Effect of cost sharing on adherence to evidence-based medications in patients with acute coronary syndrome

[Analysis of equity and budgetary sustainability of the pharmaceutical co-payment system in Spain]

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the impact of a more equitable pharmaceutical co-payment system by eliminating the distinction between active workers and pensioners, using only personal income as an adjustment parameter, defining more detailed income brackets, and introducing protective limits on personal expenditure.

METHOD

Data from a random sample of 4,505,483 individuals residing in Spain were used, matching pharmaceutical consumption information from the Ministry of Health with economic data from the Tax Agency. Five microsimulation scenarios were designed, modifying co-payment percentages and monthly limits, and the effects on public pharmaceutical spending, the economic burden between patients and the Spanish National Health System, and the redistribution of the burden among patient groups were evaluated. The Kakwani index was used to measure the progressivity of each scenario.

RESULTS

The results show that equalizing active workers and pensioners and introducing more detailed income brackets can increase the progressivity of the co-payment system. In scenarios 2, 3, 4, and 5, the Kakwani index was higher than 0.2, indicating greater vertical equity. Public budgetary costs ranged from 48 million euros to 710.2 million euros. In all scenarios, the user's share of pharmaceutical expenditure decreased, especially for lower-income groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A more progressive and equitable pharmaceutical co-payment system is feasible and can better protect low-income individuals without disproportionate budgetary impact. Eliminating the distinction between active workers and pensioners and exempting co-payments for incomes below 6,000 euros can significantly increase the system's equity.

Medication economic burden of antidepressant non-adherence in Spain

Introduction: Non-adherence to antidepressants is associated with worse disease outcomes (morbidity and mortality) and correlates with higher healthcare resource utilization and costs. Methods: A population-based registry study was conducted to assess non-adherence and to analyze the economic burden of treatment and from non-adherence to antidepressants in 2021. Non-adherence was measured by the Medication Possession Ratio and those below 80% were classified as non-adherent. Results: In 2021, 246,718 patients (10.60% [95% CI: 10.48-10.72]) received antidepressants at a cost of €29 million. The median antidepressant cost per patient/year was €70.08€, ranging from €7.58 for amitriptyline to €396.66 for agomelatine. Out-of-pocket costs represented 6.09% of total expenditures, with a median copayment of €2.78 per patient. The 19.87% [95% CI 19.52-20.22)] of patients were non-adherent to antidepressants, costing €3.9 million (13.30% of total antidepressant costs). Non-adherence rates exceeded 20% for the tricyclic antidepressants, fluoxetine (23.53%), fluvoxamine (22.42%), and vortioxetine (20.58%). Venlafaxine (14.64%) and citalopram (14.88%) had the lowest non-adherence rates, of less than 15%. The median cost of non-adherent medications per patient/year was €18.96 and ranged from €2.50 (amitriptyline) to €133.42 (agomelatine). Conclusion: Reducing non-adherence to antidepressants is critical to improving clinical and economic outcomes. The implementation of interventions and standardized measures, including early detection indicators, is urgently needed. Antidepressants differ with regard to non-adherence and their cost, and this should be considered when prescribing this medication. The Medication Possession Ratio could be used by the healthcare provider and clinician to identify non-adherent patients for monitoring, and to take necessary corrective actions.

Adherence to antiretroviral and cancer chemotherapy, and associated factors among patients with HIV-cancer co-morbidity at the Uganda Cancer Institute: a cross sectional study

BACKGROUND

Human Immunodeficiency Virus is a major global public health issue affecting millions of people, and sub-Saharan Africa where Uganda lies is disproportionately affected. There has been an increase in cancer among HIV patients which has resulted into use of co-medications that sometimes affect ART and cancer chemotherapy adherence. We aimed to determine adherence to antiretroviral and cancer chemotherapy and the associated factors among patients with HIV-cancer co-morbidity at the Uganda Cancer Institute.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study among 200 randomly selected adult cancer patients infected with HIV and attending the Uganda cancer institute. Antiretroviral and anti-cancer chemotherapy adherence with associated factors were assessed quantitatively. We collected the data using interviewer administered semi-structured questionnaires. Modified Poisson regression with robust standard errors was used to estimate the prevalence ratios (PR) and its 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the factors associated with adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) and cancer chemotherapy.

RESULTS

Overall, 54% of the study participants adhered to both ART and chemotherapy, and 55% adhered to ART while 65% adhered to cancer chemotherapy. The mean age of the respondents was 42 (SD ± 11years), and a majority, 61% were males.More than half, 56.5% were married and at least 45% had attained a primary level of education. Patients with good adherence to antiretroviral therapy and chemotherapy were 54%. No knowledge of cancer stage (PR = 0.4, 95% CI = 0.3-0.6, P < 0.0001), having an AIDS defining cancer (PR = 0.7, 95% CI = 0.5-0.9, P = 0.005), ART clinic in district not near Uganda Cancer Institute (PR = 0.7,95% CI = 0.8-1.0, P = 0.027) and affordability of cancer chemotherapy (PR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.0-1.9, P = 0.037) were associated with adherence to both ART and cancer chemotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Adherence to both ART and cancer chemotherapy was low. Factors significantly associated with adherence were: knowledge of the cancer stage by the patient, the type of cancer diagnosis, source of ART and affordability/ availability of medications. There is a need to provide information on the stage of cancer and adherence counseling to patients. Furthermore, Integration of HIV- cancer care will be necessary for efficient and effective care for the patients.

Statin Prescription Patterns Among Elderly Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Cross-Sectional Study in Lebanon

BACKGROUND

Even though statins have been proven to be effective in both primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease among diabetic patients, a suboptimal use of the latter has been detected in real clinical practice, especially among older adults.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the patterns and predictors of statin use among elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in Lebanon.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study that extended between April 2021 and February 2022. Our study involved elderly T2DM outpatients, aged 65-80 years, who presented to 40 community pharmacies for prescription filling. Diabetes status was ascertained via dispensed medication information, and patients were classified based on the American Diabetes Association preset risk scores for cardiovascular diseases in diabetics: low, moderate, or high risk. The questionnaire included patients' demographics, clinical information, and status of statin use.

RESULTS

A total of 420 diabetic geriatric patients were observed in this study; their mean age was 70 years (± 7), and there was a predominance of males, 270 (64.3%). Almost all patients were classified as being at high risk, 396 (94.3%), while the rest were at moderate risk; thus, all were recommended to receive statins; however, statin prescription was only reported among 197 (46.9%), with atorvastatin and rosuvastatin being the most used: 102 (51.8%) and 62 (31.5%), respectively. Of patients prescribed statins, 60 (14.3%) were taking them for primary prevention and 137 (32.6%) for secondary prevention. Patients having a higher Charlson Comorbidity Index score had lesser odds of being prescribed statins (odds ratio [OR] 0.15, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.02-0.8, p = 0.028); however, those presenting with a history of dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease had higher odds of statin prescription (OR 10.5, 95% CI 4.2-26.1, p < 0.001, and OR 5.0, 95% CI 2.4-10.5, p < 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Despite patients' eligibility to receive statins, statin undertreatment was evident among elderly outpatients with T2DM in Lebanon, which was modulated by several predictors.

Effect of the full coverage policy of essential medicines on medication adherence: A quasi-experimental study in Taizhou, China

Objective

Different forms of full coverage policy of essential medicines (FCPEMs) have been adopted worldwide to lower medication expenditure and improve adherence. This study aims to analyse the effect of FCPEMs on patients' medication adherence in Taizhou city, China.

Methods

This study was a quasi-experimental study and set treatment and control groups. We extracted Electronic Health Records (EHRs) for hypertension and diabetes 1 year before and after FCPEMs implementation and their medication adherence level assessed by physicians. We applied the propensity score matching (PSM) method to balance the bias between the two groups. Then, the descriptive analysis was used to compare the differences in the reported medication adherence. Using the Difference-In-Differences (DIDs) method, the fixed-effect model with the logistic regression was built to analyse the effects of FCPEMs.

Results

225,081 eligible patients were identified from the original database. In the baseline year, FCPEM covered 39,251 patients. After PSM, 6,587 patients in the treatment group and 10,672 patients in the control group remained. We found that the proportion of patients with high adherence in the treatment group increased by 9.1% (60.8 to 69.9%, P < 0.001) and that in the control group increased by 2.6% (62.5 to 65.2%, P < 0.001). The regression results showed that FCPEMs significantly increased patients' medication adherence (OR = 2.546, P < 0.001).

Conclusion

FCPEMs significantly improved medication adherence. Socially disadvantaged individuals might benefit more from continuing FCPEM efforts. Expanding the coverage of FCPEMs to other medicines commonly used in patients with chronic diseases may be a promising strategy to manage chronic diseases and promote patient outcomes.

Prior Cardiovascular Treatments-A Key Characteristic in Determining Medication Adherence After an Acute Myocardial Infarction

Objective: To investigate long-term adherence to guideline-recommended cardioprotective medications following hospitalization for an acute myocardial infarction (AMI), and identify characteristics associated with adherence.

Methods: An Australian population-based cohort study was used to identify participants who had their first AMI between 2006 and 2014 and were alive after 12 months. Linked routinely collected hospital, and prescription medication claims data was used to study adherence over time. Predictors and rates of adherence to both lipid-lowering medication and renin-angiotensin system blockade at 12 months post-AMI was assessed.

Results: 14,200 people (mean age 69.9 years, 38.7% female) were included in our analysis. At 12 months post-AMI, 29.5% (95% CI: 28.8–30.3%) of people were adherent to both classes of medication. Individuals receiving treatment with both lipid-lowering medication and renin-angiotensin system blockade during the 6 months prior to their AMI were over 9 times more likely to be adherent to both medications at 12 months post-AMI (66.2% 95% CI: 64.8–67.5%) compared to those with no prior medication use (treatment naïve) (7.1%, 95% CI: 6.4–7.9%). Prior cardiovascular treatment was the strongest predictor of long-term adherence even after adjusting for age, sex, education and income.

Conclusions: Despite efforts to improve long-term medication adherence in patients who have experienced an acute coronary event, considerable gaps remain. Of particular concern are people who are commencing guideline-recommended cardioprotective medication at the time of their AMI. The relationship between prior cardiovascular treatments and post AMI adherence offers insight into the support needs for the patient. Health care intervention strategies, strengthened by enabling policies, are needed to provide support to patients through the initial months following their AMI.

Effects of the Full Coverage Policy of Essential Medicines on Inequality in Medication Adherence: A Longitudinal Study in Taizhou, China

The full coverage policy for essential medicines (FCPEMs) was proposed and implemented in Taizhou city of Zhejiang Province, China, to promote equal access and adherence to medicines. This study aimed to examine the effects of FCPEMs on the income-related inequality in medication adherence among local patients with hypertension or diabetes. We collected electronic health records of patients with hypertension or diabetes of three districts of Taizhou from 2011 to 2016. As the implementation schedule of the FCPEMs varied across districts, we applied a retrospective longitudinal study design and assigned records from 1 year before to 3 years following the implementation of FCPEMs as baseline and follow-up data. We thus generated a dataset with 4-year longitudinal data. The concentration index (CI) and its decomposition method were employed to measure factors contributing to inequality in medication adherence and the role played by FCPEMs. The sample size rose from 264,836 at the baseline to 315,677, 340,512, and 355,676 by each follow-up year, and the proportion of patients taking free medicines rose from 17.6 to 25.0 and 29.8% after FCPEMs implementation. The proportion of patients with high adherence increased from 39.9% at baseline to 51.6, 57.2, and 60.5%, while CI decreased from 0.073 to −0.011, −0.029, and −0.035. The contribution of FCPEMs ranked at 2nd/13, 7th/13, and 2nd/13 after the implementation of FCPEMs. Changes in CI of medication adherence for every 2 years were −0.084, −0.018, and −0.006, and the contribution of FCPEMs was −0.006, 0.006, and 0.007, ranking at 2nd/13, 2nd/13, and 1st/13, respectively. Most changes in CI of medication adherence can be attributed to FCPEMs. The medication adherence of patients with hypertension or diabetes improved after the implementation FCPEMs in Taizhou, although inequality did not improve consistently. In general, FCPEMs could be a protective factor against income-related inequalities in access and adherence to medicines. Future research is needed to investigate the change mechanism and the optimal design of similar interventions.

Non-initiation of prescribed medication from a Spanish health professionals' perspective: A qualitative exploration based on Grounded Theory

We explore, from the perspective of primary care health professionals, the motivations that lead patients to not initiate prescribed treatments, by developing a qualitative study in Spanish primary care. Six focus groups (N = 46) were conducted with general practitioners, nurse practitioners, social workers and community pharmacists and carried out in primary care (PC) of Barcelona Province, from April to July of 2018. The 46 participants were identified by three general practitioners and two pharmacists. In the interviews, the reasons for non-initiation of PC patients' medication were explored. Triangulated content analysis was performed. Patients' perspective, analysed in a previous study, and professionals' perspective agree on most of the factors that affect non-initiation. New factors were categorized into existent categories, confirming, and supplementing the model developed with patients. Health professionals identified some new factors which were not present in the patients' discourse, such as stigma related to the drug, hidden reasons for consultation, the role of nurses in prescription and support, the role of the pharmacy technician, illiteracy and lack of social support. The professionals confirm and expand on the Theoretical Model of Medication Non-Initiation. Primary care professionals should consider the factors described when prescribing a new medication. Knowledge contributed by the model should guide the design of interventions to improve initiation.

Factors Associated with Free Medicine Use in Patients with Hypertension and Diabetes: A 4-Year Longitudinal Study on Full Coverage Policy for Essential Medicines in Taizhou, China

Full coverage policies for medicines have been implemented worldwide to alleviate medicine cost burden and promote access to medicines. However, few studies have explored the factors associated with free medicine use in patients with chronic diseases. This study aimed to analyze the utilization of free medicines by patients with hypertension and diabetes after the implementation of the full coverage policy for essential medicines (FCPEM) in Taizhou, China, and to explore the factors associated with free medicine use. We conducted a descriptive analysis of characteristics of patients with and without free medicine use and performed a panel logit model to examine factors associated with free medicine use, based on an electronic health record database in Taizhou from the baseline year (12 months in priori) to three years after FCPEM implementation. After FCPEM implementation, the proportion of patients without any free medicine use decreased from 31.1% in the baseline year to 28.9% in the third year, while that of patients taking free medicines rose from 11.0% to 22.8%. Patients with lower income or education level, those with agricultural hukou, patients aged 65 and above, married patients, and patients in the Huangyan district were more likely to take free medicines. In conclusion, FCPEM contributed to improved medicine access, especially in vulnerable populations. Local policy makers should consider expanding the coverage of FCPEM to other types of medicines and cultivate the potential of social supports for patients to enhance the effectiveness of FCPEM policies.

The effect of pharmaceutical co-payment increase on the use of social assistance-A natural experiment study

Health care out-of-pocket payments can create barriers to access or lead to financial distress. Out-of-pocket expenditure is often driven by outpatient pharmaceuticals. In this nationwide register study, we study the causal relationship between an increase in patients' pharmaceutical expenses and financial difficulties by exploiting a natural experiment design arising from a 2017 reform, which introduced higher co-payments for type 2 diabetes medicines in Finland. With difference-in-differences estimation, we analyze whether the reform increased the use of social assistance, a last-resort financial aid. We found that after the reform the share of social assistance recipients increased more among type 2 diabetes patients than among a patient group not affected by the co-payment increase, suggesting the reform increased the use of social assistance among those subject to it. The results indicate that increases in patients' pharmaceutical expenses can lead to serious financial difficulties even in countries with a comprehensive social security system.

Who Suffers From Pharmaceutical Poverty and What Are Their Needs? Evidence From a Spanish Region

Background: Pharmaceutical poverty occurs when a patient cannot afford the cost of prescribed medication and/or medical products. Nonprofit organizations are covering the cost of medication to those patients in some contexts. The aim of the study was to describe the population of beneficiaries of the PB, a nongovernmental organization based on the primary healthcare system, which provides free-of-charge access to medicines and their utilization pattern of medicines and healthcare products. Methods: This was an observational study using PB beneficiary data collected between November 2017 and December 2018 in Catalonia. The Catalan Health Service provided information from the general population. A descriptive analysis of the beneficiaries' characteristics was conducted and compared to the general population. Results: The beneficiaries (N = 1,206) were mainly adults with a low level of education, unemployed, with functional disability, and with ≥1 child. Compared with the general population, the beneficiaries were older, had a lower level of education, showed a higher prevalence of functional disability, were less likely to be Spanish, and were more likely to be divorced and unemployed. The beneficiaries were polymedicated, and most were using medication related to the nervous (79%), musculoskeletal (68%), and cardiovascular system (56%) and alimentary tract and metabolism (68%). Almost 19% of beneficiaries used healthcare products. Female beneficiaries were older and more likely to be divorced or widowed, employed, and with children. Compared to men, women were more likely to use medicines for pain and mental disorders. The pediatric group used medications for severe, chronic conditions (heart diseases, autoimmune diseases, conduct disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). Conclusion: Patients with severe, chronic, and disabling conditions are affected by pharmaceutical poverty. While the system of copayment remains unchanged, family physicians and pediatricians should explore economic barriers to treatment and direct their patients to resources that help to cover the cost of treatment.

Assessment of Variation in State Regulation of Generic Drug and Interchangeable Biologic Substitutions

IMPORTANCE

Brand-name drugs, including biologics, have been the primary source of increasing prescription drug spending in the US. Each state has drug product selection laws that regulate whether and how pharmacists can substitute prescriptions for brand-name drugs with more affordable equivalents, either small-molecule generic drugs or interchangeable biologics, but the details of these laws can vary.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the variation in state drug product selection laws with regard to factors that may affect which version of a drug is dispensed.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A cross-sectional analysis was performed, using a legal database, to obtain information on state laws of all states plus Washington, DC, as they existed on September 1, 2019.

EXPOSURES

Whether substitution was mandatory or permissive, patient consent was needed prior to substitution, patient notification of substitution was required independent of the drug's packaging, and/or pharmacists were protected from special risk of liability for substitution.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

For small-molecule and biologic drugs, descriptive statistics were generated for the 4 exposure variables. In addition, for small-molecule drugs, a generic substitution score with a maximum of 1 point was assigned for each exposure variable (range, 0-4 points), with higher scores indicating regulatory requirements limiting substitution.

RESULTS

This cross-sectional analysis of the generic drug substitution regulations in the 50 US states and Washington, DC, found that for small-molecule drugs, 19 states required pharmacists to perform generic substitution; 7 states and Washington, DC, required patient consent; 31 states and Washington, DC, mandated patient notification independent of the drug's packaging, and 24 states did not explicitly protect pharmacists from greater liability. Nine states and Washington, DC, had a generic substitution score for small-molecule drugs of 3 or higher, and 45 states had more stringent requirements for interchangeable biologic substitution, most commonly mandatory physician notification.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The findings of this study suggest that there is a need for optimizing state drug product selection laws to promote generic and interchangeable biologic substitution, which may help improve medication adherence and reduce drug spending.

Free prescriptions for low-income pensioners? The cost of returning to free-of-charge drugs in the Spanish National Health Service

This study estimated the impact of reducing a capped low coinsurance rate for outpatient medicines to nil for low-income pensioners and disabled individuals in the Valencian Community (Spain). This reduction was implemented in January 2016 as a regional reform which modified the national cost-sharing reform adopted in July 2012. The impact of this intervention on the number of monthly prescriptions dispensed between July 2012 and December 2018 was estimated using two different approaches of the synthetic control method, the classical method and the method based on Bayesian structural time series. The estimates from both methods were similar, showing significant overall increases of 6.34% and 6.70% [95% credible interval: 4.05, 9.47], respectively in the number of prescriptions dispensed in this region. These results are similar to those of the previous studies indicating that reducing price from a small amount to zero discontinuously boosts demand. This evidence indicates that the impact of this intervention on the budget of the regional health service is far greater than the amount of the subsidy in the public budget. These results are useful for making accurate budgetary projections for similar eliminations of charges for low-income pensioners in the Spanish National Health Service.

Impact of reimbursement rates on the length of stay in tertiary public hospitals: a retrospective cohort study in Shenzhen, China

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between reimbursement rates and the length of stay (LOS).

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

The study was conducted in Shenzhen, China by using health administrative database from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2017.

PARTICIPANTS

6583 patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), 12 395 patients with pneumonia and 10 485 patients who received percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) surgery.

MEASURES

The reimbursement rate was defined as one minus the ratio of out-of-pocket to the total expenditure, multiplied by 100%. The outcome of interest was the LOS. Multilevel negative binomial regression models were constructed to control for patient-level and hospital-level characteristics, and the marginal effect was reported when non-linear terms were available.

RESULTS

Each additional unit of the reimbursement rate was associated with an average of an additional increase of 0.019 (95% CI, 0.015 to 0.023), 0.011 (95% CI, 0.009 to 0.014) and 0.013 (95% CI, 0.010 to 0.016) in the LOS for inpatients with AMI, pneumonia and PCI surgery, respectively. Adding the interaction term between the reimbursement rate and in-hospital survival, the average marginal effects for the deceased inpatients with AMI and PCI surgery were 0.044 (95% CI, 0.031 to 0.058) and 0.034 (95% CI, 0.017 to 0.051), respectively. However, there was no evidence that higher reimbursement rates prolonged the LOS of the patients who died of pneumonia (95% CI, -0.013 to 0.016).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that the higher the reimbursement rate, the longer the LOS; and implementing dynamic supervision and improving the service capabilities of primary healthcare providers may be an important strategy for reducing moral hazard in low-income and middle-income countries including China.

The effect of health-related information seeking and financial strain on medication nonadherence among patients with diabetes and/or hypertension in central Texas

Objective

To assess self-reported financial strain and persistence in asking treatment- and medication-related questions in relation to medication nonadherence.

Method

Data were analysed from a cross-sectional study of adults with diabetes, hypertension or both in central Texas in 2013. Measures of medication nonadherence in the past 12 months, financial strain and patients' persistence in asking treatment- and medication-related questions were identified. Medication nonadherence resulting from cost, transportation or work was compared with medication nonadherence resulting from other reasons. Binary and multinomial regression models were fitted to identify factors associated with medication nonadherence among the respondents.

Key findings

In the bivariate model, medication nonadherence from any cause was significantly associated with financial strain, not asking questions about treatments or medications, and all demographic characteristics. However, in the multinomial model, medication nonadherence resulting from cost, work or transportation was only associated with not asking medication-related question about financial strain, lack of health insurance, age and gender. This was true for nonadherence resulting from other reasons except that ethnicity was significant while gender was not.

Conclusions

While removing financial strain could aid medication adherence, clinicians should also encourage patients to be persistent in asking questions about their medications until they understand the purpose for taking them. Our findings have implications for empowering patients to be more proactive in enhancing their adherence to medications.

Health Outcomes and Primary Adherence to Secondary Prevention Treatment after St-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: a Spanish Cohort Study

This retrospective observational study aimed to establish the first prescription and its dispensation (primary adherence) in the first 30 days of the four pharmacotherapeutic classes recommended after a type 1 STEMI episode, determine the potential risk factors for lack of primary adherence, and evaluate the potential impact of primary adherence on cardiovascular outcomes. Of the 613 patients analyzed, 576 were included (64.7 ± 13.8 years, 73.8% men) between January 2008 and December 2013. Primary adherence exceeded 90% in all groups. Complete primary adherence was higher in high-drug coverage patients and was lower in patients with cardiovascular or neuropsychiatric diseases. According to competing risk analysis, 1-year cardiovascular mortality was significantly lower in patients with complete primary adherence than in those without complete prescription or adherence, 1.8% versus 5.6% (HR = 0.286; p = 0.012). Complete primary adherence did not prevent a 1-year cardiovascular event, 5.6% versus 5.5% (p = 0.904).

Prescribing and medical non-adherence after myocardial infarction: qualitative interviews with general practitioners in Germany

BACKGROUND

An increasing prevalence of having survived a myocardial infarction increases the importance of medical secondary prevention. Although preventive medication reduces mortality, prescribing and adherence are known to be frequently insufficient. General practitioners are the most important prescriber. However, their perspective on prescribing and medical non-adherence following myocardial infarction has not yet been explored. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the general practitioners' perspective on long-term care after myocardial infarction focussing on medical prevention.

METHODS

In this qualitative interview study we conducted episodic interviews with sixteen general practitioners from rural and urban surgeries in Germany. Framework analysis with focus on general practitioners' prescribing and patients' non-adherence was performed.

RESULTS

Almost all general practitioners reported following guidelines for myocardial infarction aftercare and prescribing the medication that was initiated in the hospital; however, they described deviating from guidelines because of drugs' side effects or patients' intolerances. Some questioned the benefits of medical secondary prevention for the oldest of patients. General practitioners perceived good adherence among their patients who had had an MI while they regarded their methods for assessing medical non-adherence as limited. They perceived diverse reasons for non-adherence, particularly side effects, patients' freedom from symptoms and patients' indifference to health. They attributed mainly negative characteristics, like lack of knowledge and understanding, to non-adherent patients. These characteristics contribute to the difficulty of convincing these patients to take medications as prescribed. General practitioners improved adherence by preventing side effects, explaining the medication's necessity, facilitating intake and involving patients in decision-making. However, about half of the general practitioners reported threatening their patients with negative consequences of non-adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

General practitioners should be aware that discharge medication can be insufficient and thus, should always check hospital recommendations for accordance with guideline recommendations. Improving physicians' communication skills and informing and motivating patients in an adequate manner, for example in simple language, should be an important goal in the hospital and the general practitioner setting. General practitioners should assess patients' motivations through motivational interviewing, which no general practitioner mentioned during the interviews, and talk with them about adherence and long-term treatment goals regularly.

Financial Catastrophism Inherent with Out-of-Pocket Payments in Long Term Care for Households: A Latent Impoverishment

Background: Out-of-pocket (OOP) payments are configured as an important source of financing long-term care (LTC). However, very few studies have analyzed the risk of impoverishment and catastrophic effects of OOP in LTC. To estimate the contribution of users to the financing of LTC and to analyze the economic consequences for households in terms of impoverishment and catastrophism after financial crisis in Spain.

METHODS

The database that was used is the 2008 Spanish Disability and Dependency Survey, projected to 2012. We analyze the OOP payments effect associated to the impoverishment of households comparing volume and financial situation before and after OOP payment. At the same time, the extent to which OOP payment had led to catastrophism was analyzed using different thresholds.

RESULTS

The results show that contribution of dependent people to the financing of the services they receive exceeds by 50% the costs of these services. This expenditure entails an increase in the number of households that live below the poverty. In terms of catastrophism, more than 80% of households dedicate more than 10% of their income to dependency OOP payments. In annual terms, the catastrophe gap generated by devoting more than 10% of the household income to dependent care OOP payment reached €3955, 1 million (0.38% of GDP).

CONCLUSION

This article informs about consequences of OOP in LCT and supplements previous research that focus on health. Our results should serve to develop strategic for protection against the financial risk resulting from facing the costs of a situation of dependence.

Impact of Drug Safety Warnings and Cost-Sharing Policies on Osteoporosis Drug Utilization in Spain: A Major Reduction But With the Persistence of Over and Underuse. Data From the ESOSVAL Cohort From 2009 to 2015

Background: Recent studies in several countries show a significant decrease in the consumption of osteoporosis drugs from a peak around 2009, mainly attributed to bisphosphonate safety warnings issued by regulatory agencies on jaw osteonecrosis, atypical fractures, and esophageal cancer, but no studies have assessed the impact of these warnings by risk of fracture strata. Aim: The aim of this work is to assess changes in the utilization of osteoporosis drugs in the region of Valencia (Spain) after safety warnings from regulatory agencies and cost-sharing changes, according to patient socio-demographic and risk of fracture characteristics. Patients and Methods: We constructed a monthly series of osteoporosis drug consumption for 2009-2015 from the ESOSVAL cohort (n = 11,035; women: 48%; mean age: 65 years old) and used interrupted time series and segmented linear regression models to assess changes in osteoporosis drug utilization while controlling for previous levels and trends after three natural intervention dates: the issue of the Spanish Agency for Drugs and Medical Products (AEMPS) Osteonecrosis Jaw Warning (Sept 2009), the AEMPS Atypical femur Fracture Warning (Apr 2011), and the modification of the cost-sharing scheme (Jul 2012). Results: The AEMPS Osteonecrosis Jaw Warning was not associated with a decline in the consumption of osteoporosis drugs, while the warning on atypical fracture (a downward trend of 0.11% fewer people treated each month) and the increase in the cost-sharing scheme (immediate change level of -1.07% in the proportion of people treated) were associated with a strong decline in the proportion of patients treated, so that by the end of 2015 osteoporosis drug consumption was around half that of 2009. The relative decline was similar in people with both a high and low risk of fracture. Conclusion: The AEMPS Atypical femur Fracture Warning of Apr 2010 was associated with a significant decrease in the number of people treated, reinforced by the increase in the pharmaceutical cost-sharing in 2012. Decreases in treatment affected patients both at a low and higher risk of fracture.

Estimating Adherence Based on Prescription or Dispensation Information: Impact on Thresholds and Outcomes. A Real-World Study With Atrial Fibrillation Patients Treated With Oral Anticoagulants in Spain

Objective: To estimate drug exposure, Proportion of Days Covered (PDC) and percentage of patients with PDC ≥ 80% from a cohort of atrial fibrillation patients initiating oral anticoagulant (OAC) treatment. We employed three different approaches to estimate PDC, using either data from prescription and dispensing (PD cohort) or two common designs based on dispensing information only, requiring at least one (D1) or at least two (D2) refills for inclusion in the cohorts. Finally, we assessed the impact of adherence on health outcomes according to each method. Methods: Population-based retrospective cohort of all patients with Non Valvular Atrial Fibrillation (NVAF), who were newly prescribed acenocoumarol, apixaban, dabigatran or rivaroxaban from November 2011 to December 2015 in the region of Valencia (Spain). Patients were followed for 12 months to assess adherence using three different approaches (PD, D1 and D2 cohorts). To analyze the relationship between adherence (PDC ≥ 80) defined according to each method of calculation and health outcomes (death for any cause, stroke or bleeding) Cox regression models were used. For the identification of clinical events patients were followed from the end of the adherence assessment period to the end of the available follow-up period. Results: PD cohort included all patients with an OAC prescription (n = 38,802), D1 cohort excluded fully non-adherent patients (n = 265) and D2 cohort also excluded patients without two refills separated by 180 days (n = 2,614). PDC ≥ 80% ranged from 94% in the PD cohort to 75% in the D1 cohort. Drug exposure among adherent (PDC ≥ 80%) and non-adherent (PDC < 80%) patients was different between cohorts. In adjusted analysis, high adherence was associated with a reduced risk of death [Hazard Ratio (HR): from 0.82 to 0.86] and (except in the PD cohort) the risk for ischemic stroke (HR: from 0.61 to 0.64) without increasing the risk of bleeding. Conclusion: Common approaches to assess adherence using measures based on days' supply exclude groups of non-adherent patients and, also, misattribute periods of doctors' discontinuation to patient non-adherence, misestimating adherence overall. Physician-initiated discontinuation is a major contributor to reduced OAC exposure. When using the PDC80 threshold, very different groups of patients may be classified as adherent or non-adherent depending on the method used for the calculation of days' supply measures. High adherence and high exposure to OAC treatment in NVAF patients is associated with better health outcomes.

Value-Based Health Care Meets Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Value-based health care (VBHC) has recently emerged as a prominent movement within health care. Value-based health care focuses on maximizing outcomes achieved per dollar spent. As such, it bears many similarities to a well-established method, cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), which provides a framework for comparing the relative value of different diagnostic or treatment interventions. Both approaches address "bang for the health care buck," but although they overlap in many ways, VBHC and CEA differ with regard to their main applications, their perspective, and the types of costs and outcomes they consider. For example, CEA generally considers costs and benefits from the societal or health care sector perspectives, whereas VBHC is intended to adopt the patient perspective. As such, CEA is intended to inform coverage decisions at a group or population level and VBHC is intended to be implemented at the level of clinician-patient interactions. Meanwhile, value-based payment has emerged as a visible component of VBHC and is gaining a foothold in the United States in various forms, particularly bundled payments and accountable care organizations, in an effort to reward high-value care and disincentivize low-value care. Differences aside, as the worlds of VBHC and CEA begin to intersect, each discipline can learn from the other.

Socioeconomic inequalities in cardiometabolic control in patients with type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine if the achievement of control targets in patients with type 2 diabetes was associated with personal socioeconomic factors and if these associations were sex-dependent.

METHODS

This cross-sectional, population-based study was conducted in Spain. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) level and other clinical parameters were obtained from electronic primary care records (n = 32,638 cases). Socioeconomic status was determined using education level and yearly income. Among patients, having their HbA1c level checked during the previous year was considered as an indirect measure of the process of care, whereas tobacco use and clinical parameters such as HbA1c, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) and blood pressure (BP) were considered intermediate control outcomes. General linear mixed effect models were used to assess associations.

RESULTS

The achievement of metabolic and cardiovascular control targets in patients with type 2 diabetes was associated with educational level and income, and socioeconomic gradients differed by sex. The probability of having had an HbA1c test performed in the previous year was higher in patients with lower education levels. Patients in the lowest income and education level categories were less likely to have reached the recommended HbA1c level. Males in the lowest education level categories were less likely to be non-smokers or to have achieved the blood pressure targets. In contrast, patients within the low income categories had a higher probability of reaching the recommended LDL-c level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest the presence of socioeconomic inequalities in the achievement of cardiovascular and metabolic control that differed in direction and magnitude depending on the measured outcome and sex of the patient. These findings may help health professionals focus on high-risk individuals to decrease health inequalities.

Effect of copayment policies on initial medication non-adherence according to income: a population-based study

Objective

Copayment policies aim to reduce the burden of medication expenditure but may affect adherence and generate inequities in access to healthcare. The objective was to evaluate the impact of two copayment measures on initial medication non-adherence (IMNA) in several medication groups and by income level.

Design

A population-based study was conducted using real-world evidence.

Setting

Primary care in Catalonia (Spain) where two separate copayment measures (fixed copayment and coinsurance) were introduced between 2011 and 2013.

Participant

Every patient with a new prescription issued between 2011 and 2014 (3 million patients and 10 million prescriptions).

Outcomes

IMNA was estimated throughout dispensing and invoicing information. Changes in IMNA prevalence after the introduction of copayment policies (immediate level change and trend changes) were estimated through segmented logistic regression. The regression models were stratified by economic status and medication groups.

Results

Before changes to copayment policies, IMNA prevalence remained stable. The introduction of a fixed copayment was followed by a statistically significant increase in IMNA in poor population, low/middle-income pensioners and low-income non-pensioners (OR from 1.047 to 1.370). In high-income populations, there was a large statistically non-significant increase. IMNA decreased in the low-income population after suspension of the fixed copayment and the introduction of a coinsurance policy that granted this population free access to medications (OR=0.676). Penicillins were least affected while analgesics were affected to the greatest extent. IMNA to medications for chronic conditions increased in low/middle-income pensioners.

Conclusion

Even nominal charge fixed copayment may generate inequities in access to health services. An anticipation effect and expenses associated with IMNA may have generated short-term costs. A reduction in copayment can protect from non-adherence and have positive, long-term effects. Copayment scenarios could have considerable long-term consequences for health and costs due to increased IMNA in medication for chronic physical conditions.

A Multilevel Analysis of Real-World Variations in Oral Anticoagulation Initiation for Atrial Fibrillation in Valencia, a European Region

Introduction: Beyond clinical trials, clinical practice guidelines, and administrative regulation, treatment decision-making can be influenced by individual and contextual factors. Our goal was to describe variations in the patterns of initiation of anticoagulation therapy in patients with atrial fibrillation by Health Areas (HA) in the region of Valencia in Spain and to quantify the influence of the HAs on variations in treatment choice.

Methods: We conducted a population-based retrospective cohort study of all atrial fibrillation patients who started treatment with oral anticoagulants between November 2011 and February 2014 in each of the region's 24 HAs. We described patient and utilization characteristics per HA and initiation patterns over time, and we identified contextual and individual factors associated with differences in initiation patterns.

Results: 21,879 patients initiated treatment with an oral anticoagulant in the 24 HAs. Initiation with direct oral anticoagulants (DOAC) in the first year was 14.6%. In November 2013 the ratio was 25.4%, with HA ratios ranging from 3.8 to 57.1%. DOAC-initiating patients had less comorbidity but were more likely to present episodes of previous ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, or TIA when compared with patients initiating with VKA treatment. Variability among HAs was statistically significant, with the majority of HAs ranking above or below the regional initiation average (ICC ≈ 8%).

Conclusion: There was high variability in the percentage of DOAC initiation and in the choice of DOAC among HAs. Interventions aimed to improve DOAC initiation decision-making and to reduce variations should take into account the Health Area component.