common vaginal pathogens-Herpes simplex, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans) with respect to potential vaginal administration. Beads prepared from NaALG dispersions (3 or 4%) were cross-linked by Cu²⁺ ions (0.5 or 1.0 M CuCl₂) using external ionotropic gelation. Prepared mucoadhesive beads with particle size over 1000 μm exhibited sufficient sphericity (all ˃0.89) and copper content (214.8-249.07 g/kg), which increased with concentration of polymer and hardening solution. Dissolution behaviour was characterized by extended burst effect, followed by 2 h of copper release. The efficiency of all samples against the most common vaginal pathogens was observed at cytotoxic Cu²⁺ concentrations. Anti-HSV activity was demonstrated at a Cu²⁺ concentration of 546 mg/L. Antibacterial activity of beads (expressed as minimum inhibition concentration, MIC) was influenced mainly by the rate of Cu²⁺ release which was controlled by the extent of swelling capacity. Lower MIC values were found for E. coli in comparison with C. albicans. Sample ALG-3_1.0 exhibited the fastest copper release and was proved to be the most effective against both bacteria. This could be a result of its lower polymer concentration in combination with smaller particle size and thus larger surface area.

Formulation and Evaluation of Antibacterial Creams and Gels Containing Metal Ions for Topical Application

Background. Skin infections occur commonly and often present therapeutic challenges to practitioners due to the growing concerns regarding multidrug-resistant bacterial, viral, and fungal strains. The antimicrobial properties of zinc sulfate and copper sulfate are well known and have been investigated for many years. However, the synergistic activity between these two metal ions as antimicrobial ingredients has not been evaluated in topical formulations. Objective. The aims of the present study were to (1) formulate topical creams and gels containing zinc and copper alone or in combination and (2) evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of these metal ions in the formulations. Method. Formulation of the gels and creams was followed by evaluating their organoleptic characteristics, physicochemical properties, and in vitro antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Results. Zinc sulfate and copper sulfate had a strong synergistic antibacterial activity in the creams and gels. The minimum effective concentration was found to be 3 w/w% for both active ingredients against the two tested microorganisms. Conclusions. This study evaluated and confirmed the synergistic in vitro antibacterial effect of copper sulfate and zinc sulfate in a cream and two gels.

Evaluation of Copper and Hydrogen Peroxide Treatments on the Biology, Biomechanics, and Cytotoxicity of Decellularized Dermal Allografts

Decellularized tissue allografts are paving the way as an alternative to cellular tissue transplantation. Effective sterilization or decontamination of tissue allografts is paramount for the safety of the allograft; however, some of the current sterilization procedures have a detrimental effect on the tissue scaffold. The bactericidal and virucidal activity of copper (II) ions and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) have been widely reported, however, their effect on the biology, biochemistry, and biocompatibility of decellularized tissue have yet to be elucidated. In this study, decellularized human dermis (dCELL human dermis) was treated with copper (II) chloride (CuCl2) and H2O2; both singly and in combination, and parameters, including concentration, pH, and synergy between CuCl2 and H2O2, were evaluated to identify conditions where any detrimental effects on the tissue scaffold were observed. Skin from 13 human donors was retrieved with appropriate consent and processed into dCELL human dermis. The dCELL human dermis was then treated for 3 h with 0.1 mg/L-1 g/L (w/v) CuCl2 and 0.01-7.5% (v/v) H2O2 and combinations of both of these in the same concentration range. dCELL human dermis treated with solutions of 0.1 mg/L-1 g/L CuCl2 or 0.01-7.5% H2O2 caused no detrimental effects on gross histology, collagen denaturation, collagen orientation, and biomechanical properties of the tissue or cytotoxicity. The highest combined concentration of CuCl2 and H2O2 demonstrated an increase in ultimate tensile strength, loss of collagen type IV immunostaining at the dermal-epidermal junction, and in vitro cytotoxicity. Combinations within the range of up to 10 mg/L CuCl2 with up to 0.5% H2O2 had no effect. The data identify the concentrations of CuCl2 and H2O2 solutions that have no effect on the biological, biomechanical, and biochemical properties of dCELL human dermis, while retaining biocompatibility. These treatments may be suitable for use as sterilization/decontamination agents on human decellularized tissues.

Human Coronavirus 229E Remains Infectious on Common Touch Surface Materials

The evolution of new and reemerging historic virulent strains of respiratory viruses from animal reservoirs is a significant threat to human health. Inefficient human-to-human transmission of zoonotic strains may initially limit the spread of transmission, but an infection may be contracted by touching contaminated surfaces. Enveloped viruses are often susceptible to environmental stresses, but the human coronaviruses responsible for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) have recently caused increasing concern of contact transmission during outbreaks. We report here that pathogenic human coronavirus 229E remained infectious in a human lung cell culture model following at least 5 days of persistence on a range of common nonbiocidal surface materials, including polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon; PTFE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), ceramic tiles, glass, silicone rubber, and stainless steel. We have shown previously that noroviruses are destroyed on copper alloy surfaces. In this new study, human coronavirus 229E was rapidly inactivated on a range of copper alloys (within a few minutes for simulated fingertip contamination) and Cu/Zn brasses were very effective at lower copper concentration. Exposure to copper destroyed the viral genomes and irreversibly affected virus morphology, including disintegration of envelope and dispersal of surface spikes. Cu(I) and Cu(II) moieties were responsible for the inactivation, which was enhanced by reactive oxygen species generation on alloy surfaces, resulting in even faster inactivation than was seen with nonenveloped viruses on copper. Consequently, copper alloy surfaces could be employed in communal areas and at any mass gatherings to help reduce transmission of respiratory viruses from contaminated surfaces and protect the public health.

IMPORTANCE

Respiratory viruses are responsible for more deaths globally than any other infectious agent. Animal coronaviruses that "host jump" to humans result in severe infections with high mortality, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and, more recently, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). We show here that a closely related human coronavirus, 229E, which causes upper respiratory tract infection in healthy individuals and serious disease in patients with comorbidities, remained infectious on surface materials common to public and domestic areas for several days. The low infectious dose means that this is a significant infection risk to anyone touching a contaminated surface. However, rapid inactivation, irreversible destruction of viral RNA, and massive structural damage were observed in coronavirus exposed to copper and copper alloy surfaces. Incorporation of copper alloy surfaces in conjunction with effective cleaning regimens and good clinical practice could help to control transmission of respiratory coronaviruses, including MERS and SARS.

ATN-224 enhances antitumor efficacy of oncolytic herpes virus against both local and metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most frequent cancer worldwide, and the 5-year survival rates are among the worst of the major cancers. Oncolytic herpes simplex viruses (oHSV) have the potential to make a significant impact in the targeted treatment of these patients. Here, we tested antitumor efficacy of RAMBO, an oHSV armed with the antiangiogenic Vstat120, alone and in conjunction with ATN-224, a copper chelator against HNSCC in vitro and in vivo animal models. We found that all tested HNSCC cells responded well to virus treatment and were sensitive to RAMBO-mediated oncolytic destruction. In vivo, RAMBO had a significant antiangiogenic and antitumorigenic effect. Physiologic levels of copper inhibited viral replication and HNSCC cell killing. Chelation of copper using ATN-224 treatment significantly improved serum stability of RAMBO and permitted systemic delivery in HNSCC tumor xenografts models. Furthermore, our results show that the combination of ATN-224 and RAMBO strongly inhibits lung metastases in a mouse model of HNSCC. These findings suggest that combining ATN-224 with RAMBO has potential for clinical trials in both early and advanced HNSCC patients.

Inactivation of norovirus on dry copper alloy surfaces

Noroviruses (family Caliciviridae) are the primary cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. The virus is highly infectious and touching contaminated surfaces can contribute to infection spread. Although the virus was identified over 40 years ago the lack of methods to assess infectivity has hampered the study of the human pathogen. Recently the murine virus, MNV-1, has successfully been used as a close surrogate. Copper alloys have previously been shown to be effective antimicrobial surfaces against a range of bacteria and fungi. We now report rapid inactivation of murine norovirus on alloys, containing over 60% copper, at room temperature but no reduction of infectivity on stainless steel dry surfaces in simulated wet fomite and dry touch contamination. The rate of inactivation was initially very rapid and proportional to copper content of alloy tested. Viral inactivation was not as rapid on brass as previously observed for bacteria but copper-nickel alloy was very effective. The use of chelators and quenchers of reactive oxygen species (ROS) determined that Cu(II) and especially Cu(I) ions are still the primary effectors of toxicity but quenching superoxide and hydroxyl radicals did not confer protection. This suggests Fenton generation of ROS is not important for the inactivation mechanism. One of the targets of copper toxicity was the viral genome and a reduced copy number of the gene for a viral encoded protein, VPg (viral-protein-genome-linked), which is essential for infectivity, was observed following contact with copper and brass dry surfaces. The use of antimicrobial surfaces containing copper in high risk closed environments such as cruise ships and care facilities could help to reduce the spread of this highly infectious and costly pathogen.

Highly efficient antiviral and antibacterial activities of solid-state cuprous compounds

We found that several solid-state cuprous compounds, including cuprous oxide (Cu(2)O), sulfide (Cu(2)S), iodide (CuI), and chloride (CuCl), have highly efficient antiviral activities, whereas those of solid-state silver and cupric compounds are markedly lower. On a Cu(2)O-loaded glass substrate, for example, the infectious activity of bacteriophages was reduced by 5-orders of magnitude within 30 min and by 3-orders of magnitude within 1h for bacteria. In contrast, the infectious activities of both phages and bacteria were not markedly reduced on CuO-loaded substrates within a similar time frame. To determine the origin of this inhibitory activity, we investigated the effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leached copper ions, and the solid-state compound itself against bacteriophages, and concluded that infectious activity is lost following direct contact with the solid-state surface of cuprous compounds, but not ROS or copper ions. Furthermore, we found that Cu(2)O adsorbed and denatured more proteins than CuO, which suggests the difference of the inhibitory activity between Cu(2)O and CuO.

Copper chelation enhances antitumor efficacy and systemic delivery of oncolytic HSV

PURPOSE

Copper in serum supports angiogenesis and inhibits replication of wild-type HSV-1. Copper chelation is currently being investigated as an antiangiogenic and antineoplastic agent in patients diagnosed with cancer. Herpes simplex virus-derived oncolytic viruses (oHSV) are being evaluated for safety and efficacy in patients, but several host barriers limit their efficacy. Here, we tested whether copper inhibits oHSV infection and replication and whether copper chelation would augment therapeutic efficacy of oHSV.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Subcutaneous and intracranial tumor-bearing mice were treated with oHSV ± ATN-224 to evaluate tumor burden and survival. Virus replication and cell killing was measured in the presence or absence of the copper chelating agent ATN-224 and in the presence or absence of copper in vitro. Microvessel density and changes in perfusion were evaluated by immunohistochemistry and dynamic contrast enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI). Serum stability of oHSV was measured in mice fed with ATN-224. Tumor-bearing mice were injected intravenously with oHSV; tumor burden and amount of virus in tumor tissue were evaluated.

RESULTS

Combination of systemic ATN-224 and oHSV significantly reduced tumor growth and prolonged animal survival. Immunohistochemistry and DCE-MRI imaging confirmed that ATN-224 reduced oHSV-induced blood vessel density and vascular leakage. Copper at physiologically relevant concentrations inhibited oHSV replication and glioma cell killing, and this effect was rescued by ATN-224. ATN-224 increased serum stability of oHSV and enhanced the efficacy of systemic delivery.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that combining ATN-224 with oHSV significantly increased serum stability of oHSV and greatly enhanced its replication and antitumor efficacy.

Effect of Metals on the Lytic Cycle of the Coccolithovirus, EhV86

In this study we show that metals, and in particular copper (Cu), can disrupt the lytic cycle in the Emiliania huxleyi - EhV86 host-virus system. E. huxleyi lysis rates were reduced at high total Cu concentrations (> approximately 500 nM) in the presence and absence of EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) in acute short term exposure experiments. Zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and cobalt (Co) were not observed to affect the lysis rate of EhV86 in these experiments. The cellular glutathione (GSH) content increased in virus infected cells, but not as a result of metal exposure. In contrast, the cellular content of phytochelatins (PCs) increased only in response to metal exposure. The increase in glutathione content is consistent with increases in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on viral lysis, while increases in PC content are likely linked to metal homeostasis and indicate that metal toxicity to the host was not affected by viral infection. We propose that Cu prevents lytic production of EhV86 by interfering with virus DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) synthesis through a transcriptional block, which ultimately suppresses the formation of ROS.

Microbial inactivation for safe and rapid diagnostics of infectious samples

The high risk associated with biological threat agents dictates that any suspicious sample be handled under strict surety and safety controls and processed under high-level containment in specialized laboratories. This study attempted to find a rapid, reliable, and simple method for the complete inactivation of a wide range of pathogens, including spores, vegetative bacteria, and viruses, while preserving microbial nucleic acid fragments suitable for PCRs and proteinaceous epitopes for detection by immunoassays. Formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and guanidium thiocyanate did not completely inactivate high titers of bacterial spores or viruses after 30 min at 21°C. Glutaraldehyde and sodium hypochlorite showed high microbicidal activity but obliterated the PCR or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) detection of bacterial spores or viruses. High-level inactivation (more than 6 log(10)) of bacterial spores (Bacillus atrophaeus), vegetative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa), an RNA virus (the alphavirus Pixuna virus), or a DNA virus (the orthopoxvirus vaccinia virus) was attained within 30 min at 21°C by treatment with either peracetic acid or cupric ascorbate with minimal hindrance of subsequent PCR tests and immunoassays. The data described here should provide the basis for quickly rendering field samples noninfectious for further analysis under lower-level containment and considerably lower cost.

Differential bacteriophage mortality on exposure to copper

Many studies report that copper can be used to control microbial growth, including that of viruses. We determined the rates of copper-mediated inactivation for a wide range of bacteriophages. We used two methods to test the effect of copper on bacteriophage survival. One method involved placing small volumes of bacteriophage lysate on copper and stainless steel coupons. Following exposure, metal coupons were rinsed with lysogeny broth, and the resulting fluid was serially diluted and plated on agar with the corresponding bacterial host. The second method involved adding copper sulfate (CuSO(4)) to bacteriophage lysates to a final concentration of 5 mM. Aliquots were removed from the mixture, serially diluted, and plated with the appropriate bacterial host. Significant mortality was observed among the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) bacteriophages Φ6 and Φ8, the single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) bacteriophage PP7, the ssDNA bacteriophage ΦX174, and the dsDNA bacteriophage PM2. However, the dsDNA bacteriophages PRD1, T4, and λ were relatively unaffected by copper. Interestingly, lipid-containing bacteriophages were most susceptible to copper toxicity. In addition, in the first experimental method, the pattern of bacteriophage Φ6 survival over time showed a plateau in mortality after lysates dried out. This finding suggests that copper's effect on bacteriophage is mediated by the presence of water.

A novel anti-influenza copper oxide containing respiratory face mask

Background

Protective respiratory face masks protect the nose and mouth of the wearer from vapor drops carrying viruses or other infectious pathogens. However, incorrect use and disposal may actually increase the risk of pathogen transmission, rather than reduce it, especially when masks are used by non-professionals such as the lay public. Copper oxide displays potent antiviral properties. A platform technology has been developed that permanently introduces copper oxide into polymeric materials, conferring them with potent biocidal properties.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We demonstrate that impregnation of copper oxide into respiratory protective face masks endows them with potent biocidal properties in addition to their inherent filtration properties. Both control and copper oxide impregnated masks filtered above 99.85% of aerosolized viruses when challenged with 5.66±0.51 and 6.17±0.37 log₁₀TCID₅₀ of human influenza A virus (H1N1) and avian influenza virus (H9N2), respectively, under simulated breathing conditions (28.3 L/min). Importantly, no infectious human influenza A viral titers were recovered from the copper oxide containing masks within 30 minutes (≤0.88 log₁₀TCID₅₀), while 4.67±1.35 log₁₀TCID₅₀ were recovered from the control masks. Similarly, the infectious avian influenza titers recovered from the copper oxide containing masks were ≤0.97±0.01 log₁₀TCID₅₀ and from the control masks 5.03±0.54 log₁₀TCID₅₀. The copper oxide containing masks successfully passed Bacterial Filtration Efficacy, Differential Pressure, Latex Particle Challenge, and Resistance to Penetration by Synthetic Blood tests designed to test the filtration properties of face masks in accordance with the European EN 14683:2005 and NIOSH N95 standards.

Conclusions/Significance

Impregnation of copper oxide into respiratory protective face masks endows them with potent anti-influenza biocidal properties without altering their physical barrier properties. The use of biocidal masks may significantly reduce the risk of hand or environmental contamination, and thereby subsequent infection, due to improper handling and disposal of the masks.

Inactivation and morphological changes of avian influenza virus by copper ions

The infectivity of the H9N2 virus to MDCK cells was time-dependently inhibited by Cu(2+) at concentrations of 2.5-250 microM. In 25 microM Cu(2+) solution, the virus titer decreased by approximately 3 and 4 log within 3 and 6 h, respectively. Compared to Cu(2+), Zn(2+) was much less effective in virus inactivation. The H9N2 virus hemagglutinin activity was not affected by 2.5-250 microM Cu(2+). The H9N2 virus neuraminidase (NA) activity was drastically reduced by 25 mM Cu(2+), marginally reduced by 250 microM Cu(2+), and not affected by 25 microM Cu(2+). Thus, we found that copper ions suppress the infectivity of influenza virus at lower concentrations at which neither NA nor hemagglutination inhibition occurs. Electron microscopic analysis revealed morphological abnormalities of the Cu(2+)-treated H9N2 virus. Additional studies should be undertaken to clarify the mechanism underlying the antiviral effect of copper ions on influenza virus.

Immobilized cobalt affinity chromatography provides a novel, efficient method for herpes simplex virus type 1 gene vector purification

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a promising vector for gene therapy applications, particularly at peripheral nerves, the natural site of virus latency. Many gene vectors require large particle numbers for even early-phase clinical trials, emphasizing the need for high-yield, scalable manufacturing processes that result in virus preparations that are nearly free of cellular DNA and protein contaminants. HSV-1 is an enveloped virus that requires the development of gentle purification methods. Ideally, such methods should avoid centrifugation and may employ selective purification processes that rely on the recognition of a unique envelope surface chemistry. Here we describe a novel method that fulfills these criteria. An immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) method was developed for the selective purification of vectors engineered to display a high-affinity binding peptide. Feasibility studies involving various transition metal ions (Cu2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, and Co2+) showed that cobalt had the most desirable features, which include a low level of interaction with either the normal virus envelope or contaminating DNA and proteins. The introduction of a cobalt-specific recognition element into the virus envelope may provide a suitable target for cobalt-dependent purification. To test this possibility, we engineered a peptide with affinity for immobilized cobalt in frame in the heparan sulfate binding domain of HSV-1 glycoprotein B, which is known to be exposed on the surface of the virion particle and recombined into the viral genome. By optimizing the IMAC loading conditions and reducing cobalt ion leakage, we recovered 78% of the tagged HSV-1 recombinant virus, with a >96% reduction in contaminating proteins and DNA.

Putting copper into action: copper-impregnated products with potent biocidal activities

Copper ions, either alone or in copper complexes, have been used for centuries to disinfect liquids, solids, and human tissue. Today copper is used as a water purifier, algaecide, fungicide, nematocide, molluscicide, and antibacterial and antifouling agent. Copper also displays potent antiviral activity. We hypothesized that introducing copper into clothing, bedding, and other articles would provide them with biocidal properties. A durable platform technology has been developed that introduces copper into cotton fibers, latex, and other polymeric materials. This study demonstrates the broad-spectrum antimicrobial (antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal) and antimite activities of copper-impregnated fibers and polyester products. This technology enabled the production of antiviral gloves and filters (which deactivate HIV-1 and other viruses), antibacterial self-sterilizing fabrics (which kill antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci), antifungal socks (which alleviate symptoms of athlete's foot), and anti-dust mite mattress covers (which reduce mite-related allergies). These products did not have skin-sensitizing properties, as determined by guine pig maximization and rabbit skin irritation tests. Our study demonstrates the potential use of copper in new applications. These applications address medical issues of the greatest importance, such as viral transmissions; nosocomial, or healthcare-associated, infections; and the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Inactivation of HSV-2 by ascorbate–Cu(II) and its protecting evaluation in CF-1 mice against encephalitis

Ascorbate is an important antioxidant. However, in the presence of transition metals such as Cu(II) or Fe(III), it also has pro-oxidant capabilities. The effect of ascorbate-Cu(II) in the in vitro infection of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and its protecting effect in a murine model was investigated. HSV-2 was treated with different concentrations of ascorbate in the presence of Cu(II). A group of CF-1 mice were treated with the inactivated virus and other treated with maintenance medium containing only ascorbate-Cu(II). Weeks later, mice were challenged intranasally with infectious viruses. HSV-2 was completely inactivated by 2mM ascorbate plus 1mM Cu(II). Ascorbate or Cu(II) alone did not inactivate the virus. Compared with the control group, 60% of the immunized animals did not show any sign of encephalitis and survived the herpes virus infection, while a 7% survival rate was observed in the control group (P = 0.056). We concluded that the in vitro treatment of HSV-2 with ascorbate-Cu(II) is not only able to inactivate the virus, but also suggested that the viral particles induced a protective response against herpes encephalitis. This inactivation may provide an alternative method to develop new agents therapeutics.

Virus concentration using sulfonated magnetic beads to improve sensitivity in nucleic acid amplification tests

To enhance the sensitivity of virus detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse-transcriptional (RT)-PCR, we developed a novel virus-concentration method using sulfonated (SO-) magnetic beads in the presence of divalent cations. In the presence of either Zn(2+) or Cu(2+) ions, we showed that SO-magnetic beads were able to concentrate non-enveloped model viruses, such as porcine parvovirus (PPV) and poliovirus, which were not concentrated by polyethyleneimine (PEI)-magnetic beads.(1)) Using the SO-magnetic beads, the sensitivity of virus genome detection by PCR or RT-PCR can be enhanced. Therefore, an efficient virus concentration method using either SO-magnetic beads or PEI-magnetic beads enhances the sensitivity of virus detection by PCR or RT-PCR.