Prescription opioid injection and risk of hepatitis C in relation to traditional drugs of misuse in a prospective cohort of street youth

Infectious Diseases Among People Experiencing Homelessness: A Systematic Review of the Literature in the United States and Canada, 2003-2022

Homelessness increases the risk of acquiring an infectious disease. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to identify quantitative data related to infectious diseases and homelessness. We searched Google Scholar, PubMed, and SCOPUS for quantitative literature published from January 2003 through December 2022 in English from the United States and Canada. We excluded literature on vaccine-preventable diseases and HIV because these diseases were recently reviewed. Of the 250 articles that met inclusion criteria, more than half were on hepatitis C virus or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Other articles were on COVID-19, respiratory syncytial virus, Staphylococcus aureus, group A Streptococcus, mpox (formerly monkeypox), 5 sexually transmitted infections, and gastrointestinal or vectorborne pathogens. Most studies showed higher prevalence, incidence, or measures of risk for infectious diseases among people experiencing homelessness as compared with people who are housed or the general population. Although having increased published data that quantify the infectious disease risks of homelessness is encouraging, many pathogens that are known to affect people globally who are not housed have not been evaluated in the United States or Canada. Future studies should focus on additional pathogens and factors leading to a disproportionately high incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases among people experiencing homelessness.

Screening of Occult Hepatitis B and C Virus Infection in Working Children, Tehran, Iran

Background: Working children are susceptible to infection with various infectious microorganisms. Unfortunately, the difficulties of working children are growing at a remarkable speed worldwide. Objectives: The aim of this research was to determine the prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, as well as to evaluate the level of anemia, calcium, and phosphorus in working children. Methods: This cross-sectional research was performed on 370 Iranian and Afghan working children from February 2018 to May 2019. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), hepatitis B surface antibody (HBsAb), hepatitis B core antibody (HBcAb), and anti-HCV Ab were evaluated using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore, HCV-RNA and genomic HBV-DNA in the plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) specimens of the participants were investigated. The restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method was used to determine the genotype of HCV, and sequencing was performed to confirm. Results: The mean age of the participants was 10.1 ± 2.1 years (range, 6 - 15 years), and 229 (61.9%) were male. None of the studied children had any detectable HBV-DNA in the plasma and PBMC. The HCV genome was not detected in the plasma of the children, but HCV-RNA was assessed in the PBMC sample of 1 child (0.3%). Therefore, one of the children had occult HCV infection (OCI). The genotype of HCV in this child was subtype 1a. Furthermore, HBsAb was detected in Iranian (41.5%) and Afghan children (40.0%), and 2 (0.54%) of the working children were HBsAg positive. In 3 participants (0.8%), a positive HBcAb test result was noted. Conclusions: The prevalence of HCV and HBV infection in working children in Iran is extremely rare. However, there is a possibility of the presence of OCI in these children.

Effect of HCV or HIV infection on mortality among hospitalized persons who used opioids, 2000-2010

Mortality due to opioid misuse and overdose has increased substantially in the United States over the past two decades. The study objective was to describe the causes of death among persons with opioid-related hospitalizations and examine survival by Hepatitis C virus (HCV) or HIV. Opioid-related hospitalization records in Pennsylvania from 2000 to 2010 were linked to death registry files to assess cause of death, and survival from first hospital discharge date to death date, or December 31, 2010. Accelerated failure time models were used to compare survival between persons with and without HCV or HIV diagnoses. Among the 136,416 individuals with an opioid-related hospitalization, 13.0% died over a median of 56 months of follow-up; the most common causes of death were circulatory diseases (26.4%) and drug overdose (23.5%). There were 27,122 (19.9%) and 3662 (2.7%) persons who had an HCV and HIV diagnosis, respectively. Among patients aged ≥20 years, those with HCV had shorter survival time compared to those without HCV, with discrepancies more pronounced at older ages. Patients with HIV also had shorter survival time (time ratio: 0.29 [95% CI: 0.26, 0.34]) compared to without HIV. These findings show that in a cohort of patients with opioid-related hospitalizations, those with HCV or HIV diagnoses have shorter survival. This has public health implications, providing further evidence that medical providers should educate patients who use opioids about the risks of HCV and HIV infection and focus prevention and treatment to decrease mortality among patients hospitalized for opioid use.

Health harms of non-medical prescription opioid use: A systematic review

ISSUES

Non-medical prescription opioid use (NMPOU) contributes substantially to the global burden of morbidity. However, no systematic assessment of the scientific literature on the associations between NMPOU and health outcomes has yet been undertaken.

APPROACH

We undertook a systematic review evaluating health outcomes related to NMPOU based on ICD-10 clinical domains. We searched 13 electronic databases for original research articles until 1 July 2021. We employed an adaptation of the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine 'Levels of Evidence' scale to assess study quality.

KEY FINDINGS

Overall, 182 studies were included. The evidence base was largest on the association between NMPOU and mental and behavioural disorders; 71% (129) studies reported on these outcomes. Less evidence exists on the association of NMPOU with infectious disease outcomes (26; 14%), and on external causes of morbidity and mortality, with 13 (7%) studies assessing its association with intentional self-harm and 1 study assessing its association with assault (<1%).

IMPLICATIONS

A large body of evidence has identified associations between NMPOU and opioid use disorder as well as on fatal and non-fatal overdose. We found equivocal evidence on the association between NMPOU and the acquisition of HIV, hepatitis C and other infectious diseases. We identified weak evidence regarding the potential association between NMPOU and intentional self-harm, suicidal ideation and assault.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Findings may inform the prevention of harms associated with NMPOU, although higher-quality research is needed to characterise the association between NMPOU and the full spectrum of physical and mental health disorders.

Association Between Prescription Opioid Therapy for Noncancer Pain and Hepatitis C Virus Seroconversion

IMPORTANCE

Initiation of injection drug use may be more frequent among people dispensed prescription opioid therapy for noncancer pain, potentially increasing the risk of hepatitis C virus (HCV) acquisition.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the association between medically dispensed long-term prescription opioid therapy for noncancer pain and HCV seroconversion among individuals who were initially injection drug use-naive.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A population-based, retrospective cohort study of individuals tested for HCV in British Columbia, Canada, with linkage to outpatient pharmacy dispensations, was conducted. Individuals with an initial HCV-negative test result followed by 1 additional test between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2017, and who had no history of substance use at baseline (first HCV-negative test), were included. Participants were followed up from baseline to the last HCV-negative test or estimated date of seroconversion (midpoint between HCV-positive and the preceding HCV-negative test).

EXPOSURES

Episodes of prescription opioid use for noncancer pain were defined as acute (<90 days) or long-term (≥90 days). Prescription opioid exposure status (long-term vs prescription opioid-naive/acute) was treated as time-varying in survival analyses. In secondary analyses, long-term exposure was stratified by intensity of use (chronic vs. episodic) and by average daily dose in morphine equivalents (MEQ).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Multivariable Cox regression models were used to assess the association between time-varying prescription opioid status and HCV seroconversion.

RESULTS

A total of 382 478 individuals who had more than 1 HCV test were included, of whom more than half were female (224 373 [58.7%]), born before 1974 (201 944 [52.8%]), and younger than 35 years at baseline (196 298 [53.9%]). Participants were followed up for 2 057 668 person-years and 1947 HCV seroconversions occurred. Of the participants, 41 755 people (10.9%) were exposed to long-term prescription opioid therapy at baseline or during follow-up. The HCV seroconversion rate per 1000 person-years was 0.8 among the individuals who were prescription opioid-naive/acute (1489 of 1947 [76.5%] seroconversions; 0.4% seroconverted within 5 years) and 2.1 with long-term prescription opioid therapy (458 of 1947 [23.5%] seroconversions; 1.1% seroconverted within 5 years). In multivariable analysis, exposure to long-term prescription opioid therapy was associated with a 3.2-fold (95% CI, 2.9-3.6) higher risk of HCV seroconversion (vs prescription opioid-naive/acute). In separate Cox models, long-term chronic use was associated with a 4.7-fold higher risk of HCV seroconversion (vs naive/acute use 95% CI, 3.9-5.8), and long-term higher-dose use (≥90 MEQ) was associated with a 5.1-fold higher risk (vs naive/acute use 95% CI, 3.7-7.1).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cohort study of people with more than 1 HCV test, long-term prescription opioid therapy for noncancer pain was associated with a higher risk of HCV seroconversion among individuals who were injection drug use-naive at baseline or at prescription opioid initiation. These results suggest injection drug use initiation risk is higher among people dispensed long-term therapy and may be useful for informing approaches to identify and prevent HCV infection. These findings should not be used to justify abrupt discontinuation of long-term therapy, which could increase risk of harms.

Drugs of Abuse and Their Impact on Viral Pathogenesis

Commonly misused substances such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and opioids suppress immune responses and may impact viral pathogenesis. In recent years, illicit use of opioids has fueled outbreaks of several viral pathogens, including the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). This review focuses on the myriad of mechanisms by which drugs of abuse impact viral replication and disease progression. Virus–drug interactions can accelerate viral disease progression and lead to increased risk of virus transmission.

Opioid agonist therapy trajectories among street entrenched youth in the context of a public health crisis

North America is in the midst of an overdose crisis that is having devastating effects among street entrenched youth (<30 years of age). Opioid agonist therapy (OAT) is a cornerstone of the public health response to this crisis; yet, we struggle to connect youth to OAT across numerous settings. This qualitative study examined perspectives on OAT among street entrenched youth and their providers in Vancouver, Canada. Our findings reveal youth's hopes and fears surrounding making a “full” recovery from past substance use. Youth often equated getting off opioids with “getting back to normal” and the ability to pursue “normal” kinds of futures. While many initiated OAT for short periods of time (<one month) to mediate the discomfort of withdrawal during in-patient treatment, adherence to medications like methadone and buprenorphine over the longer term did not fit with many youth's visions of “normal” futures. A number of polysubstance using youth did not access OAT, despite its lifesaving potential. Youth who did access OAT often preferred methadone because of its perceived ability to mediate longstanding physical and mental health issues. Participants who accessed OAT had the most success with adherence when they were invested in this treatment modality and actively involved in decision making around what kind of medication would work best for them, and for how long. In the absence of this collaboration, many youth made the decision to taper off of OAT independently, frequently resulting in relapse and heightened overdose risk.

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The overdose crisis in North America is having devastating effects on youth.

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Opioid agonist therapy (OAT) is a cornerstone of the response to the crisis.

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Many youth do not view OAT as a part of “full” recovery from opioid use.

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Many youth pursue OAT to mediate physical and mental health issues.

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Youth desire ongoing collaboration regarding the length and type of OAT.

Cocaine and methamphetamine: Pharmacology and dental implications

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological studies have shown that illicit drug use is a persistent and growing problem in our society. Methamphetamine and cocaine are at the top of the list of stimulants commonly abused. There is a need for a disease-targeted approach to the dental management of clients who use these drugs.

METHODS

A review of the literature was conducted to identify the most up-to-date information for the diagnosis and treatment of dental clients who abuse methamphetamine and cocaine. Databases in the University of Toronto library system were searched for peer-reviewed articles, written in English, and containing data relevant to clinical decision making. Textbooks were chosen from a list of reference materials provided by the National Dental Examination Board. All cited articles were published within the past 5 years.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There is robust literature on the treatment of individual signs and symptoms associated with methamphetamine and cocaine use. However, there is a dearth of information on the comprehensive, client-centred oral health care that these individuals require.

CONCLUSION

This article reviews the best practices to guide the clinician from the initial oral diagnosis appointment to the maintenance of care, including the pharmacological actions of these drugs of abuse, the specific challenges faced in providing care for this client population, and scientifically based treatment considerations to maximize prognosis.

Prescription opioid injection among young people who inject drugs in New York City: a mixed-methods description and associations with hepatitis C virus infection and overdose

Aim

Evidence is emerging that prescription opioid (PO) injection is associated with increased health risks. This mixed-methods study compares the mechanics of PO and heroin injection and examines the demographic and drug-related correlates of lifetime PO injection in a sample of young people who inject drugs (PWID) in New York City (NYC).

Methods

Qualitative analysis of 46 semi-structured interviews with young adult opioid users ages 18–32. Interview segments describing PO injection were analyzed for common themes. Quantitative analysis of structured interviews with 539 young adult opioid users ages 18–29 recruited via respondent-driven sampling (RDS). Analyses are based on the subsample of 353 participants (65%) who reported having ever injected drugs. All variables were assessed via self-report, except hepatitis C virus status, which was established via rapid antibody testing.

Results

Participants described injecting POs and reported that preparing abuse-deterrent pills for injection is especially cumbersome, requiring extended manipulation and large amounts of water. Injecting POs, in contrast to injecting heroin, requires repeated injections per injection episode. Among RDS-recruited participants, the majority of injectors reported injecting POs, sporadically (33%) or regularly (26%), but often infrequently (≤ 7 days/month). In separate multivariable analyses controlling for syringe- and cooker-sharing, ever injecting POs was a significant predictor of testing HCV antibody-positive (AOR = 2.97) and lifetime experience of non-fatal overdose (AOR = 2.51). Ever injecting POs was independently associated with lifetime homelessness (AOR = 2.93) and having grown up in a middle-income ($51,000–100,000/year vs. ≤ $50,000/year; AOR = 1.86) or a high-income household (> $100,000/year vs. ≤ $50,000/year; AOR = 2.54).

Conclusions

Even in an urban environment like NYC with widespread heroin access, most young PWID have injected POs, although less frequently than heroin. PO injection involves practices that are known to increase risk for blood-borne viral infection (e.g., repeated injections) and predicted testing HCV-positive, as well as overdose. PO injection may also serve as a marker for a subgroup of PWID at elevated risk for multiple drug use-related comorbidities. Programs that provide prevention services to PWID need to tailor harm reduction measures and messaging to the specific practices and harms associated with the injection of POs.

The opioid mortality epidemic in North America: do we understand the supply side dynamics of this unprecedented crisis?

While there has been extensive attention to the 'demand side' - or use and adverse consequences, including mortality - of the 'opioid crisis' presently unfolding across North America, few considerations have focused on the supply side. This paper examines the supply side dynamics of this unprecedented public health phenomenon. We provide evidence for several interrelated supply-side elements that have contributed to the present public health crisis. We observe that initially, persistently high levels of prescription opioid availability and use exposed large proportions of the North American population to opioids, resulting in correspondingly high levels of medical and non-medical use (e.g., involving diversion). While various intervention measures to control prescription opioid availability and use have been implemented in recent years, leading to eventual reductions in opioid dispensing levels, these occurred late in the crisis's evolution. Moreover, these supply reductions have not been met by corresponding reductions in opioid use or demand levels. These growing discrepancies between opioid demand and prescription-based sources have left major gaps in opioid supplies. In response to such supply gaps, highly potent and toxic illicit opioid products have rapidly proliferated across North America, and become a core driver of the dramatic spikes in opioid overdose fatality levels in recent years. These supply-related interrelations are corroborated by a corresponding increase in illicit opioid-related fatalities, which arose just as medical opioid supplies began to decrease in many jurisdictions. Improved analyses and understanding of the supply-side dynamics of the opioid crisis are urgently needed in order to inform future intervention and policy development. Meanwhile, the high mortality toll related to illicit, highly toxic opioid exposure requires sustained solutions, including supply-oriented measures (e.g., safer opioid distribution for at-risk users) towards improved public health protection.

Elimination of hepatitis C virus infection among people who use drugs: Ensuring equitable access to prevention, treatment, and care for all

There have been major strides towards the World Health Organization goal to eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection as a global public health threat. The availability of simple, well-tolerated direct-acting antiviral therapies for HCV infection that can achieve a cure in >95% of people has provided an important tool to help achieve the global elimination targets. Encouragingly, therapy is highly effective among people receiving opioid agonist therapy and people who have recently injected drugs. Moving forward, major challenges include ensuring that new infections are prevented from occurring and that people who are living with HCV are tested, linked to care, treated, receive appropriate follow-up, and have equitable access to care. This editorial highlights key themes and articles in a special issue focusing on the elimination of HCV among people who inject drugs. An overarching consideration flowing from this work is how to ensure equitable access to HCV treatment and care for all. This special issue maps the field in relation to: HCV prevention; the cascade of HCV care; strategies to enhance testing, linkage to care, and treatment uptake; and HCV treatment and reinfection. In addition, papers draw attention to the 'risk environments' and socio-ecological determinants of HCV acquisition, barriers to HCV care, the importance of messaging around the side-effects of new direct-acting antiviral therapies, the positive transformative potential of treatment and cure, and the key role of community-based drug user organizations in the HCV response. While this special issue highlights some successful efforts towards HCV elimination among people who inject drugs, it also highlights the relative lack of attention to settings in which resources enabling elimination are scarce, and where elimination hopes and potentials are less clear, such as in many low and middle income countries. Strengthening capacity in areas of the world where resources are more limited will be a critical step towards ensuring equity for all so that global HCV elimination among PWID can be achieved.

HIV treatment as prevention among people who inject drugs - a re-evaluation of the evidence

Background

Population-level associations between community measures of HIV viral load and HIV incidence have been interpreted as evidence for HIV anti-retroviral treatment (ART) as prevention among people who inject drugs (PWID). However, investigation of concurrent HCV and HIV incidence trends allows examination of alternative explanations for the fall in HIV incidence. We estimate the contribution of ART and reductions in injecting risk for reducing HIV incidence in Vancouver between 1996 and 2007.

Methods

A deterministic model of HIV and HCV transmission among PWID was calibrated to the baseline (1996) HIV and HCV epidemic among PWID in Vancouver. While incorporating parameter uncertainty, the model projected what levels of ART protection and decreases in injecting risk could reproduce the observed reduction in HIV and HCV incidence for 1996-2007, and so what impact would have been achieved with just ART or just reductions in injecting risk.

Results

Model predictions suggest the estimated reduction (84%) in HCV incidence for 1996-2007 required a 59% (2.5-97.5 percentile range 49-76%) reduction in injecting risk, which accounted for nine-tenths of the observed decrease in HIV incidence; the remainder was achieved with a moderate ART efficacy for reducing sexual HIV infectivity (70%, 51-89%) and an uncertain ART efficacy for reducing injection-related HIV infectivity (44%, 0-96%). Despite this uncertainty, projections suggest that the decrease in injecting risk reduced HIV incidence by 76% (63-85%) and ART further reduced HIV incidence by 8% (2-19%), or on its own by 3% (-34-37%).

Conclusions

Observed declines in HIV incidence in Vancouver between 1996 and 2007 should be seen as a success for intensive harm reduction, whereas ART probably played a small role.

Increasing Prevalence of Hepatitis C among Hospitalized Children Is Associated with an Increase in Substance Abuse

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of substance abuse on pediatric hepatitis C virus (HCV) prevalence, we examined geographic and demographic data on inpatient hospitalizations in children with HCV.

STUDY DESIGN

We examined hospitalizations in children using the Kids' Inpatient Database, a part of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project. We identified cases using the International Classification of Diseases, 9th edition, codes for HCV infection during 2006, 2009, and 2012. Nonparametric tests for trend were used to calculate trend statistics.

RESULTS

From 2006 to 2012 nationally, the number of hospitalizations of children with HCV increased 37% (2.69 to 3.69 per 10 000 admissions; P < .001). The mean age of children hospitalized was 17.6 years (95% CI, 17.4-17.8). HCV cases among those 19-20 years of age represented 68% of the total HCV diagnoses, with a 54% increase over the years sampled (P < .001 for trend). The burden of HCV in children was highest in whites, those in the lowest income quartile, and in the Northeast and Southern regions of the US (all P < .0001). The prevalence of substance use among children with HCV increased from 25% in 2006 to 41% in 2012 (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

The increases of HCV in hospitalized children are largely in teenagers, highly associated with substance abuse, and concentrated in Northeast and Southern states. These results strongly suggest that public health efforts to prevent and treat HCV will also need to include adolescents.

Cessation of Injecting and Preceding Drug Use Patterns Among a Prospective Cohort of Street-Involved Youth

PURPOSE

Injection drug use is prevalent among street-involved youth, but patterns of cessation are poorly described. We identified drug use patterns preceding injection cessation among street-involved youth.

METHODS

From September 2005 to May 2015, we collected data from the At-Risk Youth Study, a prospective cohort of street-involved youth in Vancouver, Canada, and limited the sample to actively injecting youth. The primary outcome was cessation of injecting self-reported at semiannual follow-up visits. We used Cox regression to identify drug use patterns preceding cessation.

RESULTS

Among 383 youth, 65% were male, mean age was 22.3 (standard deviation, 2.5; range, 15-30) years, and 171 (45%) ceased injecting for 6 months or more (crude incidence density 22 per 100 person-years; 95% confidence interval [CI], 19-26). Youth who ceased were less likely to have injected daily (adjusted hazard ratio [AHR], .40; 95% CI, .28-.56), injected heroin (AHR, .40; 95% CI, .29-.56), or injected crystal methamphetamine (AHR, .43; 95% CI, .31-.59) before cessation. Noninjection heroin use was positively associated with injection cessation (AHR, 1.52; 95 CI, 1.12-2.08). Addiction treatment was not associated with cessation. At the time of cessation, 101 (59%) youth continued to use "hard" noninjection drugs such as heroin and crystal methamphetamine.

CONCLUSIONS

Periods of injection cessation were common but frequently accompanied by ongoing noninjection drug use. Findings indicate that trajectories of injection drug use among youth are complex and highlight the need to further explore relationships between ongoing noninjection drug use and injection cessation.

Young people who use drugs engaged in harm reduction programs in New York City: Overdose and other risks

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the engagement of young people who use drugs (PWUD) in harm reduction programs (HRPs), and few studies have included non-opioid users and non-injectors. While HRPs have effectively engaged PWUD, young people are under-represented in their services.

METHODS

The Injection Drug Users Health Alliance Citywide Study (IDUCS) is the largest community-based study of PWUD in HRPs in the US. From 2014-2015, 2421 HRP participants across New York City (NYC) completed a cross-sectional survey. We investigated differences in socio-demographics, service utilization, and risk behaviors between young (aged 18-30) and older participants and examined factors associated with overdose among young participants.

RESULTS

The study included 257 young participants. They were significantly more likely than older participants to be white, educated, uninsured, unstably housed or homeless, and have a history of incarceration and residential drug treatment. They were more likely to report recent overdose but less likely to report knowledge of naloxone. Young participants also had higher rates of alcohol, marijuana, benzodiazepine, and injection drug use, and related risk behaviors such as public injection. Factors associated with past year overdose among young participants included experiencing symptoms of psychological distress (AOR=9.71), being unstably housed or homeless (AOR=4.39), and utilizing detox (AOR=4.20).

CONCLUSIONS

Young PWUD who access services at HRPs in NYC differ significantly from their older counterparts. New York City and other urban centers that attract young PWUD should consider implementing harm reduction oriented services tailored to the unique needs of young people.

High hepatitis C incidence in relation to prescription opioid injection and poly-drug use: Assessing barriers to hepatitis C prevention

BACKGROUND

Prescription opioid (PO) injection and poly-drug use have been associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among people who inject drugs (PWID). Poly-drug use is often a barrier to key HCV preventive programmes including opioid agonist treatment. The contribution of specific drug combinations to high HCV incidence in poly-drug users has not been assessed previously. Addressing this knowledge gap could enhance HCV treatment and prevention efforts. We examined the association between specific drugs and number of drugs used in addition to injected POs, and HCV seroconversion.

METHODS

PWID participating in a cohort study in Montréal (HEPCO), HCV-seronegative at baseline and followed between 2004 and 2013, were included. Data were collected by interview-administered questionnaires. Blood samples were tested for HCV new infections at each 3-6 month follow-up visit. Time-varying Cox regression models were utilized.

RESULTS

Of 356 participants (81.5% males; mean age: 34.7 years), 123 (34.6%) reported injected POs in the past month at baseline. In univariate analyses, recent use of the following drugs was associated with HCV seroconversion: injected POs, injected cocaine, injected heroin, non-injected tranquilisers, and smoked crack/cocaine. The relative excess risk of HCV seroconversion due to interaction (RER1_HR) was the highest for co-use of injected POs with the following substances: injected cocaine (RER1_HR=3.44), smoked crack/cocaine (RER1_HR=1.27), and non-injected tranquilisers (RER1_HR=0.8). In addition, a significant linear trend (p<0.001) towards higher risk was observed with increasing the number of these three drugs used in combination with injected POs.

CONCLUSION

Specific drugs and number of drugs used in addition to injected POs play a modulating role in the risk of HCV primary infection. Poly-drug use among people who inject POs has to be addressed in order to improve harm reduction programmes and reduce HCV transmission in this high-risk population.

Descriptive and injunctive network norms associated with nonmedical use of prescription drugs among homeless youth

BACKGROUND

Nonmedical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) among youth and young adults is being increasingly recognized as a significant public health problem. Homeless youth in particular are more likely to engage in NMUPD compared to housed youth. Studies suggest that network norms are strongly associated with a range of substance use behaviors. However, evidence regarding the association between network norms and NMUPD is scarce. We sought to understand whether social network norms of NMUPD are associated with engagement in NMUPD among homeless youth.

METHODS

1046 homeless youth were recruited from three drop-in centers in Los Angeles, CA and were interviewed regarding their individual and social network characteristics. Multivariate logistic regression was employed to evaluate the significance of associations between social norms (descriptive and injunctive) and self-reported NMUPD.

RESULTS

Approximately 25% of youth reported past 30-day NMUPD. However, more youth (32.28%) of youth believed that their network members engage in NMUPD, perhaps suggesting some pluralistic ignorance bias. Both descriptive and injunctive norms were associated with self-reported NMUPD among homeless youth. However, these varied by network type, with presence of NMUPD engaged street-based and home-based peers (descriptive norm) increasing the likelihood of NMUPD, while objections from family-members (injunctive norm) decreasing that likelihood.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that, like other substance use behaviors, NMUPD is also influenced by youths' perceptions of the behaviors of their social network members. Therefore, prevention and interventions programs designed to influence NMUPD might benefit from taking a social network norms approach.

Prescription Opioid Injection Among HIV-Positive People Who Inject Drugs in a Canadian Setting

Prescription opioids (POs) are commonly prescribed to patients living with HIV/AIDS, while the illicit use of POs remains a major public health concern throughout Canada and the United States. We sought to identify the prevalence and correlates of PO injection among HIV-positive people who inject drugs (PWID) in Vancouver, Canada, where HIV/AIDS treatment and care is offered at no cost. We examined data from 634 individuals from an ongoing prospective cohort of HIV-positive PWID. Between December 2005 and November 2013, the median prevalence of recent PO injection was 24.2 % [interquartile range (IQR): 21.5-25.8 %]. In a multivariable generalized estimating equation model, Caucasian ethnicity, heroin injection, and drug dealing were positively associated with PO injection, while older age and methadone maintenance treatment were negatively associated with PO injection (all p < 0.05). Engagement on antiretroviral therapy was inversely associated with PO injection in a bivariable analysis, but did not remain significant after adjusting for heroin injection. These findings describe a particularly vulnerable sub-group of PWID who may benefit from targeted efforts to both minimize drug-related risk behaviors and support HIV/AIDS treatment.

Comparing two sampling methods to engage hard-to-reach communities in research priority setting

BACKGROUND

Effective community-partnered and patient-centered outcomes research needs to address community priorities. However, optimal sampling methods to engage stakeholders from hard-to-reach, vulnerable communities to generate research priorities have not been identified.

METHODS

In two similar rural, largely Hispanic communities, a community advisory board guided recruitment of stakeholders affected by chronic pain using a different method in each community: 1) snowball sampling, a chain- referral method or 2) purposive sampling to recruit diverse stakeholders. In both communities, three groups of stakeholders attended a series of three facilitated meetings to orient, brainstorm, and prioritize ideas (9 meetings/community). Using mixed methods analysis, we compared stakeholder recruitment and retention as well as priorities from both communities' stakeholders on mean ratings of their ideas based on importance and feasibility for implementation in their community.

RESULTS

Of 65 eligible stakeholders in one community recruited by snowball sampling, 55 (85 %) consented, 52 (95 %) attended the first meeting, and 36 (65 %) attended all 3 meetings. In the second community, the purposive sampling method was supplemented by convenience sampling to increase recruitment. Of 69 stakeholders recruited by this combined strategy, 62 (90 %) consented, 36 (58 %) attended the first meeting, and 26 (42 %) attended all 3 meetings. Snowball sampling recruited more Hispanics and disabled persons (all P < 0.05). Despite differing recruitment strategies, stakeholders from the two communities identified largely similar ideas for research, focusing on non-pharmacologic interventions for management of chronic pain. Ratings on importance and feasibility for community implementation differed only on the importance of massage services (P = 0.045) which was higher for the purposive/convenience sampling group and for city improvements/transportation services (P = 0.004) which was higher for the snowball sampling group.

CONCLUSIONS

In each of the two similar hard-to-reach communities, a community advisory board partnered with researchers to implement a different sampling method to recruit stakeholders. The snowball sampling method achieved greater participation with more Hispanics but also more individuals with disabilities than a purposive-convenience sampling method. However, priorities for research on chronic pain from both stakeholder groups were similar. Although utilizing a snowball sampling method appears to be superior, further research is needed on implementation costs and resources.

Factors associated with knowledge of a Good Samaritan Law among young adults who use prescription opioids non-medically

Background

To date, no studies have examined the extent of knowledge and perceptions of Good Samaritan Laws (GSLs) among young adults who engage in non-medical prescription opioid (NMPO) use. We sought to determine awareness of and factors associated with knowledge of Rhode Island’s Good Samaritan Law (RIGSL) among young adult NMPO users.

Findings

We compared the sociodemographic and overdose-related characteristics of participants who were aware and unaware of the RIGSL and determined independent correlates of knowledge of the RIGSL via modified stepwise logistic regression. Among 198 eligible participants, 15.7 % were black, 62.1 % white, and 20.7 % mixed or other race. The mean age was 24.5 (SD = 3.2) and 129 (65.2 %) were male. Fewer than half (45.5 %) were aware of the RIGSL; nonetheless, the majority (95.5 %) reported a willingness to call 911 in the event of an overdose. Knowledge of the RIGSL was associated with older age, white race, a history of incarceration, a history of injection drug use, lifetime heroin use, ever witnessing or experiencing an overdose, having heard of naloxone, knowledge of where to obtain naloxone, and experience administering naloxone (all p < 0.05). In the final explanatory regression model, lifetime injection drug use, having heard of naloxone, and knowledge of where to obtain naloxone were independently associated with awareness of the RIGSL.

Conclusions

Fewer than half of NMPO users surveyed knew of the RIGSL. Targeted harm reduction education is needed to address a vulnerable population of NMPO users who have not initiated injection drug use and are unaware of naloxone. Additional research is needed to determine how the effectiveness of GSLs could be improved to prevent overdose deaths among young adults.

Epidemiology of Injection Drug Use: New Trends and Prominent Issues

After more than 30 years of research, numerous studies have shown that injection drug use is associated with a wide range of adverse health outcomes such as drug overdoses, drug-related suicidal behaviours, comorbid psychiatric disorders, bloodborne pathogens and other infectious diseases, and traumas. This review explores new trends and prominent issues associated with injection drug use. The dynamic nature of injection drug use is underlined by examining its recent trends and changing patterns in Canada and other "high-income countries." Three research topics that could further contribute to the development of comprehensive prevention and intervention strategies aimed at people who inject drugs are also discussed: risk behaviours associated with the injection of prescription opioids, binge injection drug use, and mental health problems as determinants of injection risk behaviours.

Nonmedical opioid use and heroin use in a nationally representative sample of us high school seniors

BACKGROUND

Nonmedical use of opioids has become increasingly problematic in recent years with increases in overdoses, treatment admissions, and deaths. Use also appears to be contributing to heroin initiation, which has increased in recent years. Further research is needed to examine which adolescents are at highest risk for nonmedical use of opioids and heroin and to explore potential links between nonmedical opioid use and heroin use.

METHODS

Data were analyzed from a nationally representative sample of American high school seniors in the Monitoring the Future study (2009-2013, Weighted N=67,822). We examined associations between frequency and recency of nonmedical use of opioids and heroin. Sociodemographic correlates of use of each drug were also examined.

RESULTS

12.4% of students reported lifetime nonmedical opioid use and 1.2% reported lifetime heroin use. As frequency of lifetime nonmedical opioid use increased, so too did the odds for reporting heroin use, with over three-quarters (77.3%) of heroin users reporting lifetime nonmedical opioid use. Recent (30-day) nonmedical opioid use was a robust risk factor for heroin use and almost a quarter (23.2%) of students who reported using opioids ≥40 times reported lifetime heroin use. Black and Hispanic students were less likely to report nonmedical opioid or heroin use than white students, but they were more likely to report heroin use in absence of nonmedical opioid use.

DISCUSSION

Recent and frequent nonmedical opioid use are risk factors for heroin use among adolescents. Prevention needs to be targeted to those at highest risk.

Health outcomes associated with illicit prescription opioid injection: A systematic review

Prescription opioid injection is a growing concern among people who use illicit drugs. Little is known about the potential health-related harms of injecting prescription opioids. Therefore, the authors undertook a systematic review to identify health outcomes associated with injecting prescription opioids. PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE®, EMBASE, Journals@Ovid, CINAHL, PsycInfo, Web of Science® Core Collection, CAB Direct, and ERIC databases were searched to identify English articles published between January 1990 and February 2015 that matched the inclusion criteria. Potentially relevant articles were those examining a clinical health outcome among people who use illicit drugs, in which a sub-group injects prescription opioids. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) was used to clinically classify health outcomes. In total, 31 studies that met the inclusion criteria were identified and summarized. A modified version of the Downs and Black checklist was used to assess individual study quality and identify sources of bias. Findings supported associations between prescription opioid injection and hepatitis C infection, substance dependence and other mental health indicators, and lower general health. Associations with human immunodeficiency virus, overdose, and cutaneous infection were less consistent and varied according to prescription opioid type(s). Several potential sources of bias were identified as well as a need for more longitudinal research and more rigorous confounding adjustment. The current findings highlight a need to consider the growing popularity of prescription opioid injection in efforts to reduce drug-related harm among people who inject drugs.

A Comparison of Referred Sexual Partners to Their Community Recruited Counterparts in The BROTHERS Project (HPTN 061)

The BROTHERS Project (HPTN 061) was established to determine the feasibility and acceptability of a multi-component intervention among African American MSM to reduce HIV incidence. The goal of this analysis was to determine if the sexual partner referral approach used in HPTN 061 broadened the reach of recruitment with regards to characteristics associated with higher infection rates and barriers to quality health care. Overall, referred sexual partners had notable structural barrier differences in comparison to community-recruited participants: lower income, less education, higher unemployment, HIV positive diagnosis, incarceration history, and no health insurance. The study's findings pose implications for utilizing the sexual partner referral approach in reaching African American MSM who may not be accessed by traditional recruitment methods or who are well-integrated in health care systems.

Methamphetamine injecting is associated with phylogenetic clustering of hepatitis C virus infection among street-involved youth in Vancouver, Canada

BACKGROUND

Among prospective cohorts of people who inject drugs (PWID), phylogenetic clustering of HCV infection has been observed. However, the majority of studies have included older PWID, representing distant transmission events. The aim of this study was to investigate phylogenetic clustering of HCV infection among a cohort of street-involved youth.

METHODS

Data were derived from a prospective cohort of street-involved youth aged 14-26 recruited between 2005 and 2012 in Vancouver, Canada (At Risk Youth Study, ARYS). HCV RNA testing and sequencing (Core-E2) were performed on HCV positive participants. Phylogenetic trees were inferred using maximum likelihood methods and clusters were identified using ClusterPicker (Core-E2 without HVR1, 90% bootstrap threshold, 0.05 genetic distance threshold).

RESULTS

Among 945 individuals enrolled in ARYS, 16% (n=149, 100% recent injectors) were HCV antibody positive at baseline interview (n=86) or seroconverted during follow-up (n=63). Among HCV antibody positive participants with available samples (n=131), 75% (n=98) had detectable HCV RNA and 66% (n=65, mean age 23, 58% with recent methamphetamine injection, 31% female, 3% HIV+) had available Core-E2 sequences. Of those with Core-E2 sequence, 14% (n=9) were in a cluster (one cluster of three) or pair (two pairs), with all reporting recent methamphetamine injection. Recent methamphetamine injection was associated with membership in a cluster or pair (P=0.009).

CONCLUSION

In this study of street-involved youth with HCV infection and recent injecting, 14% demonstrated phylogenetic clustering. Phylogenetic clustering was associated with recent methamphetamine injection, suggesting that methamphetamine drug injection may play an important role in networks of HCV transmission.

Mixed HCV infection and reinfection in people who inject drugs--impact on therapy

The majority of new and existing cases of HCV infection in high-income countries occur among people who inject drugs (PWID). Ongoing high-risk behaviours can lead to HCV re-exposure, resulting in mixed HCV infection and reinfection. Assays used to screen for mixed infection vary widely in sensitivity, particularly with respect to their capacity for detecting minor variants (<20% of the viral population). The prevalence of mixed infection among PWID ranges from 14% to 39% when sensitive assays are used. Mixed infection compromises HCV treatment outcomes with interferon-based regimens. HCV reinfection can also occur after successful interferon-based treatment among PWID, but the rate of reinfection is low (0-5 cases per 100 person-years). A revolution in HCV therapeutic development has occurred in the past few years, with the advent of interferon-free, but still genotype-specific regiments based on direct acting antiviral agents. However, little is known about whether mixed infection and reinfection has an effect on HCV treatment outcomes in the setting of new direct-acting antiviral agents. This Review characterizes the epidemiology and natural history of mixed infection and reinfection among PWID, methodologies for detection, the potential implications for HCV treatment and considerations for the design of future studies.

Food system sustainability and vulnerability: food acquisition during the military occupation of Kuwait

OBJECTIVE

To document food acquisition experiences during Iraqi military occupation in Kuwait.

DESIGN

Retrospective cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Urban areas in Kuwait during occupation.

SUBJECTS

Those living in Kuwait during the period of occupation, and aged between 15 to 50 years at the time of occupation, recruited by snowball sampling. A total of 390 completed questionnaires (response rate 78%, 202 female and 188 male) were returned.

RESULTS

During the occupation, food became increasingly difficult to acquire. Two food systems emerged: (i) an underground Kuwaiti network linked to foods recovered from local food cooperatives and (ii) a black market supplied by food imported through Iraq or stolen locally. Food shortages led to reductions in meal size and frequency. Some respondents (47·7%) reported not having sufficient income to purchase food and 22·1% had to sell capital items to purchase food. There was a significant increase (P<0·01) in home production, with 23·1% of people growing vegetables and 39·0% raising animals to supplement food needs. Reduction in food wastage also emerged as a significant self-reported behaviour change. Respondents reported deterioration in the quality and availability of fish, milk, and fruit in particular. Despite a decrease in opportunities for physical activity, most respondents reported that they lost weight during the occupation.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the Kuwaiti population fell by about 90 % and domestic food production increased during the 7-month occupation, the local population continued to rely heavily on imported food to meet population needs. The high prevalence of self-reported weight loss indicates the inadequacies of this food supply. High apparent food security in systems which significantly exceed the ecological carrying capacity of the local environment and rely on mass food importation remains vulnerable.