The damaging punch

Headguard use in combat sports: position statement of the Association of Ringside Physicians

Headguard use is appropriate during some combat sports activities where the risks of injury to the face and ears are elevated. Headguards are highly effective in reducing the incidence of facial lacerations in studies of amateur boxers and are just as effective in other striking sports. They should be used in scenarios - especially sparring prior to competitions - where avoidance of laceration and subsequent exposure to potential blood-borne pathogens is important. Headguards are appropriate where avoidance of auricular injury is deemed important; limited data show a marked reduction in incidence of auricular injury in wrestlers wearing headguards.Headguards should not be relied upon to reduce the risk of concussion or other traumatic brain injury. They have not been shown to prevent these types of injuries in combat sports or other sports, and human studies on the effect of headguards on concussive injury are lacking. While biomechanical studies suggest they reduce linear and rotational acceleration of the cranium, changes in athlete behavior to more risk-taking when wearing headguards may offset any risk reduction. In the absence of high-quality studies on headguard use, the Association of Ringside Physicians recommends that further research be conducted to clarify the role of headguards in all combat sports, at all ages of participation. Furthermore, in the absence of data on gender differences, policies should be standardized for men and women.

Profiling the Physical Performance of Young Boxers with Unsupervised Machine Learning: A Cross-Sectional Study

Mexico City is the location with the largest number of boxers in Mexico; in fact, it is the first city in the country to open a Technological Baccalaureate in Education and Sports Promotion with a pugilism orientation. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the physical-functional profile of applicants for admission to the baccalaureate in sports. A total of 227 young athletes (44F; 183M; 15.65 (1.79) years; 63.66 (14.98) kg; >3 years of boxing experience) participated in this study. Body mass (BM), maximal isometric handgrip (HG) strength, the height of the countermovement jump (CMJ), the velocity of straight boxing punches (PV), and the rear hand punch impact force (PIF) were measured. The young boxers were profiled using unsupervised machine learning algorithms, and the probability of superiority (ρ) was calculated as the effect size of the differences. K-Medoids clustering resulted in two sex-independent significantly different groups: Profile 1 (n = 118) and Profile 2 (n = 109). Except for BM, Profile 2 was statistically higher (p < 0.001) with a clear distinction in terms of superiority on PIF (ρ = 0.118), the PIF-to-BM ratio (ρ = 0.017), the PIF-to-HG ratio (ρ = 0.079) and the PIF-to-BM+HG ratio (ρ = 0.008). In general, strength levels explained most of the data variation; therefore, it is reasonable to recommend the implementation of tests aimed at assessing the levels of isometric and applied strength in boxing gestures. The identification of these physical-functional profiles might help to differentiate training programs during sports specialization of young boxing athletes.

Incidence Rates and Pathology Types of Boxing-Specific Injuries: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Epidemiology Studies in the 21st Century

Background

To the best of our knowledge, an evidence-based investigation into 21st-century boxing-specific injury rates and types has yet to be performed.

Purpose

To provide an overview and quantitative synthesis of the incidence rates (IRs) and pathological categorizations of boxing-specific injuries in the 21st century.

Study Design

Systematic review; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods

Following PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, we searched literature published from January 2000 to November 2021 in PubMed and the Cochrane Library systematically for qualifying epidemiology studies of organized boxing activities across the world. Two independent reviewers completed the literature review, data extraction, and quality assessment. The IRs of injuries per 1000 boxers (IR_N), per 1000 competition exposures (IR_E), and per 1000 minutes of competition (IR_C) or training (IR_T) were subsequently calculated. Single-arm meta-analyses were performed for the subgroups of different types of boxing. Sample size weighted means were calculated using a random-effects model in all studies with 95% CIs.

Results

Out of an initial 9584 articles, 14 studies were included, with most (11/14) having a moderate level of quality. The pooled IR_N in overall injuries was 223.9 (95% CI, 157.5-290.4), the IR_E was 233.3 (95% CI, 161.3-305.2), and the IR_C was 13.0 (95% CI, 8.9-17.1). In professional boxing, the IR_N (399.8), IR_E (379.8), and IR_C (23.9) were all significantly higher than in the amateur and female groups. The IR_E (76.6 vs 250.6; P < .000) and IR_C (9.2 vs 15.4; P < .000) in amateur boxing were significantly lower in studies between 2010 and 2019 than in earlier studies. For pathology categorization, the pooled frequencies were 12.3% (95% CI, 8.7%-15.9%) for concussion, 21.4% (95% CI, 14.1%-28.6%) for skin laceration, 30.2% (95% CI, 22.1%-38.2%) for soft tissue contusion, 15.3% (95% CI, 7.7%-22.9%) for sprain and muscle/ligament injury, and 11.4% (95% CI, 2.7%-20.1%) for fracture.

Conclusion

IRs of injury remain high in professional boxing, although they have decreased in the past 10 years in amateur boxing. Soft tissue contusion was the most common injury type. Better exposure measurements and epidemiologic indicators should be applied in future studies.

Registration

CRD42021289993 (PROSPERO).

Performance Level and Strike Type during Ground and Pound Determine Impact Characteristics and Net Force Variability

The evaluation of strike impact is important for optimal training, conditioning and tactical use. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate ground and pound strikes, in terms of net force variability, across genders and performance levels. Eighty-one participants, professional men (n = 8, 37 ± 6 years, 195 ± 7 cm, 113 ± 27 kg), advanced men (n = 47, 26 ± 8 years, 180 ± 7 cm, 76 ± 11 kg), and advanced women (n = 26, 21 ± 1 years, 167 ± 6 cm, 61 ± 7 kg) performed three strikes from a kneeling position into a force plate on the ground. The elbow strike resulted in the highest impulse and the palm strike in the highest peak force for all three categories. These results support the recommendation that has previously been made to teach the palm strike to beginners and advanced tactical and combat athletes. The direct punch and elbow strike net force were characterized by a double peak curve, where the first peak variability explained 70.2-84% of the net force. The second peak was pronounced in professional men during elbow strikes, which explained 16% of net force variability. The strike type determines the impact net force and its characteristics, where palm strike is typical by highest peak impact tolerance and elbow strike by double force peak with high net force impulse.

Pain Perception in Contact Sport Athletes: A Scoping Review

Contact sports athletes are regularly facing acute physical pain in part of their sport; however, the literature investigating pain perception in these athletes remains scarce. This scoping review aimed to explore the literature surrounding pain perception in contact sport athletes and to compile and understand how it is studied. The search strategy consisted of using index terms and keywords in the MEDLINE, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, CINAHL and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global search engines. Results from 11 studies revealed that a mix of team contact sports and combat sports are studied and are included under the umbrella of contact sports. These athletes are being compared with non-athletes as well as athletes from non-contact sports. The cold pressor test and the pain pressure test are the two predominant methods used to investigate physical pain. This review highlights the need to clearly define sports based on contact levels expected in play to better define the types of pain athletes are facing in their practice. Athletes' level of play as well as years of experience should also be more rigorously reported. While contact sport athletes seem to have a higher level of pain tolerance than both active controls and non-contact athletes, the methods of pain testing are not always justified and appropriate in relation to the pain induced during contact sports. Future experimental studies should use pain testing methods relevant to the pain experienced during contact sports and to better justify the rationale for the choice of these methods.

The Role of Strength on Punch Impact Force in Boxing

ABSTRACT

Beattie, K and Ruddock, AD. The role of strength on punch impact force in boxing. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-The ability to punch with a high impact force is beneficial to boxers as there is an increased likelihood of success. Punch impact force differentiates between performance level, weight class, gender, and punch type in competitive boxers. Although technique is likely to play a major role in punch impact force, the capabilities of the neuromuscular system may also be a limiting factor. This review examines the role of strength on punch impact force in amateur and professional boxers. The maximal strength qualities of the lower body, as well as explosive strength qualities of both the upper and lower body, are largely associated with punch impact force in elite amateur boxers. Specifically, elite amateur boxers who punch with "high" impact forces have greater levels of lower-body maximal strength and explosive strength when compared with elite amateurs who punch with "low" impact forces. However, the maximal strength capabilities of the upper body are not associated with punch impact force and does not differentiate between elite boxers who punch with "high" and "low" impact forces. Therefore, based off the present evidence, this review recommends that for boxers who aim to develop their punch impact force, it may be advantageous to emphasize both maximal and explosive strength development of the legs, with only an explosive strength focus in the upper body. However, it is important to highlight that, to date, there are a lack of experimental studies in both elite amateur and professional boxing. Furthermore, there is a dearth of research in female boxing. Future experimental studies are needed to infer causality regarding the role that strength training has on punch impact force in both elite amateur and professional boxers.

Analysis of the Contact Area for Three Types of Upper Limb Strikes

Performance in strike combat sports is mostly evaluated through the values of the net force, acceleration, or speed to improve efficient training procedures and/or to assess the injury. There are limited data on the upper limb striking area, which can be a useful variable for contact pressure assessment. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the contact area of the upper limb in three different strike technique positions. A total of 38 men and 38 women (n = 76, 27.3 ± 8.5 years of age, 73.9 ± 13.8 kg of body weight, 173.3 ± 8.4 cm of body height) performed a static simulation of punch with a fist, palm strike, and elbow strike, where three segments of the right upper limb were scanned. The analysis of 684 images showed a correlation (r = 0.634) between weight and punch technique position in men and significant differences in elbow strike (p < 0.001) and palm strike (p < 0.0001) between women and men. In both groups, the palm demonstrated the largest area and the elbow the smallest one. These data may be used to evaluate strike contact pressure in future studies in forensic biomechanics and assessment of injury in combat sports and self-defense.

Validity and reliability of impact forces from a commercially instrumented water-filled punching bag

Measuring striking forces is important to provide actionable insight for training and performance enhancement for combat sport athletes. Recent technology may provide a low-cost solution to an otherwise complicated kinetic assessment. The aim was to assess the reliability and validity of a water-filled training bag and integrated sensor for measuring peak impact force. A pendulum design was used to swing a range of known mass loads (kettlebells) from various heights to impact a stationary 21″ Aqua Training Bag®. For each condition, the momentum of the mass at impact was calculated and compared with the measured impact force from a pressure sensor affixed to the side of the water-filled bag. Peak impact force was strongly associated with calculated momentum (r(18) = 0.96 [0.91, 0.99], p < 0.001), with a high degree of shared variance (92.7%, F(1,18) = 229.9, p < 0.001). There was almost perfect agreement for all reliability loading conditions (ICC = 0.995–0.999) and typical error was ≤ 5% (CV = 3.3–5.1). Impact kinetics from the sensor appear to be reliable and valid and may be integrated into practice and research. However, the utility of the instrumented bag for striking kinetics of athletes, and thus practical utility when used in the field, requires further investigation.

World Heavyweight Championship boxing: The past 30+ years of the male division

Data from the past 30+ years of the male boxing World Heavyweight Championship (n = 182 bouts) was obtained. The USA were the most represented and produced more champions than any other nation, followed by the UK, Ukraine and Russia. Denmark (100%), Ukraine (85.4%) and the UK (67.3%) produced the greatest ‘success rates’ in World Heavyweight Championship contests. Where possible, comparisons between bout winners and losers were also made. Winners were significantly taller (p < 0.001, d = 0.35) and had a greater reach (p = 0.003, d = 0.23) when compared to losers. Championship bouts were settled by the following methods: a form of knockout (101), points decision (57), retirement (14), draw (3), disqualification (3), technical decision (1), whilst 3 no contests were omitted from the analysis. Total punches thrown and landed, and jabs and power punches thrown and landed were consistently significantly greater (p < 0.005, d = 0.27–0.73) in winners, compared to losers. Winners were more accurate compared to their losing counterparts by ~ 8 percentage points. The data presented in the present study clearly show some anthropometric advantages of championship bout winners, compared to their unsuccessful counterparts, and that winners are more active and accurate when compared to losers. The punch output data, albeit very basic, may be useful in informing tactical strategy and preparation of heavyweight prospects. Likewise, the data in the present study may be an interesting resource for professional boxing enthusiasts. Future research should seek to replicate the analysis in the present study across other weight divisions to explore any potential differences between weight classes. Additionally, extending the analysis to female boxing may provide interesting comparisons.

Validation of a Novel Boxing Monitoring System to Detect and Analyse the Centre of Pressure Movement on the Boxer's Fist

The examination of force distribution and centre of pressure (CoP) displacement is a common method to analyse motion, load, and load distribution in biomechanical research. In contrast to gait analysis, the force progression in boxing punches is a new field of investigation. The centre of pressure displacement and distribution of forces on the surface of the fist during a boxing punch is of great interest and crucial to understanding the effect of the punch on the biological structures of the hand as well as the technical biomechanical aspects of the punching action. This paper presents a new method to display the CoP progression on the boxer’s fist Therefore, this study presents the validation of the developed novel boxing monitoring system in terms of CoP displacement. In addition, the CoP progression of different punching techniques in boxing is analysed on the athlete’s fist. The accuracy of the examination method of the CoP course was validated against the gold standard of a Kistler force plate. High correlations were detected between the developed sensor system and the force plate CoP with a Pearson correlation coefficient ranging from 0.93 to 0.97. The information obtained throughout the experimental study is of great importance in order to gain further knowledge into the technical execution of boxing punches as well as to provide a novel measuring method for determining CoP on the surface of the fist, to improve the understanding of the etiology of boxing-related hand injuries.

Application of a Validated Innovative Smart Wearable for Performance Analysis by Experienced and Non-Experienced Athletes in Boxing

An athlete's sporting performance depends to a large extent on the technical execution of the athletic motion in order to achieve maximum effectiveness in physical performance. Performance analysis provides an important means of classifying and quantifying athletic prowess in terms of the significant performance aspects of the sport to provide objective feedback. This study aimed to analyze technical execution in terms of punch trajectory, force, velocity and time, considering the expert-novice paradigm by investigating the technical execution of 31 experienced and non-experienced athletes for the four main punching techniques of the cross, jab, uppercut and hook strike. The kinetic and kinematic data were collected by means of a boxing monitoring system developed and validated for in-field use. The research revealed significant correlation for executed punching trajectory and punch force in intragroup comparison and significant differences in intergroup comparison. No significant differences were detected for punch velocity in either inter- or intra-group paradigms. This study, through use of the sensor system, aligns with the results of existing publications conducted in laboratory conditions, in the assessment of punch force, punch speed and punch time and thus extends the state of research by use of a smart wearable in field method.

Validation of a Unique Boxing Monitoring System

Much development work and scientific research has been conducted in recent years in the field of detecting human activity and the measurement of biomechanical performance parameters using portable sensor technologies, so-called wearable systems. Despite the fact that boxers participating in one of the most vigorous and complex disciplines of all sports, it is one of the disciplines where no noteworthy, advanced performance analytic tools are used for training or for competition purposes worldwide. This research aimed to develop and validate a comprehensive punch performance sensor system for the measurement and analysis of biomechanical parameters in the sport of boxing. A comprehensive validation study on linear regression was conducted following the development of the sensor system, between the gold standard of a Kistler force plate and Vicon motion capture system, to compare sensor-derived measurements with the gold standard-derived measurements. The developed sensor system demonstrated high accuracies ranging from R² = 0.97 to R² = 0.99 for punch force, acceleration, velocity and punch-time data. The validation experiments conducted demonstrated the significant accuracy of the sensor-derived measurements for predicting boxing-specific biomechanical movement parameters while punching in field use. Thus, this paper presents a unique sensor system for comprehensive measurements of biomechanical parameters using the developed mobile measurement system in the field of combat sports

Stroke and Athletes: A Scoping Review

Stroke (i.e., cerebrovascular accident) affects one in 10,000 people between the ages of 14 and 45; however, very little is known about the frequency and type of stroke that occurs in athletes. The risk of injury to the neurovascular structures may depend on the type of sport involvement, although, sport-specific incidence rates are not known. Therefore, the goal of our scoping review was to provide some guidance to better inform the development of a context-fit stroke model by summarizing studies on a broad research topic related to stroke or cerebrovascular accident in sport based on a strict athlete definition. We used the guidance of Arksey and O’Malley’s five-stage-process for a scoping review. Databases included MEDLINE(R) Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process & Other Non- Indexed Citations, Ovid MEDLINE(R) Daily and Ovid MEDLINE(R), and Embase (OVID databases); CINAHL Plus with Full Text, SportDiscus with Full Text (Ebsco databases); and Scopus. Publication dates were from 1979–2020 across nine different countries resulting in 39 individual cases of stroke with an athlete age range of 14–56 years (95% male). The major inciting event(s) prior to stroke onset were headaches (38.4%), head trauma (30.7%), and neck injury and/or vertebral artery dissection (20.5%). Several sporting activities were represented with American football as the most prevalent (30.7%). In summary, we found that sports with an aspect of impact, collision, or microtrauma can lead to subsequent stroke. These sport-related traumatic events were often difficult to diagnose because of the longer interval before ischemia occurred. Therefore, health care providers should be particularly attuned to the possibility of stroke when evaluating athletes presenting with or without neurological deficit.

Brain trauma characteristics for lightweight and heavyweight fighters in professional mixed martial arts

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a sport where the fighters are at high risk of brain trauma, with characteristics, such as the frequency, magnitude, and interval of head impacts influencing the risk of developing short- and long-term negative brain health outcomes. These characteristics may be influenced by weight class as they may have unique fighting styles. The purpose of this research was to compare frequency, magnitude, and interval of head impacts between lightweight and heavyweight fighters in professional MMA. Frequency, interval, event type, velocity, and location of head impacts were documented for 60 fighters from 15 Lightweight and 15 Heavyweight professional MMA fights. Head impact reconstructions of these events were performed using physical and finite element modelling methods to determine the strain in the brain tissues. The results found that LW and HW fighters sustained similar head impact frequencies and intervals. The LW fighters sustained a significantly higher frequency of very low and high magnitude impacts to the head from punches; HW a larger frequency of high category strains from elbow strikes. These brain trauma profiles reflect different fight strategies and may inform methods to manage and mitigate the long-term effects of repetitive impacts to the head.

Upper Limb Strikes Reactive Forces in Mix Martial Art Athletes during Ground and Pound Tactics

Athletes of mixed martial arts use a ground and pound strategy with the strikes in the dominant ground position. The aim of this study was to compare the average peak force (F_peak) among three punches and to estimate the probability of achieving a skull bone fracture force of 5.1 kN for each type of strike in male and female athletes. A total of 60 males and 31 females (26 ± 8 years, 75 ± 20 kg, 177 ± 11 cm) practicing professional self-defense at the advanced and professional levels performed 15 strikes on a force plate. The analyses of 1360 trials showed significant differences among the strikes F_peak in females (p < 0.01) and males (p < 0.01). Straight punches had lower F_peak than palm strikes and elbow strikes in both genders, and palm strikes had higher F_peak than elbow strikes in females. No difference was observed between palm strikes and elbow strikes in males (p = 0.09). The ground and pound strikes resulted in higher impacts than previously reported strikes in the standing position. Male athletes can deliver a F_peak above 5.1 kN with a probability of 36% with elbow and palm strikes. Such forces can cause head injury; therefore, the use of these strikes in competition should be carefully considered.

Force and velocity of impact during upper limb strikes in combat sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Upper limb strikes are frequent movements in combat sports and self-defence systems, in which numerous types of strikes can be applied. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to summarise and compare the mechanical consequences of different types of upper limb strikes among various sports disciplines. A literature search was conducted in Scopus and Web of Science, with the following search formula: (impact force) AND (strike) AND (taekwondo) OR (karate) OR (self-defence) OR (combat sport) OR (boxing). The search resulted in 28 studies describing 9 kinds of strikes, where straight punches and reverse punches have larger mean impact forces than the kung fu punch (p < 0.001) and that a palm strike had a lower strike velocity (p < 0.001) than a reverse punch, straight punch, or junzuki punch. The highest recorded mean force was found for a straight punch (3427 N). Athletes in mixed martial arts, trainers of self-defence or tactical coaches can expect that straight punches and reverse punches should be performed at high speeds (over 10 m/s) and provide similar or larger impacts than other upper limb strikes; therefore, those punches should favour a combat athlete to win a competition or succeed in self-defence.

Blunt Assault: ‘Million Dollar Baby’

Contrasting reports exist in the literature regarding the management of patients with blunt assault to the head, neck, and face and more importantly for clearing the cervical spine. The purpose of our study was to determine the risk of cervical spine injuries after blunt assault to the head, neck, and face and its association with other injuries. We performed a retrospective case review of all blunt assault trauma admissions to the head, neck, and face at our Level I trauma center. We identified all patients who were assaulted with hands and feet and blunt instruments. A total of 3286 patients with blunt assault to the head, neck, and face were identified of whom 11 (0.003%) were found to have a cervical spine fracture or cervical spine subluxation. None of the patients had a cervical spinal cord injury. The 11 patients composed our study population with a mean age of 39 ± 7.8 years, 100 per cent were male, and the mean Injury Severity Score was 12 ± 7.9. Five (45%) patients required surgery for stabilization of the cervical spine. Mortality was reported in only one patient who had a C7 transverse process fracture. Cervical spine injury after blunt assault is rare but does occur and encompasses significant injuries requiring surgical intervention. However, these injuries are the result of direct blows to the cervical spine and we suggest that assaulted patients with no direct trauma to the neck do not require an exhaustive evaluation of the cervical spine.

Formation, structure, and function of extra-skeletal bones in mammals

This review describes the formation, structure, and function of bony compartments in antlers, horns, ossicones, osteoderm and the os penis/os clitoris (collectively referred to herein as AHOOO structures) in extant mammals. AHOOOs are extra-skeletal bones that originate from subcutaneous (dermal) tissues in a wide variety of mammals, and this review elaborates on the co-development of the bone and skin in these structures. During foetal stages, primordial cells for the bony compartments arise in subcutaneous tissues. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition is assumed to play a key role in the differentiation of bone, cartilage, skin and other tissues in AHOOO structures. AHOOO ossification takes place after skeletal bone formation, and may depend on sexual maturity. Skin keratinization occurs in tandem with ossification and may be under the control of androgens. Both endochondral and intramembranous ossification participate in bony compartment formation. There is variation in gradients of density in different AHOOO structures. These gradients, which vary according to function and species, primarily reduce mechanical stress. Anchorage of AHOOOs to their surrounding tissues fortifies these structures and is accomplished by bone-bone fusion and Sharpey fibres. The presence of the integument is essential for the protection and function of the bony compartments. Three major functions can be attributed to AHOOOs: mechanical, visual, and thermoregulatory. This review provides the first extensive comparative description of the skeletal and integumentary systems of AHOOOs in a variety of mammals.

Mechanism of Coup and Contrecoup Injuries Induced by a Knock-Out Punch

Primary Objective: The interaction of cerebrospinal fluid with the brain parenchyma in an impact scenario is studied. Research Design: A computational fluid-structure interaction model is used to simulate the interaction of cerebrospinal fluid with a comprehensive brain model. Methods and Procedures: The method of smoothed particle hydrodynamics is used to simulate the fluid flow, induced by the impact, simultaneously with finite element analysis to solve the large deformations in the brain model. Main Outcomes and Results: Mechanism of injury resulting in concussion is demonstrated. The locations with the highest stress values on the brain parenchyma are shown. Conclusions: Our simulations found that the damage to the brain resulting from the contrecoup injury is more severe than that resulting from the coup injury. Additionally, we show that the contrecoup injury does not always appear on the side opposite from where impact occurs.

Rare Case of Bilateral Cerebellar Hemorrhage in a Male Boxer

The sport of boxing carries with it the risk of brain injury with acute and chronic neurological injuries such has contusion, concussion and intracranial bleeding has been reported. The force sustained from a boxing blow can be as powerful as being hit with a 6-kg wooden mallet striking at 20 mph. Bilateral cerebellar hemorrhage secondary to trauma is a rare entity that has not been reported in the literature previously. One can only speculate as to how a boxer could potentially develop a cerebellar bleed. Regardless of whether a very powerful punch or the act of falling back and hitting the occipital region directly on the floor, it is very likely that a predisposing factor exist. We present you a rare case of a 26 year-old male boxer who was knocked out in a boxing match and was noted to have acute parenchymal and subarachnoid hemorrhage bilaterally in the cerebellar hemispheres. Our report highlights the need to consider cerebellar bleed in boxers who present after ataxia after boxing/knocked out.

Kinematic analysis of proximal-to-distal and simultaneous motion sequencing of straight punches

Consecutive proximal-to-distal sequencing of motion is considered to be integral for generating high velocity of distal segments in many sports. Simultaneous usage of proximal and distal segments as seen in martial arts is by far less well investigated. Therefore, the aim of the study was to characterise and differentiate the concepts of consecutive (CSM) and simultaneous (SSM) sequence of motion in straight reverse punches as practised in Practical Wing Chun. Four experienced martial artists succeeded an eligibility test for technical proficiency in both concepts and performed a total number of 20 straight punches per concept. Eight MX13 Vicon cameras (250 fps) and Visual3D were used for motion capture and analyses. Both motion concepts showed proximal-to-distal sequencing of maximal joint velocities but, in SSM, this was coupled with simultaneous initiation. Key characteristics were: high pelvis momentum and backswing of shoulder and elbow (CSM); and importance of shoulder involvement (SSM). Different ranges of motion, timing aspects and achieved maximal angular velocities distinguished both concepts, which led to differences (p < 0.05) in fist velocity at contact, execution time, distance and horizontal shift of the centre of mass. Proper application of both concepts depends on the environmental setting, situational requirements and individual fighting style.

Concurrent Validity and Reliability of a Linear Positional Transducer and an Accelerometer to Measure Punch Characteristics

Lambert, C, Beck, BR, and Weeks, BK. Concurrent validity and reliability of a linear positional transducer and an accelerometer to measure punch characteristics. J Strength Cond Res 32(3): 675-680, 2018-Punch speed is an important factor in the sport of boxing, and its measurement has important implications for monitoring training progression and outcomes. The aim of the current study was to establish the concurrent validity and reliability of a linear positional transducer and an accelerometer for the quantification of punch characteristics in untrained adults. Men and women aged 18-30 years with no previous boxing experience and no upper-limb musculoskeletal injuries were recruited. Participants performed 6 straight right punches; 3 at a self-determined 50% effort; and 3 at maximum effort. An accelerometer (Crossbow) and a linear positional transducer (GymAware) were used to examine peak velocity and acceleration of each punch. Validity was examined using Pearson's correlation analyses and by calculating mean bias and limits of agreement between measures from each device, whereas reliability was established using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Forty-four healthy young adults (28M and 16F; age 22.2 ± 2.9 years) participated. Moderate-to-strong positive associations were observed for both devices at 50% effort for velocity (r = 0.572-0.696) and acceleration (r = 0.867-0.921) and at maximum effort for velocity (r = 0.748-0.781) and acceleration (r = 0.897-0.946). High levels of reliability were observed with maximum punches for both devices (ICC = 0.922-0.981). Overall, moderate-strong measurement validity and reliability for punch speed was observed between the accelerometer and GymAware. Thus, the GymAware linear positional transducer is an acceptable measurement tool for the quantification of punch speed for straight punches in untrained adults.

Traumatic brain injuries

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are clinically grouped by severity: mild, moderate and severe. Mild TBI (the least severe form) is synonymous with concussion and is typically caused by blunt non-penetrating head trauma. The trauma causes stretching and tearing of axons, which leads to diffuse axonal injury - the best-studied pathogenetic mechanism of this disorder. However, mild TBI is defined on clinical grounds and no well-validated imaging or fluid biomarkers to determine the presence of neuronal damage in patients with mild TBI is available. Most patients with mild TBI will recover quickly, but others report persistent symptoms, called post-concussive syndrome, the underlying pathophysiology of which is largely unknown. Repeated concussive and subconcussive head injuries have been linked to the neurodegenerative condition chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which has been reported post-mortem in contact sports athletes and soldiers exposed to blasts. Insights from severe injuries and CTE plausibly shed light on the underlying cellular and molecular processes involved in mild TBI. MRI techniques and blood tests for axonal proteins to identify and grade axonal injury, in addition to PET for tau pathology, show promise as tools to explore CTE pathophysiology in longitudinal clinical studies, and might be developed into diagnostic tools for CTE. Given that CTE is attributed to repeated head trauma, prevention might be possible through rule changes by sports organizations and legislators.

Determining brain fitness to fight: Has the time come?

Professional boxing is associated with a risk of chronic neurological injury, with up to 20-50% of former boxers exhibiting symptoms of chronic brain injury. Chronic traumatic brain injury encompasses a spectrum of disorders that are associated with long-term consequences of brain injury and remains the most difficult safety challenge in modern-day boxing. Despite these concerns, traditional guidelines used for return to sport participation after concussion are inconsistently applied in boxing. Furthermore, few athletic commissions require either formal consultation with a neurological specialist (i.e. neurologist, neurosurgeon, or neuropsychologist) or formal neuropsychological testing prior to return to fight. In order to protect the health of boxers and maintain the long-term viability of a sport associated with exposure to repetitive head trauma, we propose a set of specific requirements for brain safety that all state athletic commissions would implement.

Amateur boxing: physical and physiological attributes

Boxing is one of the oldest combat sports. The aim of the current review is to critically analyze the amateur boxer's physical and physiological characteristics and to provide practical recommendations for training as well as new areas of scientific research. High-level male and female boxers show a propensity for low body fat levels. Although studies on boxer somatotypes are limited, the available information shows that elite-level male boxers are characterized by a higher proportion of mesomorphy with a well-developed muscle mass and a low body fat level. To help support the overall metabolic demands of a boxing match and to accelerate the recovery process between rounds, athletes of both sexes require a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness. International boxers show a high peak and mean anaerobic power output. Muscle strength in both the upper and lower limbs is paramount for a fighter's victory and is one of the keys to success in boxing. As boxing punches are brief actions and very dynamic, high-level boxing performance requires well-developed muscle power in both the upper and lower limbs. Albeit limited, the available studies reveal that isometric strength is linked to high-level boxing performance. Future investigations into the physical and physiological attributes of boxers are required to enrich the current data set and to help create a suitable training program.

Acute and chronic traumatic encephalopathies: pathogenesis and biomarkers

Over the past decade, public awareness of the long-term pathological consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI) has increased. Such awareness has been stimulated mainly by reports of progressive neurological dysfunction in athletes exposed to repetitive concussions in high-impact sports such as boxing and American football, and by the rising number of TBIs in war veterans who are now more likely to survive explosive blasts owing to improved treatment. Moreover, the entity of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)--which is marked by prominent neuropsychiatric features including dementia, parkinsonism, depression, agitation, psychosis, and aggression--has become increasingly recognized as a potential late outcome of repetitive TBI. Annually, about 1% of the population in developed countries experiences a clinically relevant TBI. The goal of this Review is to provide an overview of the latest understanding of CTE pathophysiology, and to delineate the key issues that are challenging clinical and research communities, such as accurate quantification of the risk of CTE, and development of reliable biomarkers for single-incident TBI and CTE.

Effect of olympic weight category on performance in the roundhouse kick to the head in taekwondo

In taekwondo, kick performance is generally measured using impact force and time. This study aimed to analyse performance in the roundhouse kick to the head according to execution distance between and within Olympic weight categories. The participants were 36 male athletes divided into three categories: featherweight (n = 10), welterweight (n = 15) and heavyweight (n = 11). Our results show that taekwondo athletes in all weight categories generate a similar relative impact force. However, the results indicate that weight has a large impact on kick performance, particularly in relation to total response time.

The neuropathology and neurobiology of traumatic brain injury

The acute and long-term consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI) have received increased attention in recent years. In this Review, we discuss the neuropathology and neural mechanisms associated with TBI, drawing on findings from sports-induced TBI in athletes, in whom acute TBI damages axons and elicits both regenerative and degenerative tissue responses in the brain and in whom repeated concussions may initiate a long-term neurodegenerative process called dementia pugilistica or chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). We also consider how the neuropathology and neurobiology of CTE in many ways resembles other neurodegenerative illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease, particularly with respect to mismetabolism and aggregation of tau, β-amyloid, and TDP-43. Finally, we explore how translational research in animal models of acceleration/deceleration types of injury relevant for concussion together with clinical studies employing imaging and biochemical markers may further elucidate the neurobiology of TBI and CTE.

Single maximal versus combination punch kinematics

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of punch type (Jab, Cross, Lead Hook and Reverse Hook) and punch modality (Single maximal, 'In-synch' and 'Out of synch' combination) on punch speed and delivery time. Ten competition-standard volunteers performed punches with markers placed on their anatomical landmarks for 3D motion capture with an eight-camera optoelectronic system. Speed and duration between key moments were computed. There were significant differences in contact speed between punch types (F(2,18,84.87) = 105.76, p = 0.001) with Lead and Reverse Hooks developing greater speed than Jab and Cross. There were significant differences in contact speed between punch modalities (F(2,64,102.87) = 23.52, p = 0.001) with the Single maximal (M+/- SD: 9.26 +/- 2.09 m/s) higher than 'Out of synch' (7.49 +/- 2.32 m/s), 'In-synch' left (8.01 +/- 2.35 m/s) or right lead (7.97 +/- 2.53 m/s). Delivery times were significantly lower for Jab and Cross than Hook. Times were significantly lower 'In-synch' than a Single maximal or 'Out of synch' combination mode. It is concluded that a defender may have more evasion-time than previously reported. This research could be of use to performers and coaches when considering training preparations.

Boxing-related head injuries

Fatalities in boxing are most often due to traumatic brain injury that occurs in the ring. In the past 30 years, significant improvements in ringside and medical equipment, safety, and regulations have resulted in a dramatic reduction in the fatality rate. Nonetheless, the rate of boxing-related head injuries, particularly concussions, remains unknown, due in large part to its variability in clinical presentation. Furthermore, the significance of repeat concussions sustained when boxing is just now being understood. In this article, we identify the clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, and management of boxing-related head injuries, and discuss preventive strategies to reduce head injuries sustained by boxers.

Mortality resulting from head injury in professional boxing: case report

BACKGROUND

The majority of boxing-related fatalities result from traumatic brain injury. Biomechanical forces in boxing result in rotational acceleration with resultant subdural hematoma and diffuse axonal injury.

OBJECTIVE

Given the inherent risk and the ongoing criticism boxing has received, we evaluated mortalities associated with professional boxing.

METHODS

We used the Velazquez Fatality Collection of boxing injuries and supplementary sources to analyze mortality from 1950 to 2007. Variables evaluated included age at time of death, association with knockout or other outcome of match, rounds fought, weight class, location of fight, and location of preterminal event.

RESULTS

There were 339 mortalities between 1950 and 2007 (mean age, 24 +/- 3.8 years); 64% were associated with knockout and 15% with technical knockout. A higher percentage occurred in the lower weight classes. The preterminal event occurred in the ring (61%), in the locker room (17%), and outside the arena (22%). We evaluated for significant changes after 1983 when championship bouts were reduced from 15 to 12 rounds.

CONCLUSION

There was a significant decline in mortality after 1983. We found no significant variables to support that this decline is related to a reduction in rounds. Rather, we hypothesize the decline to be the result of a reduction in exposure to repetitive head trauma (shorter careers and fewer fights), along with increased medical oversight and stricter safety regulations. Increased efforts should be made to improve medical supervision of boxers. Mandatory central nervous system imaging after a knockout could lead to a significant reduction in associated mortality.

Neurologic injuries in boxing and other combat sports

Many sports have neurologic injury from incidental head contact; however, combat sports allow head contact, and a potential exists for acute and chronic neurologic injuries. Although each combat sport differs in which regions of the body can be used for contact, they are similar in competitor exposure time. Their acute injury rates are similar; thus their injuries can appropriately be considered together. Injuries of all types occur in combat sports, with injuries in between one fifth to one half of all fights in boxing, karate, and tae kwon do. Most boxing injuries are to the head and neck region. In other combat sports, the head and neck region are the second (after the lower limbs) or the first most common injury site.

Examining the relationship between purposeful heading in soccer and computerized neuropsychological test performance

The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between purposeful heading in soccer and neuropsychological test performance. Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics throughput scores were derived on seven subset variables that measure a variety of neurocognitive abilities. Simple Spearman's rank correlations were calculated between headers per game (HPG) and the criterion variables. Interestingly, math processing speed (Spearman's rho = .160) and continuous performance test #2 (rho = .124) had small but significant correlations; both showed improvement in performance pre- to postseason. There were no significant correlations between HPG and the other five variables. This study found no detrimental relationship between the number of purposeful headers and the neurocognitive measures in this population.

The Role of Effective Mass and Hand Speed in the Performance of Kung Fu Athletes Compared with Nonpractitioners

The main goal of this article is to quantify the contribution of effective mass (me) and hand-speed (shi) on the palm strike performance of kung fu athletes (kung fu group) compared with nonpractitioners (control group). All subjects were asked to strike a basketball. Hand and ball speed (sbf) were determined by high-speed video analysis. The value for me was determined by an equation that does not depend upon post-impact measurement of the hand speed. The results show that kung fu athletes had greater shi (6.67 [SD 1.42] m/s), p = 0.042), higher me (2.62 [SD 0.33] kg, p = 0.004), and greater sbf (9.00 [SD 1.89] m/s), p = 0.004) than the nonpractitioners (5.04 [SD 0.57] m/s, 1.33 [SD 0.19] kg, and 5.72 [SD 0.44] m/s, respectively). Comparing the average values obtained for me and hand and forearm mass (m), it was found that for the control group me is statistically equal to m (p = 0.917), whereas for the kung fu group me is significant greater than m (p = 0.003). It is suggested that for impacts against heavier objects, the effective mass would be the main factor to distinguish a martial artstrained from an untrained subject.