Human HER2 (neu) promoter: evidence for multiple mechanisms for transcriptional initiation

HER2-Low Breast Cancer: Current Landscape and Future Prospects

More than 50% of breast cancers are currently defined as "Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) low breast cancer (BC)", with HER2 immunohistochemistry (IHC) scores of +1 or +2 with a negative fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) test. In most studies that compared the clinical and biological characteristics of HER2-low BC with HER2-negative BC, HER2-low was not associated with unique clinical and molecular characteristics, and it seems that the importance of HER2 in these tumors is being a docking site for the antibody portion of antibody drug conjugates (ADCs). Current pathological methods may underestimate the proportion of BCs that express low levels of HER2 due to analytical limitations and tumor heterogeneity. In this review we summarize and contextualize the most recent literature on HER2-low breast cancers, including clinical and translational studies We also review the challenges of assessing low HER2 expression in BC and discuss the current and future therapeutic landscape for these tumors.

A novel HER2 gene body enhancer contributes to HER2 expression

The transcriptional regulation of the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) contributes to an enhanced HER2 expression in HER2-positive breast cancers with HER2 gene amplification and HER2-low or HER2-negative breast cancers following radiotherapy or endocrine therapy, and this drives tumorigenesis and the resistance to therapy. Epigenetic mechanisms are critical for transcription regulation, however, such mechanisms in the transcription regulation of HER2 are limited to the involvement of tri-methylated histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3) and acetylated histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9ac) at the HER2 promoter region. Here, we report the identification of a novel enhancer in the HER2 3’ gene body, which we have termed HER2 gene body enhancer (HGE). The HGE starts from the 3’ end of intron 19 and extends into intron 22, possesses enhancer histone modification marks in specific cells and enhances the transcriptional activity of the HER2 promoters. We also found that TFAP2C, a known regulator of HER2, binds to HGE and is required for its enhancer function and that DNA methylation in the HGE region inhibits the histone modifications characterizing enhancer and is inversely correlated with HER2 expression in breast cancer samples. The identification of this novel enhancer sheds a light on the roles of epigenetic mechanisms in HER2 transcription, in both HER2-positive breast cancer samples and individuals with HER2-low or HER2-negative breast cancers undergoing radiotherapy or endocrine therapy.

[Individualized, personalized and stratified medicine: a challenge for allergology in ENT?]

Individualized, personalized or stratified medicine approaches offer emerging opportunities in the field of allergy and ENT. Avoidance of side effects, targeted therapy approaches and stratified prevention promise better outcomes and optimal results for patients. Conceptual incongruencies remain with regard to definitions and perceptions of "personalized medicine". Serious ethical considerations have to be taken into account. The development of pharmacogenomics, molecular phenotyping, genomic sequencing and other -omics opens the door to unique mechanistic therapeutic advances. The molecular allergology and recombinant diagnostics available are tools that offer substantial improved diagnostics for the benefit of allergic patients, e. g. in anaphylaxis and food allergy. For stratified therapeutic approaches, however, regulatory affairs will have to keep pace with medical and scientific discovery.

Molecular Imaging in Optical Coherence Tomography

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a medical imaging technique that provides tomographic images at micron scales in three dimensions and high speeds. The addition of molecular contrast to the available morphological image holds great promise for extending OCT's impact in clinical practice and beyond. Fundamental limitations prevent OCT from directly taking advantage of powerful molecular processes such as fluorescence emission and incoherent Raman scattering. A wide range of approaches is being researched to provide molecular contrast to OCT. Here we review those approaches with particular attention to those that derive their molecular contrast directly from modulation of the OCT signal. We also provide a brief overview of the multimodal approaches to gaining molecular contrast coincident with OCT.

The Wilms' tumor suppressor WT1 induces estrogen-independent growth and anti-estrogen insensitivity in ER-positive breast cancer MCF7 cells

A switch from estrogen-dependent to estrogen-independent growth is a critical step in malignant progression of breast cancer and is a major problem in endocrine therapy. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this switch remain poorly understood. The Wilms' tumor suppressor gene, wt1, encodes a zinc finger protein WT1 that functions as a transcription regulator. High levels of the WT1 expression have been associated with malignancy of breast cancer. The goal of this study was to investigate the function of WT1 in malignant progression of breast cancer. We found that the high passage ER-positive breast cancer MCF7H cells expressed EGFR, HER2 and WT1 at higher levels compared to the low passage MCF7L cells. MCF7H cells responded weakly to estrogen stimulation, grew rapidly in the absence of estrogen and were insensitive to anti-estrogens such as ICI 182,780 and 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen (4OH-TAM). We also established stable cell lines from the low passage MCF7L cells to constitutively express exogenous WT1 and found elevated levels of EGFR and HER2 expression, estrogen-independent growth and anti-estrogen insensitivity in WT1-transfected MCF7L cells. These results suggested WT1 promotes estrogen-independent growth and anti-estrogen resistance in ER-positive breast cancer cells presumably through activation of the signaling pathways mediated by the members of EGFR family.

A negative feedback regulatory loop associates the tyrosine kinase receptor ERBB2 and the transcription factor GATA4 in breast cancer cells

Overexpression of the ERBB2 gene, linked to genomic and transcriptional amplifications, is a poor prognosis indicator in 25% to 30% of breast cancers. In contrast to some well-documented genomic amplifications, molecular mechanisms leading to ERBB2 transcriptional overexpression remain poorly characterized. Gene expression analyses of breast cancer have characterized distinct transcriptional signatures allowing a molecular classification of breast carcinoma. Coexpression of the ERBB2 and GATA4 genes was originally observed in tumors. Both genes are essential for cardiovascular development and GATA4 has been proposed to control the transcription of critical genes for the differentiation and the function of myocardium. We determined that ERBB2-targeted small interfering RNA repressed both ERBB2 and GATA4 genes, whereas GATA4-targeted small interfering RNA repressed GATA4 and activated ERBB2 transcription. Transfected GATA4-expressing construct repressed ERBB2 promoter. Phylogenetic foot printing revealed multiple putative GATA4 binding sites conserved in mammals within the ERBB2 promoter region. Chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that GATA4 binds specifically to several ERBB2 gene noncoding regions. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay revealed GATA4 binding to a well-conserved consensus motif. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed the role of this new regulatory element for the activity of the ERBB2 gene enhancer. In agreement with a repressor role of GATA4 on ERBB2 gene expression balanced by ERBB2 activation of the GATA4 gene, a negative correlation between the relative levels of ERBB2 and GATA4 mRNA was observed in breast cancer cell lines and breast tumor samples. We propose that the negative feedback loop linking ERBB2 and GATA4 plays a role in the transcriptional dysregulation of ERBB2 gene expression in breast cancer.

NF-kappaB-mediated HER2 overexpression in radiation-adaptive resistance

The molecular mechanisms governing acquired tumor resistance during radiotherapy remain to be elucidated. In breast cancer patients, overexpression of HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) is correlated with aggressive tumor growth and increased recurrence. In the present study, we demonstrate that HER2 expression can be induced by radiation in breast cancer cells with a low basal level of HER2. Furthermore, HER2-postive tumors occur at a much higher frequency in recurrent invasive breast cancer (59%) compared to the primary tumors (41%). Interestingly, NF-kappaB is required for radiation-induced HER2 transactivation. HER2 was found to be co-activated with basal and radiation-induced NF-kappaB activity in radioresistant but not radiosensitive breast cancer cell lines after long-term radiation exposure, indicating that NF-kappaB-mediated HER2 overexpression is involved in radiation-induced repopulation in heterogeneous tumors. Finally, we found that inhibition of HER2 resensitizes the resistant cell lines to radiation. Since HER2 is shown to activate NF-kappaB, our data suggest a loop-like HER2-NF-kappaB-HER2 pathway in radiation-induced adaptive resistance in breast cancer cells.

Derepression of the Her-2 uORF is mediated by a novel post-transcriptional control mechanism in cancer cells

Transcripts harboring 5' upstream open reading frames (uORFs) are often found in genes controlling cell growth including receptors, oncogenes, or growth factors. uORFs can modulate translation or RNA stability and mediate inefficient translation of these potent proteins under normal conditions. In dysregulated cancer cells, where the gene product, for example Her-2 receptor, is overexpressed, post-transcriptional processes must exist that serve to override the inhibitory effects of the uORFs. The 5' untranslated region (UTR) of Her-2 mRNA contains a short uORF that represses translation of the downstream coding region. We demonstrate that in Her-2 overexpressing breast cancer cells, the 3' UTR of the Her-2 mRNA can override translational inhibition mediated by the Her-2 uORF. Within this 3' UTR, a translational derepression element (TDE) that binds to a 38-kDa protein was identified. These results define a novel biological mechanism in which translational control of genes harboring a 5' uORF can be modulated by elements in their 3' UTRs.

Update on HER-2 as a target for cancer therapy: the ERBB2 promoter and its exploitation for cancer treatment

Overexpression of the ERBB2 proto-oncogene is associated with amplification of the gene in breast cancer but increased activity of the promoter also plays a significant role. Members of two transcription factor families (AP-2 and Ets) show increased binding to the promoter in over-expressing cells. Consequently, strategies have been devised to target promoter activity, either through the DNA binding sites for these factors, or through another promoter sequence, a polypurine-polypyrimidine repeat structure. The promoter has also been exploited for its tumour-specific activity to direct the accumulation of cytotoxic compounds selectively within cancer cells. Our current understanding of the ERBB2 promoter is reviewed and the status of these therapeutic avenues is discussed.

Ets regulation of the erbB2 promoter

Evaluating the chromatinized erbB2 gene in nuclei from breast cancer cells expressing varying levels of ErbB2 transcripts, we identified a nuclease-sensitive site within a 0.22 kb region of maximum enhancer activity centered over a conserved 28 bp polypurine(GGA)-polypyrimidine(TCC) mirror-repeat and an adjacent essential Ets binding site (EBS). Promoter footprinting with nuclear extracts reveals an intense Ets hypersensitivity site at the EBS whose degree of intensity correlates with the level of cellular ErbB2 expression. In vitro mapping assays show that the supercoiled erbB2 promoter forms an internal triplex structure (Hr-DNA) at the mirror-repeat element. Mutations preventing Hr-DNA formation can enhance erbB2 promoter activity in human breast cancer cells, a result consistent with previous demonstration that Ets-erbB2 promoter complexes cannot form when the mirror-repeat is engaged in triplex binding, and new results suggesting that Ets binding induces severe promoter bending that may restrict local triplex formation. In addition to previously described erbB2-regulating breast cancer Ets factors (PEA3, ESX/Elf-3), Elf-1 is now shown to be another endogenously expressed Ets candidate capable of binding to and upregulating the erbB2 promoter. Given current strategies to transcriptionally inhibit ErbB2 overexpression, including development of novel erbB2 promoter-targeted therapeutics, an EBS-targeted approach is presented using chimeric Ets proteins that strongly repress erbB2 promoter activity.

The N-terminal common domain of simian virus 40 large T and small t antigens acts as a transformation suppressor of the HER-2/neu oncogene

Overexpression of HER-2/neu (also known as c-erbB-2) proto-oncogene frequently occurs in many different types of human cancers, including ovarian carcinoma, and is known to enhance tumor metastasis and chemoresistance. Previous studies showed that inhibition of HER-2/neu expression by various agents, such as adenovirus E1A and simian virus 40 large T, can lead to suppression of tumorigenicity of HER-2/neu-overexpressing cancer cells. Here we report that T/t-common, which contains the N-terminal common domain of simian virus 40 large T and small t antigens, could specifically repress the HER-2/neu promoter. When the coding sequence of T/t-common was stably transfected into the HER-2/neu-overexpressing human ovarian carcinoma SK-OV-3 cells, the expression of HER-2/neu was dramatically reduced by the expression of T/t-common. Accordingly the tumorigenic potential of these T/t-common-expressing clones, including the ability to grow anchorage-independently and the ability to induce tumor in nu/nu mice, was also drastically suppressed. Furthermore, when T/t-common was transiently cotransfected with the activated genomic neu into NIH3T3 cells, the transforming activity of the latter was suppressed by T/t-common in soft-agarose microcolony formation assays. Taken together, these data suggest that T/t-common may act as a transformation suppressor of the HER-2/neu oncogene. Oncogene (2000).

The HER-2/neu receptor tyrosine kinase gene encodes a secreted autoinhibitor

HER-2/neu (erbB-2) encodes an 185-kDa orphan receptor tyrosine kinase that is constitutively active as a dimer and displays potent oncogenic activity when overexpressed. Here we describe a secreted protein of approximately 68 kDa, designated herstatin, as the product of an alternative HER-2 transcript that retains intron 8. This alternative transcript specifies 340 residues identical to subdomains I and II from the extracellular domain of p185HER-2 followed by a unique C-terminal sequence of 79 aa encoded by intron 8. The recombinant product of the alternative transcript specifically binds to HER-2-transfected cells with a K(D) of approximately 14 nM and was chemically crosslinked to p185HER-2, whereas the intron encoded sequence alone also binds with high affinity to transfected cells and associates with p185 solubilized from cell extracts. The herstatin mRNA is expressed in normal human fetal kidney and liver, but is at reduced levels relative to p185HER-2 mRNA in carcinoma cells that contain an amplified HER-2 gene. Herstatin appears to be an inhibitor of p185HER-2, because it disrupts dimers, reduces tyrosine phosphorylation of p185, and inhibits the anchorage-independent growth of transformed cells that overexpress HER-2.

Transcriptional regulation of type I receptor tyrosine kinases in the mammary gland

The transcriptional regulation of the human EGFR3 and ERBB2 genes has been extensively studied, particularly in the context of their overexpression in breast cancer. Here we summarize published work detailing the transcription factors which interact with the promoters of these and the rat ERBB2 homologue, neu, genes and discuss their possible relevance to gene activation in cancer. In addition we review the biologically significant molecules which modulate expression of these genes and discuss the nuclear factors involved in mediating these responses. We also describe novel therapies which may result from these studies and highlight directions for future research into the control of expression of the EGFR and ERBB2 genes in the normal mammary gland and in breast cancer.

Targeting gene transcription: a new strategy to down-regulate c-erbB-2 expression in mammary carcinoma

Overexpression of the c-erbB-2 proto-oncogene in mammary carcinoma is frequently associated with amplification of the c-erbB-2 gene, but it also occurs from single-copy gene. Studies in mammary-derived cell lines have shown that, whether or not the gene is amplified, there is a 6- to 8-fold increase in the accumulation of c-erbB-2 mRNA per gene copy in overexpressing cells. We have recently shown that this phenomenon is due to increased activity of the c-erbB-2 promoter mediated by the binding of a novel transcription factor, OB2-1, which is present at higher levels in overexpressing cells than in low expressors. OB2-1 activity therefore represents a novel therapeutic target for the down-regulation of c-erbB-2 levels in human cells. As a prototype for this strategy, we show here that the drug sodium aurothiomalate is able to inhibit the DNA-binding activity of OB2-1 in vitro and also to interfere with c-erbB-2 promoter activity in cell-based transfection assays. In addition, endogenous c-erbB-2 immunoreactivity was reduced in cells treated with aurothiomalate as compared with the levels observed in control cells.

Oestrogen and epidermal growth factor down-regulate erbB-2 oncogene protein expression in breast cancer cells by different mechanisms

Mitogen-induced mammary cell growth is often accompanied by decreased levels of expression of the p185erbB-2 protein. We have previously reported that oestrogen inhibits erbB-2 mRNA and protein expression in breast cancer cells, while epidermal growth factor (EGF) treatment has been shown to decrease p185erbB-2 levels in normal mouse mammary epithelial cells. In the present work, we studied the effect of oestrogen and EGF on erbB-2 expression in oestrogen-responsive breast cancer cells. We observed that both oestrogen and EGF comparably down-regulated p185erbB-2 levels, while stimulating growth of T47D and ZR75.1 cells. Oestrogens, but not EGF, concomitantly down-regulated erbB-2 mRNA. Run-on analysis showed a reduced erbB-2 transcription rate in the presence of oestrogens. Furthermore, the transcriptional activity of a 219 bp proximal fragment of the human erbB-2 promoter was repressed by oestrogens, whereas it was enhanced by EGF. EGF stimulated both tyrosine phosphorylation and autokinase activity of p185erbB-2 down-regulates p185erbB-2 at a post-translational level. Thus, two factors converging in terms of effects on cell growth, display divergent mechanisms of regulation of erbB-2 expression.

Demonstration of gene-amplification by PCR in archival paraffin-embedded breast cancer tissue

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a powerful tool to examine genetic alterations in tumor samples. We describe a simple, rapid, nonisotopic PCR method to semi-quantitatively determine the number of gene copies in human formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue. The procedure is exemplified by analysis of 15 years old breast cancer samples to determine the presence of amplification of c-erb-B2. The samples were obtained from routine specimens kept in pathological archives. Patients with amplified samples showed a poor prognosis, both for recurrences and death in breast cancer.

A truncated intracellular HER2/neu receptor produced by alternative RNA processing affects growth of human carcinoma cells

Cloned sequences encoding a truncated form of the HER2 receptor were obtained from cDNA libraries derived from two HER2-overexpressing human breast cancer cell lines, BT-474 and SK-BR-3. The 5' 2.1 kb of the encoded transcript is identical to that of full-length 4.6-kb HER2 transcript and would be expected to produce a secreted form of HER2 receptor containing only the extracellular ligand binding domain (ECD). The 3' end of the truncated transcript diverges 61 nucleotides before the receptor's transmembrane region, reads through a consensus splice donor site containing an in-frame stop codon, and contains a poly(A) addition site, suggesting that the truncated transcript arises by alternative RNA processing. S1 nuclease protection assays show a 40-fold variation in the abundance of the truncated 2.3-kb transcript relative to full-length 4.6-kb transcript in a panel of eight HER2-expressing tumor cell lines of gastric, ovarian, and breast cancer origin. Expression of this truncated transcript in COS-1 cells produces both secreted and intracellular forms of HER2 ECD; however, immunofluorescent labeling of HER2 ECD protein in MKN7 tumor cells that natively overexpress the 2.3-kb transcript suggests that transcriptionally generated HER2 ECD is concentrated within the perinuclear cytoplasm. Metabolic labeling and endoglycosidase studies suggest that this HER2 ECD (100 kDa) undergoes differential trafficking between the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi compartments compared with full-length (185-kDa) HER2 receptor. Transfection studies indicate that excess production of HER2 ECD in human tumor cells overexpressing full-length HER2 receptor can result in resistance to the growth-inhibiting effects of anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies such as muMAb4D5. These findings demonstrate alternative processing of the HER2 transcript and implicate a potentially important growth regulatory role for intracellularly sequestered HER2 ECD in HER2-amplified human tumors.

A truncated intracellular HER2/neu receptor produced by alternative RNA processing affects growth of human carcinoma cells

Cloned sequences encoding a truncated form of the HER2 receptor were obtained from cDNA libraries derived from two HER2-overexpressing human breast cancer cell lines, BT-474 and SK-BR-3. The 5' 2.1 kb of the encoded transcript is identical to that of full-length 4.6-kb HER2 transcript and would be expected to produce a secreted form of HER2 receptor containing only the extracellular ligand binding domain (ECD). The 3' end of the truncated transcript diverges 61 nucleotides before the receptor's transmembrane region, reads through a consensus splice donor site containing an in-frame stop codon, and contains a poly(A) addition site, suggesting that the truncated transcript arises by alternative RNA processing. S1 nuclease protection assays show a 40-fold variation in the abundance of the truncated 2.3-kb transcript relative to full-length 4.6-kb transcript in a panel of eight HER2-expressing tumor cell lines of gastric, ovarian, and breast cancer origin. Expression of this truncated transcript in COS-1 cells produces both secreted and intracellular forms of HER2 ECD; however, immunofluorescent labeling of HER2 ECD protein in MKN7 tumor cells that natively overexpress the 2.3-kb transcript suggests that transcriptionally generated HER2 ECD is concentrated within the perinuclear cytoplasm. Metabolic labeling and endoglycosidase studies suggest that this HER2 ECD (100 kDa) undergoes differential trafficking between the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi compartments compared with full-length (185-kDa) HER2 receptor. Transfection studies indicate that excess production of HER2 ECD in human tumor cells overexpressing full-length HER2 receptor can result in resistance to the growth-inhibiting effects of anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies such as muMAb4D5. These findings demonstrate alternative processing of the HER2 transcript and implicate a potentially important growth regulatory role for intracellularly sequestered HER2 ECD in HER2-amplified human tumors.

An anti-parallel triple helix motif with oligodeoxynucleotides containing 2'-deoxyguanosine and 7-deaza-2'-deoxyxanthosine

Triple helix formation of oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) with a 15 base pair poly-purine DNA target in the HER2 promoter was examined by footprinting analysis. 7-deaza-2'-deoxyxanthosine (dzaX) was identified as a purine analogue of thymidine (T) which forms dzaX:A-T triplets. ODNs containing 2'-deoxyguanosine (G) and dzaX were found to form triple helices in an anti-parallel orientation, with respect to the poly-purine strand of the target DNA. In comparative studies under physiological K+ and Mg++ concentrations and at pH 7.2, the ODNs containing G and dzaX showed high affinity to the target sequence while the ODNs containing G and T were not able to bind. In the absence of added monovalent salts both ODNs showed high affinity to the target sequence. The substitution of 7-deaza-2'-deoxyguanosine for G substantially decreased the capacity of the ODNs to form triple helices under physiological conditions, indicating that dzaX may be unique in its ability to enhance triple helix formation in the anti-parallel motif.

Serum, AP-1 and Ets-1 stimulate the human ets-1 promoter

The ets-1 proto-oncogene codes for a transcription factor. In order to understand how ets-1 is regulated, we have cloned its promoter. We show that the promoter is inducible by serum and expression of c-Fos and c-Jun, and it is positively auto-regulated by its gene product. A 50 base-pair sequence is sufficient to confer c-Fos + c-Jun and c-Ets-1 responsiveness to a heterologous promoter. This element contains two AP1 and one Ets-1 like motifs. Striking, AP-1 and Ets-1 motifs are found in oncogene responsive units (ORU's) of other promoters, suggesting that combining these motifs is a common mechanism for generating mitogen responsive transcription elements.

Oligonucleotide-mediated triple helix formation using an N3-protonated deoxycytidine analog exhibiting pH-independent binding within the physiological range

Triple helix formation with pyrimidine deoxyoligonucleotides for the sequence-specific recognition of DNA duplex targets suffers from a decrease in affinity as the pH of the medium increases to that of physiological fluids. A solution to this problem has been identified and entails the substitution of N6-methyl-8-oxo-2'-deoxyadenosine (M) for the 5-methyl-deoxycytosine base residues. The triple helix forming ability of an oligonucleotide consisting of thymidine and M residues is pH independent in the physiological range. Furthermore, M has been found to be superior to the previously used 5-methyldeoxycytidine and deoxyguanosine in conferring increased affinity for duplex DNA under physiological salt conditions.

An analysis of vertebrate mRNA sequences: intimations of translational control

Five structural features in mRNAs have been found to contribute to the fidelity and efficiency of initiation by eukaryotic ribosomes. Scrutiny of vertebrate cDNA sequences in light of these criteria reveals a set of transcripts--encoding oncoproteins, growth factors, transcription factors, and other regulatory proteins--that seem designed to be translated poorly. Thus, throttling at the level of translation may be a critical component of gene regulation in vertebrates. An alternative interpretation is that some (perhaps many) cDNAs with encumbered 5' noncoding sequences represent mRNA precursors, which would imply extensive regulation at a posttranscriptional step that precedes translation.

Identification and characterization of a novel enhancer for the rat neu promoter

We used chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) assays to identify and characterize cis-acting elements responsible for rat neu promoter function. Deletion of a region of the neu promoter (-504 to -312) resulted in a marked decrease in CAT activity, indicating that this promoter region corresponds to a positive cis-acting element. Using band shift assays and methylation interference analyses, we further identified a specific protein-binding sequence, AAGATAAAACC (-466 to -456), that binds a specific trans-acting factor termed RVF (for EcoRV factor on the neu promoter). The RVF-binding site is required for maximum transcriptional activity of the rat neu promoter. This same sequence is also found in the corresponding regions of both human and mouse neu promoters. Furthermore, this sequence can enhance the CAT activity driven by a minimum promoter of the thymidine kinase gene in an orientation-independent manner, and thus it behaves as an enhancer. Our results demonstrate that RVF is the major DNA-binding protein contributing to enhancer activity. In addition, Southwestern (DNA-protein) blot analysis using the RVF-binding site as a probe points to a 60-kDa polypeptide as a potential candidate for RVF.

Identification and characterization of a novel enhancer for the rat neu promoter

We used chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) assays to identify and characterize cis-acting elements responsible for rat neu promoter function. Deletion of a region of the neu promoter (-504 to -312) resulted in a marked decrease in CAT activity, indicating that this promoter region corresponds to a positive cis-acting element. Using band shift assays and methylation interference analyses, we further identified a specific protein-binding sequence, AAGATAAAACC (-466 to -456), that binds a specific trans-acting factor termed RVF (for EcoRV factor on the neu promoter). The RVF-binding site is required for maximum transcriptional activity of the rat neu promoter. This same sequence is also found in the corresponding regions of both human and mouse neu promoters. Furthermore, this sequence can enhance the CAT activity driven by a minimum promoter of the thymidine kinase gene in an orientation-independent manner, and thus it behaves as an enhancer. Our results demonstrate that RVF is the major DNA-binding protein contributing to enhancer activity. In addition, Southwestern (DNA-protein) blot analysis using the RVF-binding site as a probe points to a 60-kDa polypeptide as a potential candidate for RVF.

Multiple cis- and trans-acting elements involved in regulation of the neu gene

A 2.4-kb rat neu genomic DNA fragment that hybridized to the 5'-most coding sequence of the rat neu cDNA was cloned. S1 nuclease mapping identified multiple transcriptional initiation sites. DNA sequence analysis revealed that this fragment contained 64 bp of the first intron, 81 bp of the first exon, and the upstream noncoding sequence of the neu gene. The sequence immediately upstream of the translation start site was G + C rich (greater than 75%) and contained a consensus CCAAT sequence despite the absence of a TATA box. An Sp1-binding site was found, in addition to various sequence motifs common to the promoters of the human neu gene (erbB2), the epidermal growth factor receptor gene, and the simian virus 40 enhancer. A 2.2-kb EcoRI-Narl fragment containing sequences upstream from the 3'-most transcriptional start site was fused to the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter gene and shown to promote transcription efficiently. A series of promoter deletion constructs was made, and results from transfection and subsequent chloramphenicol acetyltransferase assays suggested the presence of multiple cis-acting elements that contributed either positively or negatively to the transcription activity. Cotransfection competition experiments using subcloned cis-acting elements confirmed the existence of trans-acting factors interacting with these DNA fragments. In addition, a gel retardation assay was performed to demonstrate the physical binding of nuclear factors to certain fragments. The results complemented those of the deletion studies and led us to conclude that transcriptional regulation of the neu proto-oncogene involves at least one negative and three positive trans-acting factors interacting with different cis-acting elements along the neu gene promoter.

Multiple cis- and trans-acting elements involved in regulation of the neu gene

A 2.4-kb rat neu genomic DNA fragment that hybridized to the 5'-most coding sequence of the rat neu cDNA was cloned. S1 nuclease mapping identified multiple transcriptional initiation sites. DNA sequence analysis revealed that this fragment contained 64 bp of the first intron, 81 bp of the first exon, and the upstream noncoding sequence of the neu gene. The sequence immediately upstream of the translation start site was G + C rich (greater than 75%) and contained a consensus CCAAT sequence despite the absence of a TATA box. An Sp1-binding site was found, in addition to various sequence motifs common to the promoters of the human neu gene (erbB2), the epidermal growth factor receptor gene, and the simian virus 40 enhancer. A 2.2-kb EcoRI-Narl fragment containing sequences upstream from the 3'-most transcriptional start site was fused to the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase reporter gene and shown to promote transcription efficiently. A series of promoter deletion constructs was made, and results from transfection and subsequent chloramphenicol acetyltransferase assays suggested the presence of multiple cis-acting elements that contributed either positively or negatively to the transcription activity. Cotransfection competition experiments using subcloned cis-acting elements confirmed the existence of trans-acting factors interacting with these DNA fragments. In addition, a gel retardation assay was performed to demonstrate the physical binding of nuclear factors to certain fragments. The results complemented those of the deletion studies and led us to conclude that transcriptional regulation of the neu proto-oncogene involves at least one negative and three positive trans-acting factors interacting with different cis-acting elements along the neu gene promoter.

Gene expression in oestrogen-dependent human breast cancer xenograft tumours

Xenograft tumours from an oestrogen-dependent human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 have been established and characterised in thymectomised, irradiated female CBA strain mice. There was evidence for selection in xenografts of a subpopulation of MCF-7 cells with an altered pattern of gene expression as measured by mRNA levels compared with the original cells in vitro. Tumorigenicity increased significantly on repeated animal passage but oestrogen dependence was retained. Following injection of the mice with oestrogen, mitosis was induced in the tumour cells with associated increases in thymidine uptake and percentage of cells in S-phase. In accord with these changes, c-myc and p53 expression were increased and TGF-beta was suppressed. Thereafter the expression of the c-myc and p53 genes fell whilst that of the TGF-beta gene was induced as the oestrogenic-stimulus declined. The oestrogen-regulated mRNA pS2 showed a biphasic response to oestrogen and levels declined as the serum oestrogen fell to undetectable levels. This xenograft system demonstrates that changes in transcription of oncogenes, growth factor and oestrogen-regulated genes can be detected in vivo in response to oestrogen. It thus provides an in vivo model for studies of the biochemical and molecular basis for therapeutic manipulation of hormone-sensitive human breast cancer.

Transcriptional repression of the neu protooncogene by the adenovirus 5 E1A gene products

Amplification/overexpression of the human neu protooncogene has been frequently found in human primary breast and ovarian cancers and is correlated with the number of axillary lymph nodes positive for metastasis in breast cancer patients. Identification of the factors controlling transcription of the neu gene is essential for understanding the mechanisms of neu gene regulation and its role in tumorigenicity. The adenovirus early region 1A (E1A) gene products are pleiotropic transcription regulators of viral and cellular genes and have been identified as a viral suppressor gene for metastasis. Here we demonstrate that transcription of neu can be strongly repressed by the E1A gene products. The 13S and 12S products of E1A gene are effective at repressing neu transcription and the transcriptional repression requires the conserved region 2 of the E1A proteins. The target for E1A repression was localized within a 139-base-pair DNA fragment in the upstream region of the neu promoter. In addition, competition experiments suggest that the sequence TGGAATG, within the 139-base-pair fragment, is an important element for the E1A-induced repression. These results indicate that E1A negatively regulates neu gene expression at the transcriptional level by means of a specific DNA element.

Pattern of expression of c-erbB-2 oncoprotein in human fetuses

The pattern of expression of the c-erbB-2 oncoprotein was investigated in whole mount preparations of 11 human fetuses by immunocytochemistry using two polyclonal antibodies, 20N and 21N. c-erbB-2 was widely expressed within all three germ layers. Expression remained relatively constant in epithelial, mesodermal and extraembryonic tissues, but varied over time during the development of the fetal skeleton. Western blotting failed to detect c-erbB-2 in normal fetal tissues but did confirm expression in a microvillous membrane preparation of placenta. c-erbB-2 expression is widespread in the human fetus and occurs at an earlier stage than epidermal growth factor receptor.

Leader length and secondary structure modulate mRNA function under conditions of stress

Simian virus 40-based plasmids that direct the synthesis of preproinsulin in cultured monkey cells were used to study the effects of mRNA structure on translational efficiency. Lengthening the leader sequence enhanced translation in this system. The enhancement was most obvious when an unstructured sequence (two, four, or eight copies of the oligonucleotide AGCTAAGTAAGTAAGTA) was inserted upstream from a region of deliberate secondary structure; the degree of enhancement was proportional to the number of copies of the inserted oligonucleotide. Lengthening the leader sequence on the 3' side of a stem-and-loop structure, in contrast, did not offset the potentially inhibitory effect of the hairpin structure. Both the facilitating effect of length and the inhibitory effect of secondary structure were demonstrated most easily under conditions of mRNA competition, which was brought about by an abrupt shift in the tonicity of the culture medium. These experiments suggest a simple structural basis for the long-recognized differential response of viral and cellular mRNAs to hypertonic stress. The fact that the translatability of structure-prone mRNAs varies with changes in the environment may also have general implications for gene expression in eucaryotic cells.

Leader length and secondary structure modulate mRNA function under conditions of stress

Simian virus 40-based plasmids that direct the synthesis of preproinsulin in cultured monkey cells were used to study the effects of mRNA structure on translational efficiency. Lengthening the leader sequence enhanced translation in this system. The enhancement was most obvious when an unstructured sequence (two, four, or eight copies of the oligonucleotide AGCTAAGTAAGTAAGTA) was inserted upstream from a region of deliberate secondary structure; the degree of enhancement was proportional to the number of copies of the inserted oligonucleotide. Lengthening the leader sequence on the 3' side of a stem-and-loop structure, in contrast, did not offset the potentially inhibitory effect of the hairpin structure. Both the facilitating effect of length and the inhibitory effect of secondary structure were demonstrated most easily under conditions of mRNA competition, which was brought about by an abrupt shift in the tonicity of the culture medium. These experiments suggest a simple structural basis for the long-recognized differential response of viral and cellular mRNAs to hypertonic stress. The fact that the translatability of structure-prone mRNAs varies with changes in the environment may also have general implications for gene expression in eucaryotic cells.