1
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Evans NG, Pence CH. Gain-of-function research and model organisms in biology. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ETHICS 2024; 50:201-206. [PMID: 37188506 DOI: 10.1136/jme-2022-108853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
So-called 'gain-of-function' (GOF) research is virological research that results in a virus substantially more virulent or transmissible than its wild antecedent. GOF research has been subject to ethical analysis in the past, but the methods of GOF research have to date been underexamined by philosophers in these analyses. Here, we examine the typical animal used in influenza GOF experiments, the ferret, and show how despite its longstanding use, it does not easily satisfy the desirable criteria for an animal model We then discuss the limitations of the ferret model, and how those epistemic limitations bear on ethical and policy questions around the risks and benefits of GOF research. We conclude with a reflection on how philosophy of science can contribute to ethical and policy debates around the risks, benefits and relative priority of life sciences research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas G Evans
- Department of Philosophy, University of Massachussetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Charles H Pence
- Institut supérieur de philosophie, Universite catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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2
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Guo Z, Lu X, Carney PJ, Chang J, Tzeng WP, York IA, Levine MZ, Stevens J. Use of Biolayer Interferometry to Identify Dominant Binding Epitopes of Influenza Hemagglutinin Protein of A(H1N1)pdm09 in the Antibody Response to 2010-2011 Influenza Seasonal Vaccine. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1307. [PMID: 37631875 PMCID: PMC10458479 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11081307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The globular head domain of influenza virus surface protein hemagglutinin (HA1) is the major target of neutralizing antibodies elicited by vaccines. As little as one amino acid substitution in the HA1 can result in an antigenic drift of influenza viruses, indicating the dominance of some epitopes in the binding of HA to polyclonal serum antibodies. Therefore, identifying dominant binding epitopes of HA is critical for selecting seasonal influenza vaccine viruses. In this study, we have developed a biolayer interferometry (BLI)-based assay to determine dominant binding epitopes of the HA1 in antibody response to influenza vaccines using a panel of recombinant HA1 proteins of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus with each carrying a single amino acid substitution. Sera from individuals vaccinated with the 2010-2011 influenza trivalent vaccines were analyzed for their binding to the HA1 panel and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) activity against influenza viruses with cognate mutations. Results revealed an over 50% reduction in the BLI binding of several mutated HA1 compared to the wild type and a strong correlation between dominant residues identified by the BLI and HI assays. Our study demonstrates a method to systemically analyze antibody immunodominance in the humoral response to influenza vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhu Guo
- Correspondence: (Z.G.); (J.S.)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - James Stevens
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; (X.L.); (P.J.C.); (J.C.); (W.-p.T.); (I.A.Y.); (M.Z.L.)
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3
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Shinomiya N, Minari J, Yoshizawa G, Dando M, Shang L. Reconsidering the need for gain-of-function research on enhanced potential pandemic pathogens in the post-COVID-19 era. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:966586. [PMID: 36091454 PMCID: PMC9458934 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.966586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The dual-use risk of infectious disease research using enhanced potential pandemic pathogens (ePPP), particularly gain-of-function (GOF) research, has been debated since 2011. As of now, research is supported on the condition that the research plan is reviewed and the actual experiment is supervised. However, the kinds of research conducted and what benefits they have brought to our society have not been adequately verified. Nevertheless, due to the COVID-19 pandemic that began at the end of 2019 and caused numerous deaths and wide economic disruption, the importance of infectious disease control from an international perspective has been recognized. Although complete control of the pandemic is still far off, positive signs include generating epidemiological trends based on genome analysis, therapeutic drug and vaccine development, clinical patient management, and public health policy interventions. In this context, the time has come to reconsider the true significance of GOF research on ePPP and the state of research governance in the post-COVID-19 era. In particular, the risks of such research are clearer than before, whereas its benefits seem less apparent. In this paper, we summarize the history of discussions on such GOF research, its significance in the light of the current COVID-19 pandemic, and the direction we shall take in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nariyoshi Shinomiya
- National Defense Medical College, Saitama, Japan
- *Correspondence: Nariyoshi Shinomiya,
| | - Jusaku Minari
- Uehiro Research Division for iPS Cell Ethics, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Go Yoshizawa
- Innovation System Research Center, Kwansei Gakuin University, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Malcolm Dando
- Section of Peace Studies and International Development, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Lijun Shang
- School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, United Kingdom
- Biological Security Research Center, London Metropolitan University, London, United Kingdom
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4
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Blood-brain barrier dysfunction as a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disorders. Arch Pharm Res 2021; 44:487-498. [PMID: 34028650 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-021-01332-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is composed of specific tight junction proteins and transporters expressed on the lining of endothelial cells of the vasculature in the brain. The structural and functional integrity of the BBB is one of the most critical factors for maintaining brain homeostasis and is mainly regulated by complex interactions between various cell types, such as endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytes, which are shaped by their differential responses to changes in microenvironments. Alterations in these cellular components have been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders. Although it has long been considered that BBB dysfunction is a mere ramification of pathological phenomena, emerging evidence supports its critical role in the pathogenesis of various disorders. In epilepsy, heightened BBB permeability has been found to be associated with increased occurrence of spontaneous seizures. Additionally, exaggerated inflammatory responses significantly correlate with increased BBB permeability during healthy aging. Furthermore, it has been previously reported that BBB disruption can be an early marker for predicting cognitive impairment in the progression of Alzheimer's disease. We herein review a potential role of the major cellular components of the BBB, with a focus on the contribution of BBB disruption, in neurodegenerative disease progression.
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5
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Bertran K, Kassa A, Criado MF, Nuñez IA, Lee DH, Killmaster L, Sá E Silva M, Ross TM, Mebatsion T, Pritchard N, Swayne DE. Efficacy of recombinant Marek's disease virus vectored vaccines with computationally optimized broadly reactive antigen (COBRA) hemagglutinin insert against genetically diverse H5 high pathogenicity avian influenza viruses. Vaccine 2021; 39:1933-1942. [PMID: 33715903 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.02.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The genetic and antigenic drift associated with the high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) viruses of Goose/Guangdong (Gs/GD) lineage and the emergence of vaccine-resistant field viruses underscores the need for a broadly protective H5 influenza A vaccine. Here, we tested experimental vector herpesvirus of turkey (vHVT)-H5 vaccines containing either wild-type clade 2.3.4.4A-derived H5 inserts or computationally optimized broadly reactive antigen (COBRA) inserts with challenge by homologous and genetically divergent H5 HPAI Gs/GD lineage viruses in chickens. Direct assessment of protection was confirmed for all the tested constructs, which provided clinical protection against the homologous and heterologous H5 HPAI Gs/GD challenge viruses and significantly decreased oropharyngeal shedding titers compared to the sham vaccine. The cross reactivity was assessed by hemagglutinin inhibition (HI) and focus reduction assay against a panel of phylogenetically and antigenically diverse H5 strains. The COBRA-derived H5 inserts elicited antibody responses against antigenically diverse strains, while the wild-type-derived H5 vaccines elicited protection mostly against close antigenically related clades 2.3.4.4A and 2.3.4.4D viruses. In conclusion, the HVT vector, a widely used replicating vaccine platform in poultry, with H5 insert provides clinical protection and significant reduction of viral shedding against homologous and heterologous challenge. In addition, the COBRA-derived inserts have the potential to be used against antigenically distinct co-circulating viruses and future drift variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Aemro Kassa
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health USA Inc, 1730 Olympic Drive, Athens, GA 30601, USA.
| | - Miria F Criado
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Ivette A Nuñez
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Department of Pathobiology & Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
| | - Lindsay Killmaster
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Mariana Sá E Silva
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health USA Inc, 1730 Olympic Drive, Athens, GA 30601, USA.
| | - Ted M Ross
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Teshome Mebatsion
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health USA Inc, 1730 Olympic Drive, Athens, GA 30601, USA.
| | - Nikki Pritchard
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health USA Inc, 1112 Airport Parkway, Gainesville, GA 30503, USA.
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Rd, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
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Application of a Biologically Contained Reporter System To Study Gain-of-Function H5N1 Influenza A Viruses with Pandemic Potential. mSphere 2020; 5:5/4/e00423-20. [PMID: 32848003 PMCID: PMC7449622 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00423-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how animal influenza viruses can adapt to spread in humans is critical to prepare for, and prevent, new pandemics. However, working safely with pathogens that have pandemic potential requires tight regulation and the use of high-level physical and biological risk mitigation strategies to stop accidental loss of containment. Here, we used a biological containment system for influenza viruses to study strains with pandemic potential. The system relies on deletion of the essential HA gene from the viral genome and its provision by a genetically modified cell line, to which virus propagation is therefore restricted. We show that this method permits safe handling of these pathogens, including gain-of-function variants, without the risk of generating fully infectious viruses. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this system can be used to assess virus sensitivity to both approved and experimental drugs, as well as the antigenic profile of viruses, important considerations for evaluating prepandemic vaccine and antiviral strategies. Natural adaptation of an antigenically novel avian influenza A virus (IAV) to be transmitted efficiently in humans has the potential to trigger a devastating pandemic. Understanding viral genetic determinants underlying adaptation is therefore critical for pandemic preparedness, as the knowledge gained enhances surveillance and eradication efforts, prepandemic vaccine design, and efficacy assessment of antivirals. However, this work has risks, as making gain-of-function substitutions in fully infectious IAVs may create a pathogen with pandemic potential. Thus, such experiments must be tightly controlled through physical and biological risk mitigation strategies. Here, we applied a previously described biological containment system for IAVs to a 2009 pandemic H1N1 strain and a highly pathogenic H5N1 strain. The system relies on deletion of the essential viral hemagglutinin (HA) gene, which is instead provided in trans, thereby restricting multicycle virus replication to genetically modified HA-complementing cells. In place of HA, a Renilla luciferase gene is inserted within the viral genome, and a live-cell luciferase substrate allows real-time quantitative monitoring of viral replication kinetics with a high dynamic range. We demonstrate that biologically contained IAV-like particles exhibit wild-type sensitivities to approved antivirals, including oseltamivir, zanamivir, and baloxavir. Furthermore, the inability of these IAV-like particles to genetically acquire the host-encoded HA allowed us to introduce gain-of-function substitutions in the H5 HA gene that promote mammalian transmissibility. Biologically contained “transmissible” H5N1 IAV-like particles exhibited wild-type sensitivities to approved antivirals, to the fusion inhibitor S20, and to neutralization by existing H5 monoclonal and polyclonal sera. This work represents a proof of principle that biologically contained IAV systems can be used to safely conduct selected gain-of-function experiments. IMPORTANCE Understanding how animal influenza viruses can adapt to spread in humans is critical to prepare for, and prevent, new pandemics. However, working safely with pathogens that have pandemic potential requires tight regulation and the use of high-level physical and biological risk mitigation strategies to stop accidental loss of containment. Here, we used a biological containment system for influenza viruses to study strains with pandemic potential. The system relies on deletion of the essential HA gene from the viral genome and its provision by a genetically modified cell line, to which virus propagation is therefore restricted. We show that this method permits safe handling of these pathogens, including gain-of-function variants, without the risk of generating fully infectious viruses. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this system can be used to assess virus sensitivity to both approved and experimental drugs, as well as the antigenic profile of viruses, important considerations for evaluating prepandemic vaccine and antiviral strategies.
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7
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Dual-Use and Infectious Disease Research. INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM 2020. [PMCID: PMC7226902 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-39819-4_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Despite rapid advance in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, infectious diseases remain a central challenge for global health policy. In the twenty-first century, the life sciences—including microbiology, virology, and immunology—have been marshalled as key tools in the fight against infectious disease, and the promotion of global health. Rapid advance in these fields, however, has given rise to the “dual-use dilemma,” when one and the same piece of scientific research or technology has the capacity to help or harm humanity. While not unique to fields that address infectious disease, contemporary cases of dual-use research are largely identified in the context of the life sciences. In this chapter I outline the debate about dual-use research in the life sciences, in particular the ethics of dual-use research. After a historical overview of the dual-use dilemma in the twenty-first century, I examine ethical issues in attempting to trade off the risks and benefits of dual-use research. I address how we select alternative, less risky experiments; translational issues arising for dual-use research; and political commitments to realise the benefits and mitigate the risks arising from such research. I then discuss the governance of dual-use research, before concluding with a brief discussion on priority setting in infectious disease research as a path forward for policymakers.
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8
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Ross TM, DiNapoli J, Giel-Moloney M, Bloom CE, Bertran K, Balzli C, Strugnell T, Sá E Silva M, Mebatsion T, Bublot M, Swayne DE, Kleanthous H. A computationally designed H5 antigen shows immunological breadth of coverage and protects against drifting avian strains. Vaccine 2019; 37:2369-2376. [PMID: 30905528 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Since the first identification of the H5N1 Goose/Guangdong lineage in 1996, this highly pathogenic avian influenza virus has spread worldwide, becoming endemic in domestic poultry. Sporadic transmission to humans has raised concerns of a potential pandemic and underscores the need for a broad cross-protective influenza vaccine. Here, we tested our previously described methodology, termed Computationally Optimized Broadly Reactive Antigen (COBRA), to generate a novel hemagglutinin (HA) gene, termed COBRA-2, that was based on H5 HA sequences from 2005 to 2006. The COBRA-2 HA virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines were used to vaccinate chickens and the immune responses were compared to responses elicited by VLP's expressing HA from A/whooper swan/Mongolia/244/2005 (WS/05), a representative 2005 vaccine virus from clade 2.2. To support this evaluation a hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) breadth panel was developed consisting of phylogenetically and antigenically diverse H5 strains in circulation from 2005 to 2006, as well as recent drift variants (2008 - 2014). We found that the COBRA-2 VLP vaccines elicited robust HAI titers against this entire breadth panel, whereas the VLP vaccine based upon the recommended WS/05 HA only elicited HAI responses against a subset of strains. Furthermore, while all vaccines protected chickens against challenge with the WS/05 virus, only the human COBRA-2 VLP vaccinated birds were protected (80%) against a recent drifted clade 2.3.2.1B, A/duck/Vietnam/NCVD-672/2011 (VN/11) virus. This is the first report to demonstrate seroprotective antibody responses against genetically diverse clades and sub-clades of H5 viruses and protective efficacy against a recent drifted variant using a globular head based design strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ted M Ross
- University of Georgia, Center for Vaccines and Immunology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | | | | | - Chalise E Bloom
- University of Georgia, Center for Vaccines and Immunology, Department of Infectious Diseases, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Kateri Bertran
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Charles Balzli
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Tod Strugnell
- Sanofi-Pasteur, 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | | | - Michel Bublot
- Boehringer lngelheim, S.A.S., R&D, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Abstract
Half a decade after the contentious "gain-of-function" (GOF) debate of 2012 that followed experimentation showing that highly pathogenic avian influenza virus could become mammalian transmissible, it is possible to reflect on the arguments for and against this type of research. In this essay we argue that GOF-type experiments have already produced important information not available from any other source while also providing information on pathogenesis and the requirements for optimizing strains for vaccine production. We analyze the moral arguments against GOF and find them less compelling for a variety of reasons ranging from the uncertainty of risk-benefit analysis to the reduced likelihood of accidents given the enhanced biosafety and biosecurity protocols currently in place. In our view the most important consequence of the GOF debate is that it brought renewed attention to biosafety protocols and ushered innovation in answering the relevant biological questions with greater safety. We conclude that GOF experiments should go forward provided that necessary biosafety and biosecurity conditions are in place.
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10
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Guo Z, Wilson JR, York IA, Stevens J. Biosensor-based epitope mapping of antibodies targeting the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase of influenza A virus. J Immunol Methods 2018; 461:23-29. [PMID: 30053389 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Characterization of the epitopes on antigen recognized by monoclonal antibodies (mAb) is useful for the development of therapeutic antibodies, diagnostic tools, and vaccines. Epitope mapping also provides functional information for sequence-based repertoire analysis of antibody response to pathogen infection and/or vaccination. However, development of mapping strategies has lagged behind mAb discovery. We have developed a site-directed mutagenesis approach that can be used in conjunction with bio-layer interferometry (BLI) biosensors to map mAb epitopes. By generating a panel of single point mutants in the recombinant hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins of influenza A viruses, we have characterized the epitopes of hundreds of mAbs targeting the H1 and H3 subtypes of HA and the N9 subtype of NA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhu Guo
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jason R Wilson
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA; CNI Advantage, LLC, Norman, OK, USA
| | - Ian A York
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - James Stevens
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Disease, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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11
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Imperiale MJ, Casadevall A. A New Approach to Evaluating the Risk-Benefit Equation for Dual-Use and Gain-of-Function Research of Concern. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018; 6:21. [PMID: 29568736 PMCID: PMC5853790 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2018.00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In the twenty-first century, biology faces a problem that has previously vexed other disciplines such as physics, namely the prospect that its knowledge domain could be used to generate biological agents with altered properties that enhanced their weapon potential. Biological weapons bring the additional dimension that these could be self-replicating, easy to manufacture and synthesized with commonly available expertise. This resulted in increasing concern about the type of research done and communicated, despite the fact that such research often has direct societal benefits, bringing the dual-use dilemma to biology. The conundrum of dual use research of concern was crystallized by the so-called "gain-of-function" type of experiments in which avian influenza viruses were endowed with new properties in the laboratory such as increased virulence and the capacity for mammalian transmission. After more than a decade of intensive discussion and controversy involving biological experiments with dual-use potential, there is no consensus on the issue except for the need to carry out such experiments in the safest conditions possible. In this essay, we review the topic with the hindsight of several years and suggest that instead of prescribing prohibitions and experimental limitations the focus should be on the importance of scientific questions at hand. We posit that the importance of a scientific question for medical and scientific progress provides a benchmark to determine the acceptable level of risk in biological experimentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Imperiale
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States,*Correspondence: Michael J. Imperiale,
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
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12
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Evans NG. Ethical and Philosophical Considerations for Gain-of-Function Policy: The Importance of Alternate Experiments. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018; 6:11. [PMID: 29473036 PMCID: PMC5809449 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2018.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The Department of Health and Human Services Framework for Guiding Funding Decisions about Proposed Research Involving Enhanced Potential Pandemic Pathogens (PPPs) contains a series of principles for governing the funding and conduct of gain-of-function (GOF) research resulting in the creation of PPPs. In this article, I address one of these principles, governing the replacement of GOF research with alternate experiments. I argue that the principle fails to address the way that different experiments can promote the same values as those promoted by GOF research resulting in PPPs. I then address some objections to this claim, and provide policy recommendations moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Greig Evans
- Department of Philosophy, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, United States
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13
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Lipsitch M, Barclay W, Raman R, Russell CJ, Belser JA, Cobey S, Kasson PM, Lloyd-Smith JO, Maurer-Stroh S, Riley S, Beauchemin CA, Bedford T, Friedrich TC, Handel A, Herfst S, Murcia PR, Roche B, Wilke CO, Russell CA. Viral factors in influenza pandemic risk assessment. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27834632 PMCID: PMC5156527 DOI: 10.7554/elife.18491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The threat of an influenza A virus pandemic stems from continual virus spillovers from reservoir species, a tiny fraction of which spark sustained transmission in humans. To date, no pandemic emergence of a new influenza strain has been preceded by detection of a closely related precursor in an animal or human. Nonetheless, influenza surveillance efforts are expanding, prompting a need for tools to assess the pandemic risk posed by a detected virus. The goal would be to use genetic sequence and/or biological assays of viral traits to identify those non-human influenza viruses with the greatest risk of evolving into pandemic threats, and/or to understand drivers of such evolution, to prioritize pandemic prevention or response measures. We describe such efforts, identify progress and ongoing challenges, and discuss three specific traits of influenza viruses (hemagglutinin receptor binding specificity, hemagglutinin pH of activation, and polymerase complex efficiency) that contribute to pandemic risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Lipsitch
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T. H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States.,Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
| | - Wendy Barclay
- Division of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rahul Raman
- Department of Biological Engineering, Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
| | - Charles J Russell
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Jessica A Belser
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, United States
| | - Sarah Cobey
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
| | - Peter M Kasson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, United States.,Department of Molecular Physiology and Biological Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, United States
| | - James O Lloyd-Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States.,Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States
| | - Sebastian Maurer-Stroh
- Bioinformatics Institute, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore.,National Public Health Laboratory, Communicable Diseases Division, Ministry of Health, Singapore, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Steven Riley
- MRC Centre for Outbreak Analysis and Modelling, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Trevor Bedford
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Thomas C Friedrich
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, United States
| | - Andreas Handel
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, United States
| | - Sander Herfst
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Pablo R Murcia
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre For Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Claus O Wilke
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States.,Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States
| | - Colin A Russell
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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14
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Lipsitch M. Comment on "Gain-of-Function Research and the Relevance to Clinical Practice". J Infect Dis 2016; 214:1284-5. [PMID: 27503367 PMCID: PMC7107370 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiw348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marc Lipsitch
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics Department of Epidemiology Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
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15
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Richard M, Fouchier RAM. Influenza A virus transmission via respiratory aerosols or droplets as it relates to pandemic potential. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2016; 40:68-85. [PMID: 26385895 PMCID: PMC5006288 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuv039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many respiratory viruses of humans originate from animals. For instance, there are now eight paramyxoviruses, four coronaviruses and four orthomxoviruses that cause recurrent epidemics in humans but were once confined to other hosts. In the last decade, several members of the same virus families have jumped the species barrier from animals to humans. Fortunately, these viruses have not become established in humans, because they lacked the ability of sustained transmission between humans. However, these outbreaks highlighted the lack of understanding of what makes a virus transmissible. In part triggered by the relatively high frequency of occurrence of influenza A virus zoonoses and pandemics, the influenza research community has started to investigate the viral genetic and biological traits that drive virus transmission via aerosols or respiratory droplets between mammals. Here we summarize recent discoveries on the genetic and phenotypic traits required for airborne transmission of zoonotic influenza viruses of subtypes H5, H7 and H9 and pandemic viruses of subtypes H1, H2 and H3. Increased understanding of the determinants and mechanisms of respiratory virus transmission is not only key from a basic scientific perspective, but may also aid in assessing the risks posed by zoonotic viruses to human health, and preparedness for such risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Richard
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ron A M Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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16
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Fears R, ter Meulen V. What next for gain-of-function research in Europe? eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 26716473 PMCID: PMC4709283 DOI: 10.7554/elife.13035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A working group on gain-of-function research set up by the European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) has emphasised the importance of ensuring that the necessary safeguards and policies are in place
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Fears
- European Academies Science Advisory Council, Halle, Germany
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17
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European Academies Advise on Gain-of-Function Studies in Influenza Virus Research. J Virol 2015; 90:2162-4. [PMID: 26699646 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03045-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Gain-of-function (GoF) studies to understand factors affecting transmissibility of potentially pandemic pathogens are controversial. The European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) recently published consensus recommendations relating to GoF research review and management on self-regulation and harmonization; bioethical considerations; benefit-risk assessment; biosafety, and biosecurity advisory options; and publication of sensitive information. A layered approach to integration of responsibilities must include conforming to the stringent rules and guidance already existing. Further commitment is essential to extend the debate on issues worldwide.
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18
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Evans NG, Lipsitch M, Levinson M. The ethics of biosafety considerations in gain-of-function research resulting in the creation of potential pandemic pathogens. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ETHICS 2015; 41:901-8. [PMID: 26320212 PMCID: PMC4623968 DOI: 10.1136/medethics-2014-102619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This paper proposes an ethical framework for evaluating biosafety risks of gain-of-function (GOF) experiments that create novel strains of influenza expected to be virulent and transmissible in humans, so-called potential pandemic pathogens (PPPs). Such research raises ethical concerns because of the risk that accidental release from a laboratory could lead to extensive or even global spread of a virulent pathogen. Biomedical research ethics has focused largely on human subjects research, while biosafety concerns about accidental infections, seen largely as a problem of occupational health, have been ignored. GOF/PPP research is an example of a small but important class of research where biosafety risks threaten public health, well beyond the small number of persons conducting the research.We argue that bioethical principles that ordinarily apply only to human subjects research should also apply to research that threatens public health, even if, as in GOF/PPP studies, the research involves no human subjects. Specifically we highlight the Nuremberg Code's requirements of 'fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods', and proportionality of risk and humanitarian benefit, as broad ethical principles that recur in later documents on research ethics and should also apply to certain types of research not involving human subjects. We address several potential objections to this view, and conclude with recommendations for bringing these ethical considerations into policy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Grieg Evans
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA.
| | - Marc Lipsitch
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Meira Levinson
- Levinson, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA, USA
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19
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Abstract
The best way to combat influenza virus infection is to prevent it. However, the continual evolution of circulating influenza virus strains and the constant threat of newly emerging viruses forces the public health community to annually update seasonal influenza vaccines while stockpiling potential pandemic virus vaccines. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop a "universal" influenza vaccine that affords protection against all strains. In their recent article, L. M. Schwartzman et al. (mBio 6:e01044-15, 2015, doi:10.1128/mBio.01044-15) demonstrated that intranasal immunization of mice with a cocktail of viral-like particles (VLPs) expressing distinct influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) proteins can broadly protect against infection not only with the same viral strains but also with unrelated strains. These findings suggest a promising strategy for developing a broadly protective "universal" influenza vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey Schultz-Cherry
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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20
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Kilianski A, Nuzzo JB, Modjarrad K. Gain-of-Function Research and the Relevance to Clinical Practice. J Infect Dis 2015; 213:1364-9. [PMID: 26416657 PMCID: PMC7107371 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ongoing moratorium on gain-of-function (GOF) research with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus has drawn attention to the current debate on these research practices and the potential benefits and risks they present. While much of the discussion has been steered by members of the microbiology and policy communities, additional input from medical practitioners will be highly valuable toward developing a broadly inclusive policy that considers the relative value and harm of GOF research. This review attempts to serve as a primer on the topic for the clinical community by providing a historical context for GOF research, summarizing concerns about its risks, and surveying the medical products that it has yielded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Kilianski
- BioDefense Branch, Biosciences Division, Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground
| | - Jennifer B Nuzzo
- University of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Center for Health Security, Baltimore
| | - Kayvon Modjarrad
- US Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
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21
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Rozell
- Department of Technology and Society, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
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Studies on influenza virus transmission between ferrets: the public health risks revisited. mBio 2015; 6:mBio.02560-14. [PMID: 25616377 PMCID: PMC4323420 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02560-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
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23
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Vagueness and costs of the pause on gain-of-function (GOF) experiments on pathogens with pandemic potential, including influenza virus. mBio 2014; 5:mBio.02292-14. [PMID: 25505121 PMCID: PMC4278541 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02292-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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