Association between maternal health literacy and child vaccination in India: a cross-sectional study

Association between Paediatric Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use and Parental Health Literacy, Child Health, and Socio-Economic Variables: A Prospective Study

Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) constitute products and practices not considered allopathic medicine. CAM use is high in children, but little is known about factors that may influence parents using CAM with their child. This study aimed to determine the variables associated with CAM use in children with a prospective study among children and their parents attending a tertiary care hospital in New Zealand (NZ). Outcomes included current CAM use, parental opinions on CAM, parental health literacy and child well-being. This study was completed by 130 parents (85% female), and the mean child age was 6.7 years. CAM use was reported for 59 (45%) children, the most common being oral supplements and body manipulation. Children were more likely to use CAM if their parent had higher health literacy (p = 0.001), and if they had previously attended the emergency department within 12 months (p = 0.03). There was no association between child well-being and CAM use. Parental opinion of using CAM only if a doctor recommended it was associated with CAM use for their child (p = 0.01). Only 40% of parents disclosed their child's CAM use to the medical team. This study highlights that parental health literacy influences the use of CAM for children in NZ, providing insight for translational research to improve CAM safety and disclosure rates in NZ.

Women Health Literacy and Associated Factors on Women and Child Health Care in Ilu Ababor Public Health Facilities, Ethiopia

Background

Maternal health literacy (MHL) is the ability of mothers to obtain, interpret, appraise, and apply women and child health information that contributes to a reduction in mortality among mothers and children. This is an important concern since a woman's health during pregnancy may be her first interaction with the healthcare system, and a woman's comprehension of health information has a direct impact on her unborn child's growth throughout the process of conception.

Aim

Assess the degree of maternal health literacy and related factors in women's and children's health care among mothers whose children have received basic immunizations at the public healthcare facilities in Ilu Abba Boor.

Methods and Materials

A cross-sectional study was carried out in the facility between December 2021 and January 2022. Investigators trained supervisors and data collectors for five days before data collection. Through basic random sampling, 411 mothers whose children had received the minimum set of vaccinations from health facilities in the Ilu Ababor zone of Oromia, Ethiopia, were chosen. Face-to-face interviews were used to gather the data, which were then imported into Epidata 4.1 and exported to SPSS. The factors associated with maternal health literacy in maternal and child healthcare were identified through the application of descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and multivariable logistic regression analyses. The findings are displayed in the form of graphs, tables, and figures.

Results

This study had a 100% response rate when 411 participants were invited to participate. The mean maternal health literacy score was 28.5±10.3. Most of the women (293 [71.3%]) had inadequate health literacy levels while 118 (28.7%) had adequate. The multivariate analysis's findings indicated that the rate of adequate maternal health literacy was 12.2 times higher among urban women than among rural ones (AOR=12.2 [5.34, 24.48]). Women who gave birth vaginally were 0.24 times less likely to have adequate maternal health literacy than women who had a caesarean section (AOR=0.24 [0.112, 0.503]). Mothers who had four or more prenatal care follow-ups were found to have sufficient maternal health literacy higher than those who had just one (AOR=0.23[0.095, 0.556]), two (AOR=0.26[0.138, 0.307]), and three times (0.14{0.108, 0.167]) antenatal care contacts.

Discussion and Recommendation

This study shows that inadequate maternal health literacy affects the healthcare of mothers and children. Given the significance of health literacy for women's health, national health authorities ought to develop more educational initiatives aimed at raising health literacy rates and empowering women who are of reproductive age.

Trends of inequality in DPT3 immunization services utilization in Ethiopia and its determinant factors: Evidence from Ethiopian demographic and health surveys, 2000-2019

BACKGROUND

Low levels of diphtheria, tetanus toxoid, pertussis (DPT3) immunization services utilization and high deaths among under five children are concentrated in economically and socially disadvantaged groups, especially in low and middle-income countries, including Ethiopia. Hence, the aim of this study is to assess levels and trends in DPT3 immunization services utilization in Ethiopia and identify inequalities.

METHODS

This study used data from 2000, 2005, 2011, 2016, and 2019 Ethiopian Demographic Health Surveys (EDHSs). The 2019 updated version of the world health organization (WHO's) Health Equity Assessment Toolkit (HEAT) software was used to analyze the data. Six measure of inequality was calculated: ratio (R), differences (D), relative index of inequality (RII), slope index of inequality (SII), population attributable fraction (PAF) and population attributable risk (PAR). The findings were disaggregated by the five equity stratifiers: economic status, education, place of residence, regions and sex of the child.

RESULTS

This study showed an erratic distribution of DPT3 immunization services utilization in Ethiopia. The trends in national DPT3 immunization coverage increased from 21% in (2000) to 62% in (2019) (by 41 percentage points). Regarding economic inequality, DPT3 immunization coverages for the poorest quintiles over 20 years were 15.3% (2000), and 47.7% (2019), for the richest quintiles coverage were 43.1 (2000), and 83.4% (2019). However, the service utilization among the poorest groups were increased three fold compared to the richest groups. Regarding educational status, inequality (RII) show decreasing pattern from 7.2% (2000) to 1.5% in(2019). Concerning DPT3 immunization inequality related to sex, (PAR) show that, sex related inequality is zero in 2000, 2005 and in 2019. However, based on the subnational region level, significance difference (PAR) was found in all surveys: 59.7 (2000), 51.1 (2005), 52.2 (2011), 42.5 (2016) and 30.7 (2019). The interesting point of this finding was that, the value of absolute inequality measures (PAR) and (PAF), are shown a decreasing trends from 2000 to 2019, and the gap among the better of regions and poor regions becoming narrowed over the last 20 years. Concerning individual and community level factors, household wealth index, education of the mother, age of respondent, antenatal care, and place of delivery show statically significant with outcome variable. Keeping the other variables constant the odds of an average child in Amhara Region getting DPT3 immunization was 54% less than for a child who lived in Addis Ababa (OR: 0.46, 95% CI: 0.34 - 0.63). Respondents from households with the richest and richer wealth status had 1.21, and 1.26 times higher odds of DPT3 immunization services utilization compared to their counterpart (OR: 1.21, 95% CI: 1.04 -1.41) and (OR: 1.26, 95% CI: 1.13 - 1.40) respectively.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that DPT3 immunization coverage shows a growing trend over 20 years in Ethiopia. But inequalities in utilization of DPT3 immunization services among five equality stratifies studied persisted. Reasons for this could be complex and multifactorial and depending on economic, social, maternal education, place of residence, and healthcare context. Therefore, policy has to be structured and be implemented in a ways that address context specific barriers to achieving equality among population sub-groups and regions.

Barriers and facilitators of HPV vaccination in sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide. Globally, both men and women have a 50% risk of being infected at least once in their life. HPV prevalence is among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), at an average of 24%. HPV causes different types of cancers, including cervical cancer (CC), which is the leading cause of cancer deaths among women in SSA. HPV-vaccination has been proven to be effective in reducing HPV induced cancers. SSA countries are delayed in reaching the WHO's target of fully vaccinating 90% of girls within the age of 15 by 2030. Our systematic review aims to identify barriers and facilitators of HPV-vaccination in SSA to inform national implementation strategies in the region.

METHODS

This is a mixed method systematic review based on the PRISMA statement and The Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers' Manual. Search strategies were adapted to each selected database: PubMed/MEDLINE, Livivo, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and African Journals Online for papers published in English, Italian, German, French and Spanish between 1 December 2011 and 31 December 2021. Zotero and Rayyan were the software used for data management. The appraisal was conducted by three independent reviewers.

RESULTS

A total of 20 articles were selected for appraisal from an initial 536 articles. Barriers included: limited health system capacities, socio-economic status, stigma, fear and costs of vaccines, negative experience with vaccinations, COVID-19 pandemic, lack of correct information, health education (HE) and consent. Additionally, we found that boys are scarcely considered for HPV-vaccination by parents and stakeholders. Facilitators included: information and knowledge, policy implementation, positive experience with vaccinations, HE, stakeholders' engagement, women's empowerment, community engagement, seasonality, and target-oriented vaccination campaigns.

CONCLUSIONS

This review synthesizes barriers and facilitators of HPV-vaccinations in SSA. Addressing these can contribute to the implementation of more effective HPV immunization programs targeted at eliminating CC in line with the WHO 90/70/90 strategy.

REGISTRATION AND FUNDING

Protocol ID: CRD42022338609 registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO). Partial funds: German Centre for Infection research (DZIF) project NAMASTE: 8,008,803,819.

An Equity Analysis of Zero-Dose Children in India Using the National Family Health Survey Data: Status, Challenges, and Next Steps

Background While immunization programs across the world have made considerable progress, children and communities continue to be beyond the reach of healthcare services. Globally, they are now referred to as zero-dose (ZD) children (those who have not received a single dose of diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus-containing vaccine). Pre-COVID-19 pandemic analyses suggest that nearly 50% of vaccine-preventable deaths occur among ZD children. Two-thirds of these children live in extremely poor households suffering from multiple deprivations including lack of access to reproductive health services, water, and sanitation. Hence, ZD children have now been prioritized as a key cohort for identification and integration with the health systems as we build back from the pandemic. Methodology Extracting data from the last two National Family Health Survey (NFHS) rounds (NFHS 4, 2015-2016 and NFHS 5, 2019-2021), this study aims to ascertain the status of ZD children aged 12-23 months in India, the challenges, and the necessary action agenda going forward. Data were analyzed for equity determinants such as gender, place of residence, religion, birth order, caste, and mother's schooling. Key determinants included the change in ZD prevalence at the national, state, and district levels; variations across equity parameters and states with maximum improvements; and disparity across these indicators. A correlation analysis was also conducted to understand the nature of the association between ZD prevalence and critical maternal and child health indicators. Results The overall ZD prevalence between the two rounds was reduced by 4.1% (10.5-6.4%). A total of 26 states in the country reported a ZD prevalence of <10% in NFHS 5 compared to 18 in NFHS 4. In total, 324 districts reported a ZD prevalence of <5%, and 145 districts reported a prevalence of >10%. The equity parameters reflected a slow-footed reduction among ZD for girl children, across urban geographies, firstborn children, mothers with 12 or more years of schooling, and children in families with the highest wealth quintiles. A negative correlation accentuated between the two NFHS rounds was established between first-trimester registration, four or more antenatal visits, institutional deliveries, and ZD prevalence. Conclusions The findings point toward sustained improvement across key equity parameters, however, challenges do exist. Moreover, the impact of the pandemic on immunization programs across the globe and in India is bound to halt and reverse the progress and potentiate further inequities. It is thus imperative that continued and augmented efforts are continued to identify, integrate, and immunize ZD children, families, and communities.

Vaccine Literacy, COVID-19 Vaccine-Related Concerns, and Intention to Recommend COVID-19 Vaccines of Healthcare Workers in a Pediatric and Maternity Hospital: A Cross-Sectional Study

Vaccine literacy of healthcare workers (HCWs) may affect the COVID-19 vaccine uptake of the general population. This study aimed to clarify the vaccine literacy level of HCWs in Japan and its impacts on their concerns about vaccines and intention to recommend that others receive vaccines. This cross-sectional survey was conducted in July 2021 based on the recruitment of HCWs in a pediatric and maternity hospital and research center in Tokyo, Japan. All HCWs in this center had the chance to receive the COVID-19 vaccine before the survey, and their vaccine coverage was relatively high, at 95%. A total of 1519 workers answered the questionnaire. The results showed that HCWs with lower functional vaccine literacy had 1.5 times as many concerns about the efficacy of vaccines and 1.6 times as many concerns about the future side effects compared with those with higher literacy. Further, HCWs with higher vaccine literacy were more likely to recommend that older people, people with comorbidities, and pregnant women receive vaccines. Our findings suggest that high vaccine literacy alleviates concerns about COVID-19 vaccines and raised the intention to recommend vaccines to others. To achieve high vaccine coverage, countermeasures such as personalized education are essential.

Understanding determinants of vaccine hesitancy and acceptance in India: A qualitative study of government officials and civil society stakeholders

Introduction

Few studies have described the drivers of vaccine hesitancy and acceptance in India from the perspective of those involved in the design and implementation of vaccine campaigns–such as government officials and civil society stakeholders–a prerequisite to developing approaches to address this barrier to high immunization coverage and further child health improvements.

Methods

We conducted a qualitative study to understand government officials and civil society stakeholders’ perceptions of the drivers of vaccine hesitancy in India. We conducted in-depth phone interviews using a structured guide of open-ended questions with 21 participants from international and national non-governmental organizations, professional associations, and universities, and state and national government–six national-level stakeholders in New Delhi, six state-level stakeholders in Uttar Pradesh, six in Kerala, and three in Gujarat–from July 2020 to October 2020. We analyzed data through a multi-stage process following Grounded Theory. We present findings on individual-level, contextual, and vaccine/vaccination program-specific factors influencing vaccine hesitancy.

Results

We identified multiple drivers and complex ways they influence vaccine beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors from the perspective of government officials and civil society stakeholders involved in vaccine campaigns. Important individual-level influences were low awareness of the benefits of vaccination, safety concerns, especially related to mild adverse events following immunization, and mistrust in government and health service quality. Contextual-level factors included communications, the media environment, and social media, which serves as a major conduit of misinformation and driver of hesitancy, as well as sociodemographic factors–specific drivers varied widely by income, education, urban/rural setting, and across religious and cultural groups. Among vaccine/vaccination-level issues, vaccine program design and delivery and the role of health care professionals emerged as the strongest determinants of hesitancy.

Conclusions

Drivers of vaccine hesitancy in India, as elsewhere, vary widely by local context; successful interventions should address individual, contextual, and vaccine-specific factors. While previous studies focused on individual-level factors, our study demonstrates the equal importance of contextual and vaccine-specific influences, especially the communication and media environment, influential leaders, sociodemographic factors, and frontline health workers.

Maternal health literacy, utilisation of maternal healthcare services and pregnancy outcomes among newly delivered mothers: A cross-sectional study in Nigeria

Objectives

Study design

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Barriers and facilitators to timely birth-dose vaccines in Kinshasa Province, the DRC: a qualitative study

Background

National vaccine policies across the world have successfully improved infant vaccine coverage, but birth-dose (BD) vaccine coverage remains low. Countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) aim to include the hepatitis B birth-dose (HepB-BD) vaccine in their national immunization schedule. HepB-BD’s short window for administration – within 24 hours of delivery to prevent mother-to-child transmission – adds to the complexity of streamlined and timely BD vaccines. This study aims to identify and understand barriers and facilitators to timely delivery of BD vaccine in Kinshasa Province, DRC, through individuals’ accounts with different perspectives on the uptake of the BD vaccine in preparation for its future roll-out.

Methods

We conducted semi-structured interviews in seven health facilities across Kinshasa Province from June to July 2021. We purposefully sampled health facilities from the provinces’ five most prominent facility types—private, public, Catholic, Protestant, and not-for-profit. We interviewed decision-makers and/or providers from various levels of the health care continuum, including midwives, immunization staff, heads of maternity and immunizations, and vaccine officials at the health zone and the Programme Elargi de Vaccination (PEV) to understand administrative barriers to BD vaccines. We also conducted interviews with expectant mothers to elicit knowledge and perceptions about infant vaccines.

Results

We interviewed 30 participants (16 informants and 14 expectant mothers). Interviewees were recruited from 7 health facilities, 2 health zones, and PEV. Data analysis was guided by the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR). Our analysis identified 13 constructs (2-3 per domain) related to the success of timely and streamlined BD vaccines. We found significant barriers within and across each domain; most notably, the multi-dose vials of existing BD vaccines determining when facility staff could vaccinate newborns, often resulting in untimely vaccinations; logistical concerns with regular national vaccine stockouts and ability to store vaccines; complex and unsynchronized vaccine fees across facilities; inadequate communication across delivery and vaccination wards; and limited and at times incorrect understanding of vaccines among mothers and other community members.

Conclusions

Using the CFIR framework, this study integrated perspectives from facility informants and expectant mothers to inform national policy and implementation of the HepB-BD in DRC. These stakeholder-driven findings should guide the streamlining of timely BD vaccinations upon HepB-BD implementation.

Health literacy in communication, decision-making and outcomes among cancer patients, their families and clinicians in India: A multicentre cross-sectional qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

Cancer patients in India prefer full information regarding diagnosis and prognosis, but evidence suggests poor insight. This study aimed to identify the role of health literacy among adult patients living with cancer, their families and health professionals in decision-making and treatment outcomes in India.

METHODS

This cross-sectional in-depth study recruited patients, families and clinicians from three centers. Inductive thematic analysis informed a novel conceptual model.

RESULTS

We recruited n = 34 cancer patients, n = 33 family members, n = 11 doctors and n = 14 nurses (N = 92). Principle emergent themes were the following: (1) Preferences and dynamics of diagnosis and prognosis disclosure, for example, the dominant preference was for families who held hope for cure to discourage disclosure; clinicians sometimes disclosed in line with perceived ability to pay for treatment. (2) Understanding of disease and its treatment options (etiology, potential trajectory, treatment options), for example, lay understandings of cancer etiology as contamination from outside the home, and reluctance of patients to ask questions of clinicians. (3) Priorities in decision-making, for example, not engaging patients due to fear of patient distress, patients initiated on anticancer treatments without knowledge or consent, pursuing futile treatments. (4) Anxieties over finances and outcomes (disclosure, decision-making, care pathways), for example, clinicians attempting to reduce families pursuing expensive and inappropriate treatment options with patients who have poor insight, catastrophic spending based on poor decisions.

CONCLUSION

The novel evidence-based health literacy model offers potential for feasible and acceptable intervention to support families in communication, disclosure and decision-making. This may improve patients' access to informed, appropriate care pathways.

Building evidence for improving vaccine adoption and uptake of childhood vaccinations in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review

Vaccine coverage for children is an important indicator of the performance of national health and immunization systems. Most of the existing literature has targeted mothers’ low educational level, living in underserved districts and/or remote rural areas and economic poverty that are correlated with low immunization coverage but the supply- and demand-side constraints to immunization in low- and middle- income countries (LMICs) are not well understood. The reliability of claimed administrative immunization coverage in these contexts is questionable. To address these barriers within the present Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI), the difficulties related to inadequate vaccination uptake must be addressed in more depth. Building on already produced literature, this study aims to determine the extent of immunization coverage among children in LMICs, as well as to fill in the gaps in awareness about system-level obstacles that currently hinder the effective delivery and uptake of immunization services through EPI. By two reviewers, a literature search using PubMed and Google Scholar along with targeted grey literature was conducted on the 2nd of June 2021 by following PRISMA guidelines. The search techniques for electronic databases used both Medical Subject Headings (Mesh) and free-text words were tailored to each database's specific needs using a controlled vocabulary that was limited to the English language from 2000 and 2020. Of the 689 records, eleven articles were included in this review meeting the inclusion criteria. In total, five articles related to vaccination coverage, four studies on components of the routine immunization system, one article on the implementation of new and under-utilized vaccines and one were on vaccines financing. We evaluated the quality of the included studies and extracted into tables created by one investigator and double-checked by another. Review findings suggest that specific strategies to reduce inequality may be required. Vaccine procurement and pricing strategies, as well as vaccine customization to meet the needs of LMICs, are all critical components in strengthening immunization systems. Our findings could be used to establish practical strategies for countries and development partners to address coverage gaps and improve vaccination system effectiveness.

Inequalities in full vaccination coverage based on maternal education and wealth quintiles among children aged 12-23 months: further analysis of national cross-sectional surveys of six South Asian countries

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to compare full vaccination coverage and its inequalities (by maternal education and household wealth quintile).

DESIGN

This further analysis was based on the data from national-level cross-sectional Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) from six countries in South Asia.

SETTING

We used most recent DHS data from six South Asian countries: Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and the Maldives. The sample size of children aged 12-23 months ranged from 6697 in the Maldives to 628 900 in India.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

To measure absolute and relative inequalities of vaccination coverage, we used regression-based inequality measures, slope index of inequality (SII) and the relative index of inequality (RII), respectively, by maternal education and wealth quintile.

RESULTS

Full vaccination coverage was the highest in Bangladesh (84%) and the lowest in Afghanistan (46%), with an average of 61.5% for six countries. Pakistan had the largest inequalities in coverage both by maternal education (SII: -50.0, RII: 0.4) and household wealth quintile (SII: -47.1, RII: 0.5). Absolute inequalities were larger by maternal education compared with wealth quintile in four of the six countries. The relative index of inequality by maternal education was lower in Pakistan (0.5) and Afghanistan (0.5) compared with Nepal (0.7), India (0.7) and Bangladesh (0.7) compared with rest of the countries. By wealth quintiles, RII was lower in Pakistan (0.5) and Afghanistan (0.6) and higher in Nepal (0.9) and Maldives (0.9).

CONCLUSIONS

The full vaccination coverage in 12-23 months old children was below 85% in all six countries. Inequalities by maternal education were more profound than household wealth-based inequalities in four of six countries studied, supporting the benefits of maternal education to improve child health outcome.

A Women's Rights-Based Approach to Reducing Child Mortality: Data from 193 Countries Show that Gender Equality does Affect Under-five Child Mortality

OBJECTIVES

Mother's health and wellbeing significantly affects child health. Women's autonomy can improve healthcare-seeking behaviour, utilisation of healthcare services, and planned pregnancy, thereby improving child health. The global under-five mortality rate (U5MR) has seen the fastest decline in the past two decades, but the influence of gender equality on child mortality remains unaddressed. A strategic approach addressing gender equality is needed to reduce the U5MR further. The study aimed to identify and investigate the association between indicators of gender equality and U5MR using a human rights-based approach.

METHODS

We analysed open-source secondary data from international agencies comprising 521 gender-sensitive variables for 193 countries. Nine variables were included for the final Structural Equation Model based on the theoretical model. Model 1 consisted of 193 countries, and Model 2 comprised a subgroup analysis of 11 variables for 158 countries. Gender equality was a latent variable, and the U5MR was the outcome variable.

RESULTS

Gender equality was significantly associated with U5MR (Z = - 7.47, 95% CI = - 754.67 to - 440.98, p < 0‧001, n = 193 for Model 1, and Z = - 7.71, 95% CI = - 808.26 to - 480.72, p < 0‧001, n = 158 for Model 2). Female education, women's waged and salaried employment, women as employers, and women's representation in leadership and parliament enhanced gender equality, whereas the prevalence of child marriage and intimate partner violence (IPV) negatively affected gender equality. Improvement in gender equality significantly reduced U5MR. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Improving women's economic, educational, and social position and increasing female representation in higher leadership and policymaking positions is the key to reducing child mortality. Notably, eliminating child marriage and IPV is the key to achieving gender equality and is needed at the forefront of national policies. Gender equality can significantly improve women's reproductive autonomy, a critical factor in improving healthcare utilisation for women and their children.

"I had to change my attitude": narratives of most significant change explore the experience of universal home visits to pregnant women and their spouses in Bauchi State, Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Universal home visits to pregnant women and their spouses in Bauchi State, northern Nigeria, discussed local evidence about maternal and child health risks actionable by households. The expected results chain for improved health behaviours resulting from the visits was based on the CASCADA model, which includes Conscious knowledge, Attitudes, Subjective norms, intention to Change, Agency to change, Discussion of options, and Action to change. Previous quantitative analysis confirmed the impact of the visits on maternal and child outcomes. To explore the mechanisms of the quantitative improvements, we analysed participants' narratives of changes in their lives they attributed to the visits.

METHODS

Local researchers collected stories of change from 23 women and 21 men in households who had received home visits, from eight male and eight female home visitors, and from four government officers attached to the home visits program. We used a deductive thematic analysis based on the CASCADA results chain to analyze stories from women and men in households, and an inductive thematic approach to analyze stories from home visitors and government officials.

RESULTS

The stories from the visited women and men illustrated all steps in the CASCADA results chain. Almost all stories described increases in knowledge. Stories also described marked changes in attitudes and positive deviations from harmful subjective norms. Most stories recounted a change in behaviour attributed to the home visits, and many went on to mention a beneficial outcome of the behaviour change. Men, as well as women, described significant changes. The home visitors' stories described increases in knowledge, increased self-confidence and status in the community, and, among women, financial empowerment.

CONCLUSIONS

The narratives of change gave insights into likely mechanisms of impact of the home visits, at least in the Bauchi setting. The compatibility of our findings with the CASCADA results chain supports the use of this model in designing and analysing similar interventions in other settings. The indication that the home visits changed male engagement has broader relevance and contributes to the ongoing debate about how to increase male involvement in reproductive health.

Pathways linking parental health literacy with health behaviours directed at the child: a scoping review

Health literacy (HL) is thought to be crucial for the management of the manifold demands relating to child health which parents are faced with. Albeit many studies have investigated parental HL and health behaviours (HBs) directed at the child, knowledge about the pathways which link parental HL with HB is scarce. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and comprehensively describe the variety of pathways linking parental HL with HBs directed at the child which were empirically analysed in previous studies. Following established scoping review methods database searches were conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and WebofScience on 5 March 2020. Eligibility criteria included primary, empirical studies assessing parental HL and HB directed at the child in the general parent population. Titles and abstracts were screened independently by six reviewers for potentially relevant publications and data were extracted using standardized data extraction forms. The search identified 6916 articles for title and abstract screening. After full-text review, 50 studies were included in this review. Most studies (N = 24) assumed a direct association between HL and HBs and only few studies (N = 4) used more complex models investigating different pathways or mediation and/or moderation models. Overall, the evidence on the underlying pathways linking parental HL and HBs directed at the child is mixed and fairly limited. Therefore, hypothesis-driven research and integration of results into theoretical frameworks is needed for advancing both the research on HL and public health practice.

Livestock vaccination programme participation among smallholder farmers on the outskirts of National Parks and Tiger Reserves in the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh and Assam

Effective livestock vaccination has the potential to raise prosperity and food security for the rural poor in low and middle income countries. To understand factors affecting access to vaccination services, and guide future policy, smallholder farmers in three locations in India were questioned about vaccination of their cattle and buffalo, with particular reference to foot and mouth disease (FMD), haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) and blackquarter (BQ). In the three regions 51%, 50%, and 31% of respondents reported vaccinating their livestock; well below any threshold for effective population level disease control. However, within the third region, 65% of respondents in villages immediately surrounding the Kaziranga National Park reported vaccinating their cattle. The majority of respondents in all three regions were aware of FMD and HS, awareness of BQ was high in the Kanha and Bandhavgarh regions, but much lower in the Kaziranga region. The majority of respondents had positive attitudes to vaccination; understood vaccination protected their animals from specific diseases; and wished to immunise their livestock. There was no significant association between the age or gender of respondent and the immunisation of their livestock. Common barriers to immunisation were: negative attitudes to vaccination; lack of awareness of date and time of vaccination events; and difficulty presenting animals. Poor access to vaccination services was significantly associated with not vaccinating livestock. Fear of adverse reactions to vaccines was not significantly associated with not vaccinating livestock. Respondents who reported that vets or animal health workers (AHWs) were their main source of animal health knowledge were significantly more likely to have immunised their livestock in the last twelve months. Participants cited poor communication from vaccinators as problematic, both in publicising immunisation programmes, and explaining the purpose of vaccination. Where vaccinations were provided free of charge, farmers commonly displayed passive attitudes to accessing vaccination services, awaiting organised “immunisation drives” rather than seeking vaccination themselves. Based on these findings the following recommendations are made to improve participation and effectiveness of immunisation programmes. Programmes should be planned to integrate with annual cycles of: disease risk, agricultural activity, seasonal climate, social calendar of villages; and maximise efficiency for vaccinators. Dates and times of immunisation in each village must be well publicised, as respondents frequently reported missing the vaccinators. Relevant farmer education should precede immunisation programmes to mitigate against poor knowledge or negative attitudes. Immunisation drives must properly engage beneficiaries, particularly ensuring that services are accessible to female livestock keepers, and sharing some responsibilities with local farmers. Payment of a small monetary contribution by animal keepers could be considered to encourage responsibility for disease prevention, making vaccination an active process by farmers.

Rapidly modifiable factors associated with full vaccination status among children in Niamey, Niger: A cross-sectional, random cluster household survey

Background and objectives

Vaccination status becomes more equitable when interventions are carried out to eliminate poverty or to improve levels in maternal education. Low-income countries need to identify interventions that would have a more immediate and equitable effect. The present study aimed to identify rapidly modifiable factors associated with full vaccination status among children in Niamey, Niger.

Methods

A cross-sectional, random cluster household survey was conducted in Niamey’s five health districts. Data on vaccination coverage and socioeconomic household characteristics were collected. Logistic regression analysis was conducted with data on 445 mothers and their children aged 12–23 months.

Results

Of 445 children, 38% were fully vaccinated. Mothers who were satisfied with their health worker’s attitude and had correct vaccination calendar knowledge (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 5.32, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.05–13.82) were more likely to have fully vaccinated children. Mothers who had completed secondary school (aOR 2.04, 95% CI 1.17–3.55) were also associated with having fully vaccinated children.

Conclusions

A higher rate of full vaccination among children could be achieved by relatively short-term modifiable factors. These modifiable factors are mothers’ satisfaction with health workers’ attitudes and knowledge of the vaccination calendar. Maternal satisfaction with health workers’ attitudes could be improved through better interpersonal communication between health workers and mothers. Specifically, mothers should be given specific information on time intervals between appointments. Strengthened communication interventions may be effective in improving both the acceptability of health services and low vaccination coverage.

Maternal health literacy on mother and child health care: A community cluster survey in two southern provinces in Laos

RATIONAL

Increased maternal health literacy (MHL) has contributed considerably to maternal and child health outcomes in many countries. Malnutrition, and low coverage of child vaccination and breastfeeding are major health concerns in Laos, but there is little insight into mothers' literacy on these issues. The aim of this study was to identify the level of MHL of Lao mothers and to explore factors influencing it, in order to provide evidence that can inform policies and planning of health services.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was conducted using a questionnaire on health literacy (ability to access, understand, appraise and apply health-related information) in relation to care during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. We interviewed 384 mothers with children aged under five years; 197 from urban and 187 from rural areas. Descriptive and inferential statistics were applied to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Overall, MHL of Lao mothers was very low in both urban and rural areas; 80% of mothers had either inadequate or problematic MHL, while only 17.4% had sufficient and 3.5% excellent MHL. The MHL scores were significantly higher in urban than in rural areas. One third of mothers found it very difficult to access, understand, appraise and apply information on mother and child (MCH). Health personnel were the main source of MCH information for the mothers. Years of schooling, own income, health status, and number of ANC visits significantly predicted a higher level of MHL (R square = 0.250; adjusted R square = 0.240, P = <0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

MHL of Lao mothers was inadequate in both urban and rural areas. Socio-demographics and key practices of the mothers were significantly associated with a better level of MHL. Health education on MHL to mothers in both urban and rural areas needs attention, and could best be done by improving the quality of health providers' provision of information.

Measuring the constructs of health literacy in the Iranian adult Kurdish population

BACKGROUND

Health literacy is essential to self-care, which is an important precedence to improve the quality of healthcare services and a key factor in health. It also plays a pivotal role in decision-making in various health fields. Therefore, policymakers consider health literacy to be a primary tool to promote community health and enhance the proper use of healthcare services. The present study aimed to assess the health literacy status of the Kurdish population in Kurdistan province, Iran based on the nine constructs of the Iranian health literacy questionnaire (IHLQ) individually and collectively and determine the significant effects of demographic variables on health literacy.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on the Iranian adult Kurdish population living in the urban and rural areas of Kurdistan province, willing to participate during April 2017-September 2018. Data were collected using the IHLQ. The sample size was determined to be 980 people, with 490 in the rural areas and 490 in the urban areas. The researchers visited potential participants at their doorstep, asking them to complete the questionnaire. The willing participants were assisted in completing the IHLQ in case they were illiterate; the questions and answers were read by the researchers to the participants, and the responses were recorded.

RESULTS

About 50.4% (n = 494) of the Kurdish population had poor health literacy, while 34.0% (n = 333) had average health literacy, and 15.6% (n = 153) had good health literacy. Meanwhile, 60.2% of the participants obtained poor scores in the construct of health information access, and 74.1% (n = 726) obtained poor scores in the individual empowerment construct. In addition, the analysis of the adjusted model indicated that education level (lowest β = 7.42; P = 0.001) and in male participants (β = - 1.10; P = 0.001) were significantly associated with higher health literacy.

CONCLUSION

According to the results, the investigated Kurdish population mostly had average or low health literacy. Therefore, proper strategies should be adopted to enhance the health literacy of this population and increase their access to health information. Furthermore, effective training should be provided to these individuals (especially vulnerable social groups) to improve their individual capabilities to compensate for poor health literacy.

Validity and Reliability of the Indian Version of the HLS-EU-Q16 Questionnaire

Health literacy is a key topic in public health. Several measurement tools exist that operationalize health literacy, but only a few standard tools measure health literacy at a population level, and none of those are currently available for the Indian context. This study aimed to develop and validate an Indian version of the short form of the European Health literacy Questionnaire (HLS-EU Q16). Following the translation of the English version of the questionnaire in Hindi and Kannada by language experts and confirmation of the item content by health literacy experts, the questionnaire was administered to 158 Hindi speaking and 182 Kannada speaking individuals, selected via purposive sampling. Pearson’s correlation was used to confirm test–retest reliability, and confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the construct validity of the scales in both languages. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated for the scales and their sub-domains, and item-total correlations were used to calculate item discriminant indices. Discriminant validity was examined by comparing scores of participant groups based on educational status and training in health care. Cronbach’s alpha for the Hindi version of the tool (HLS-IND-HIN-Q16) was 0.98, and for Kannada version (HLS-IND-KAN-Q16) 0.97. Confirmatory factor analysis produced fit indices within acceptable limits. The results allowed us to conclude that the two Indian language questionnaires allow valid and reliable measurements of health literacy among the Hindi and Kannada speaking population of India.

The PROMISES study: a mixed methods approach to explore the acceptability of salivary progesterone testing for preterm birth risk among pregnant women and trained frontline healthcare workers in rural India

INTRODUCTION

India has an overall neonatal mortality rate of 28/1000 live births, with higher rates in rural India. Approximately 3.5 million pregnancies in India are affected by preterm birth (PTB) annually and contribute to approximately a quarter of PTBs globally. Embedded within the PROMISES study (which aims to validate a low-cost salivary progesterone test for early detection of PTB risk), we present a mixed methods explanatory sequential feasibility substudy of the salivary progesterone test.

METHODS

A pretraining and post-training questionnaire to assess Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) (n=201) knowledge and experience of PTB and salivary progesterone sampling was analysed using the McNemar test. Descriptive statistics for a cross-sectional survey of pregnant women (n=400) are presented in which the acceptability of this test for pregnant women is assessed. Structured interviews were undertaken with ASHAs (n=10) and pregnant women (n=9), and were analysed using thematic framework analysis to explore the barriers and facilitators influencing the use of this test in rural India.

RESULTS

Before training, ASHAs' knowledge of PTB (including risk factors, causes, postnatal support and testing) was very limited. After the training programme, there was a significant improvement in the ASHAs' knowledge of PTB. All 400 women reported the salivary test was acceptable with the majority finding it easy but not quick or better than drawing blood. For the qualitative aspects of the study, analysis of interview data with ASHAs and women, our thematic framework comprised of three main areas: implementation of intervention; networks of influence and access to healthcare. Qualitative data were stratified and presented as barriers and facilitators.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests support for ongoing investigations validating PTB testing using salivary progesterone in rural settings.

Impact of Multiple Risk Factors on Vaccination Inequities: Analysis in Indian Infants Over 2 Decades

INTRODUCTION

Several authors have explored the effect of individual risk factors on vaccination inequity in Indian infants. This study explores the combined impact of >1 risk factor on the probability of full vaccination.

METHODS

The proportion of fully vaccinated infants (aged 1-2 years) was calculated from the National Family Health Survey conducted during 1997-1998 (National Family Health Survey-2, n=10,211), 2005-2006 (National Family Health Survey-3, n=9,582), and 2015-2016 (National Family Health Survey-4, n=48,715). Full vaccination was defined as receiving Bacille Calmette‒Guerin (1 dose); diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus (3 doses); oral polio (3 doses); and measles (1 dose) vaccines. The association between full vaccination status and 6 factors (infant sex, birth order, family wealth status, maternal education level, residence type, and religion) was analyzed individually, followed by the combined impact of ≥1 of the first 4, using logistic regression models.

RESULTS

The AORs for full vaccination in the 3 surveys, respectively, were 1.09, 1.13, and 1.00 for male versus female infants; 0.68, 0.71, and 0.88 for birth order >1 versus birth order 1; 1.54, 1.96, and 1.20 for greater wealth versus lowest wealth stratum; 2.21, 2.27, and 1.27 for any maternal education versus none; 1.08, 1.10, and 1.08 for Hindu versus other religion; and 1.51, 1.10, and 0.88 for urban versus rural residence. The respective ORs of full vaccination in the 3 surveys by the number of risk factors were as follows: 1.26, 1.54, and 1.27 for 3 risk factors; 2.41, 3.23, and 1.68 for 2 risk factors; 4.42, 6.45, and 2.18 for 1 risk factor; and 7.32, 9.84, and 2.61 for no risk factor.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of multiple risk factors had a cumulative negative impact on infant vaccination in India. Despite an improvement over 2 decades, significant inequities persist.

SUPPLEMENT INFORMATION

This article is part of a supplement entitled Global Vaccination Equity, which is sponsored by the Global Institute for Vaccine Equity at the University of Michigan School of Public Health.

The Acceptance of Key Public Health Interventions by the Polish Population Is Related to Health Literacy, But Not eHealth Literacy

Background: Public health and health promotion rely on many different interventions, which range from health education and communication, through community mobilisation and changes to environmental conditions, to legal and fiscal actions. The introduction of the increased tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB), popularly called sugar tax (ST), and a mandatory programme of vaccinations are the strategies inciting the most vivid discussions in Polish society. The study was intended to assess the determinants of the attitudes of Polish society regarding the ST and to vaccinations. Methods: For the analysis, the data originating from the survey of a representative adult sample of Polish society (n = 1000) was used. The survey was based on computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI). The assessment of the relationships between the selected variables and the opinions about the introduction of the ST and the safety and effectiveness of vaccinations were carried out using the chi² test and univariate logistic regression models. Results: The acceptance of the ST and vaccination showed a significant relationship to the level of health literacy (HL) but not to eHealth literacy (eHL). Respondents having a higher rather than lower HL; older rather than younger; married rather than singles; retired, or on a disability pension, rather than vocationally active and nonusers of the Internet rather than users were more likely to show an acceptance for both interventions. Those more frequently using health care services and those with chronic diseases showed a greater belief in the safety and effectiveness of vaccinations. Conclusions: The relationship between the opinions of the two public health interventions analysed and the sociodemographic variables demonstrated similar patterns. Interestingly, the opinions were associated only with HL and not with eHL and users of the Internet were more sceptical about the interventions.

Vaccination coverage and vaccine hesitancy among vulnerable population of India

Vaccination coverage in India has improved from 44% to 62%, an increase of 19% over a span of 10 y (2006-2016), the inequity continues among the vulnerable people belonging to tribal groups and migrant population. In order to leave no one behind strategy, their vaccination coverage, reasons for low coverage were analyzed from available literary sources through this review article. A systematic search for relevant articles was conducted and articles published in various journals over the past 5 y were included. The vaccine coverage among the vulnerable population ranged from 31% to 89% from various studies. It was found that parents' education status, income of the family and lack of awareness of the schedule were the most important reasons for vaccine hesitancy. Introduction of cash assistance integrated into other national program, digitalizing vaccination cards, involvement of local healers are few strategies suggested in this article.

The influence of gender on immunisation: using an ecological framework to examine intersecting inequities and pathways to change

There is still a substantial knowledge gap on how gender mediates child health in general, and child immunisation outcomes in particular. Similarly, implementation of interventions to mitigate gender inequities that hinder children from being vaccinated requires additional perspectives and research. We adopt an intersectional approach to gender and delve into the social ecology of implementation, to show how gender inequities and their connection with immunisation are grounded in the interplay between individual, household, community and system factors. We show how an ecological model can be used as an overarching framework to support more precise identification of the mechanisms causing gender inequity and their structural complexity, to identify suitable change agents and interventions that target the underlying causes of marginalisation, and to ensure outcomes are relevant within specific population groups.

Effects of improved drinking water quality on early childhood growth in rural Uttar Pradesh, India: A propensity-score analysis

Context

Recent randomised controlled trials in Bangladesh and Kenya concluded that household water treatment, alone or in combination with upgraded sanitation and handwashing, did not reduce linear growth faltering or improve other child growth outcomes. Whether these results are applicable in areas with distinct constellations of water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) risks is unknown. Analysis of observational data offers an efficient means to assess the external validity of trial findings. We studied whether a water quality intervention could improve child growth in a rural Indian setting with higher levels of circulating pathogens than the original trial sites.

Methods

We analysed a cross-sectional dataset including a microbiological measure of household water quality. All households accessed water from an improved source. We applied propensity score methods to emulate a randomised trial investigating the hypothesis that receipt of drinking water meeting Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.1 quality standards for absence of faecal contamination leads to improved growth. Growth outcomes (stunting, underweight, wasting, and their corresponding Z-scores) were assessed in children 12–23 months of age. For each outcome, we estimated the mean and 95% confidence interval of the absolute risk difference between treatment groups.

Findings

Of 1088 households, 442 (40.62%) received drinking water meeting SDG 6.1 standards. The adjusted risk of child underweight was 7.4% (1.3% to 13.4%) lower among those drinking water satisfying SDG 6.1 norms than among controls. Evidence concerning the relationship of drinking water meeting SDG 6.1 norms to length-for-age and weight-for-age was inconclusive, and there was no apparent relationship with stunting or wasting.

Conclusions

In contexts characterised by high pathogen transmission, water quality improvements have the potential to reduce the proportion of underweight children, but are unlikely to impact stunting or wasting. Further research is required to assess how these modelled benefits can best be achieved in real world settings.

Socio-demographic determinants of childhood immunization coverage in rural population of Bhojpur district of Bihar, India

Introduction

Avoidable sickness, disabilities and death among under 5 children are prevented by routine immunization against some specific diseases. The percentage fully immunized children was 69.9% in Bihar, India, and was almost same in rural area. Immunization coverage is also associated with various socio-demographic factors. The aim of this study is to assess the immunization coverage among children in rural areas of Bhojpur district and identify socio-demographic factors associated with it.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in rural areas of Bhojpur district during January to May 2015. 2 stage cluster sampling was done. 36 villages were selected randomly as primary selection units and within each village, 10 children of age 12-36 months were selected from the sampling frame of all eligible children in selected village. A pre-designed, pre-tested checklist was used by the trained investigators during their visits.

Results

A total of 360 children of age 12-36 months were included in the study, of which 65% of children were fully immunized, 33.9% were partially immunized, and 1.1% were not immunized at all. Mother's education (AOR 2.28 (1.28-4.05), P value = 0.005), place of birth (AOR 29.04 (10.75-78.43), P value = 0.0001) and availability of immunization card (AOR 120.04 (15.82-916.47), P value = 0.001) were significantly associated with immunization status.

Conclusion

Immunisation coverage in this area was lower. Socio-demographic factors like mother's literacy, place of birth and availability of immunization cards were significantly associated with full immunization of children. It is needed to focus on health related education among parents regarding immunizing services.

Distributed Health Literacy in the Maternal Health Context in Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Previous health literacy research has often focused on individual functional health literacy, ignoring the cultural contexts through which many people experience health care.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to explore the nature of maternal health literacy among ethnic minority women in a low-resource setting in Vietnam.

METHODS

Using a qualitative approach, we conducted focus groups with 42 pregnant women, mothers, and grandmothers of children younger than age 5 years from the Thai and Hmong ethnic groups. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants and thematic analysis was performed.

KEY RESULTS

The findings of our thematic analysis aligned well with the concept of distributed health literacy. We found that ethnic minority women drew upon family and social networks of health literacy mediators to share knowledge and understanding, assess and evaluate information, communicate with health professionals, and support decision-making. Family members were also involved in making health decisions that had the potential to negatively affect women and children's health.

CONCLUSIONS

Family members are an important source of information for ethnic minority women, and they influence decision-making. Relatives and husbands of pregnant women could be included in maternal health education programs to potentially strengthen the health literacy of the whole community. The distributed health literacy concept can be used to strengthen health promotion messages and to reduce the risk of negative health outcomes. [HLRP: Health Literacy Research and Practice. 2019;3(1):e31-e42.].

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Distributed health literacy refers to how health literacy skills and practices are distributed through social networks. This concept applies well to the maternal health context in Vietnam. Older women are trusted sources of information, and family influences decision-making during pregnancy. Women's limited autonomy increases the importance of family involvement. Distributed health literacy could be used to strengthen health promotion messages.

Association between maternal literacy and child vaccination in Ethiopia and southeastern India and the moderating role of health workers: a multilevel regression analysis of the Young Lives study

BACKGROUND

Child vaccination coverage in low- and middle-income countries is still far from complete, mainly among marginalized people such as children with illiterate mothers.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to examine the association between maternal literacy and immunization status of children in Ethiopia and southeastern India (Andhra Pradesh and Telangana) and test whether state-run health centers and community health workers moderate that association.

METHODS

This study is based on cross-sectional data from samples of children in Ethiopia and India, collected as part of round 2 within the Young Lives study (2006). Multilevel logistic regression was conducted to estimate the association between maternal literacy and the completion of four kinds of child vaccinations. We further tested for cross-level interactions between state-run health centers or community health workers and maternal literacy. Estimates were adjusted for several individual- and household-level demographic and socioeconomic factors.

RESULTS

Literate mothers were more likely to complete all four kinds of vaccinations for their children compared to illiterate mothers in Ethiopia (Odds Ratio (OR)=4.84, Confidence Interval (CI)=1.75-13.36). Presence of a health center was positively associated with completed vaccinations in India only (OR = 6.60, CI = 1.57-27.70). A cross-level interaction between community health workers and maternal literacy on the vaccination completion status of children was significant in Ethiopia only (OR = 0.29, CI = 0.09-0.96).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that increased availability of community health workers may reduce the child vaccination gap for illiterate mothers, depending on the country context.

The gap between self-reported and objective measures of disease status in India

Researchers interested in the effect of health on various life outcomes (such as employment, earnings and life satisfaction) often use self-reported health and disease status as an indicator of true, underlying health status. Self-reports appear to be reasonable measures of overall health. For example, self-assessed overall health has been found to be a reliable predictor of mortality. However, the validity of self-reports is questionable when investigating specific diseases such as diabetes and hypertension. A small and nascent body of research comparing self-reported status on certain diseases with the true status based on clinical diagnoses has found significant gaps. These validation exercises predominantly use data from high-income countries. In this paper, we use survey data from India to compare self-reports of disease prevalence to diagnostic tests conducted on the same individuals. We focus on hypertension and lung disease, two of the primary causes of death in India. We find that self-reported measures substantially understate the true disease burden for both conditions. The attenuation bias from using self-reports is over 80 percent for both diseases, and bigger than estimates from high-income countries. We test and reject the hypothesis that self-reports of the disease status are identical to the true disease status in expectation. We identify characteristics associated with false negative reporting (reporting not having the disease but testing positive for it) for both diseases. The large awareness gap between self-reports and true disease burden indicates multiple deficiencies in India’s public health policy. The survey data depicts limited access to medical facilities, high levels of health illiteracy, low rates of health insurance, and other barriers related to poverty and lack of equity in the delivery of health services. These factors prevent timely intervention for managing health and controlling disease, invariably leading to morbidity and often to premature death.

The effect of maternal decisional authority on children's vaccination in East Asia

Even though they are important determinants for increasing vaccination rates in advanced and developing nations alike, maternal capacity and decisional authority have not been fully elucidated in diverse countries and cultural spheres. This study examined the effects of South Korean, Chinese, and Japanese mothers' health literacy, self-efficacy, mass media use, and decisional authority on their children's vaccination after adjustment for their socioeconomic statuses. Computer-assisted web interviews were conducted with married women in their 20s-40s of South Korean, Chinese, or Japanese nationality (n = 1,571). Dependent variables were generated for the following four vaccinations: BCG, diphtheria+pertussis+tetanus (DPT), poliomyelitis (polio), and measles. For statistical processing, cases where all four types of vaccines had been recorded were scored as 1 and other cases were processed as 0. According to the results of the pooled model, we found that for East Asian mothers, decisional authority, self-efficacy, and health literacy all increased the likelihood that they would vaccinate their children. Furthermore, women who searched for health information through media such as the radio were more likely to vaccinate their children. However, when elaborate analyses were conducted by country, there were considerable differences in those characteristics by country. Therefore, this study showed that it is necessary to establish locally tailored strategies in order to raise vaccination rates in the Global Vaccine Action Plan. This study also showed that social contexts must be taken into consideration in order to raise vaccination rates.

Immunization practices in low birth weight infants from rural Haryana, India: Findings from secondary data analysis

Background

Low birth weight (LBW) infants constitute a vulnerable subset of infants with impaired immunity in early life. In India, there is scarcity of studies that focus on immunization practices in such infants. This analysis aimed to examine immunization practices in LBW infants with the intention to identify areas requiring intervention.

Methods

Data on immunization status of LBW infants enrolled in an individually randomized, double–masked, placebo–controlled trial of neonatal vitamin A supplementation were analysed. Study outcomes were full immunization by one year of age and delayed vaccination with DPT1 and DPT3. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to identify factors associated with the outcome(s).

Findings

Out of 10 644 LBW infants enrolled in trial, immunization data were available for 10 517 (98.8%). Less than one–third (29.7%) were fully immunized by one year of age. Lowest wealth quintile (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.39, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.32–0.47), Muslim religion (AOR 0.41, 95% CI 0.35–0.48) and age of mother <20 years (AOR 0.62, 95% CI 0.52–0.73) were associated with decreased odds of full immunization. Proportion of infants with delayed vaccination for DPT1 and DPT3 were 52% and 81% respectively. Lowest wealth quintiles (AOR 1.51, 95% CI 1.25–1.82), Muslim religion (AOR 1.41, 95% CI 1.21–1.65), mother aged <20 years (AOR 1.31, 95% CI 1.11–1.53) and birth weight <2000 g (AOR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03–1.40) were associated with higher odds of delayed vaccination for DPT–1. Maternal education (≥12 years of schooling) was associated with high odds of full immunization (AOR 2.39, 95% CI 1.97–2.91) and low odds of delayed vaccination for both DPT–1 (AOR 0.59, 95% CI 0.49–0.73) and DPT–3 (AOR 0.57, 95% CI 0.43–0.76)

Conclusion

In this population, LBW infants are at a risk of delayed and incomplete immunization and therefore need attention. The risks are even higher in identified subgroups that should specifically be targeted

Health literacy and vaccination: A systematic review

This systematic review describes the current relationship between health literacy (HL) and vaccination (including attitude to vaccines, intention to vaccinate, and vaccine uptake). The aim is to comprehend the role of HL as a determinant of vaccine hesitancy. For this purpose, the following databases were explored from 1 January 2007 to 15 January 2017: PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, ERIC, Health Evidence, Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. Nine studies were included in the final synthesis. The role of HL in predicting vaccine hesitancy or acceptance seems to be influenced by a few key factors. These include country, age, and type of vaccine. However, the relationship between HL and vaccination remains unclear. New research studies are needed-particularly longitudinal ones that use multiple measurement tools. This would facilitate a better understanding of the role of HL in predicting vaccine uptake.

Country-level predictors of vaccination coverage and inequalities in Gavi-supported countries

BACKGROUND

Important inequalities in childhood vaccination coverage persist between countries and population groups. Understanding why some countries achieve higher and more equitable levels of coverage is crucial to redress these inequalities. In this study, we explored the country-level determinants of (1) coverage of the third dose of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis- (DTP3) containing vaccine and (2) within-country inequalities in DTP3 coverage in 45 countries supported by Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance.

METHODS

We used data from the most recent Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted between 2005 and 2014. We measured national DTP3 coverage and the slope index of inequality in DTP3 coverage with respect to household wealth, maternal education, and multidimensional poverty. We collated data on country health systems, health financing, governance and geographic and sociocultural contexts from published sources. We used meta-regressions to assess the relationship between these country-level factors and variations in DTP3 coverage and inequalities. To validate our findings, we repeated these analyses for coverage with measles-containing vaccine (MCV).

RESULTS

We found considerable heterogeneity in DTP3 coverage and in the magnitude of inequalities across countries. Results for MCV were consistent with those from DTP3. Political stability, gender equality and smaller land surface were important predictors of higher and more equitable levels of DTP3 coverage. Inequalities in DTP3 coverage were also lower in countries receiving more external resources for health, with lower rates of out-of-pocket spending and with higher national coverage. Greater government spending on heath and lower linguistic fractionalization were also consistent with better vaccination outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Improving vaccination coverage and reducing inequalities requires that policies and programs address critical social determinants of health including geographic and social exclusion, gender inequality and the availability of financial protection for health. Further research should investigate the mechanisms contributing to these associations.

Determination of factors affecting the vaccination status of children aged 12-35 months in Lao People's Democratic Republic

Vaccines are one of the most important achievements in public health, and a major contributor to this success is the Expanded Programme on Immunization. The utilisation of vaccination services and completion of the recommended schedule are determined by numerous factors. In Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), the overall immunisation coverage has been improving. However, notwithstanding the improvement in immunisation coverage and the supplementary immunisation activities, there have been measles, diphtheria, and polio outbreaks in the country. The recent multicounty study of household health surveys revealed that the within-country economic-related inequality in the delivery of a vaccine was still high in Lao PDR.

Our previous work evaluated the factors associated with vaccination status among the children aged 5–9 years old, which was older age group for this type of study. This study evaluated factors that affect vaccination status among children aged between 12 and 35 months. It is a nationwide population-based cross-sectional study that used data obtained through multistage cluster sampling. We found that the proportion of infants who were fully immunised was lower than the national target and that “maternal ethnicity” (odds ratio (OR) 0.34, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.20–0.60), “paternal education” (OR 1.87, 95% CI: 1.12–3.10), and “source of information about vaccination date by medical staff” (OR 1.65, 95% CI: 1.01–2.71) were significantly associated with the children’s vaccination status. Numerous factors are associated with the completion of the recommended vaccine schedule, and some factors are location-specific. Identification of these factors should lead to actions for facilitating the optimal use of vaccination services by all the children in Lao PDR.

Demand- and supply-side determinants of diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus nonvaccination and dropout in rural India

BACKGROUND

Although 93% of 12- to 23-month-old children in India receive at least one vaccine, typically Bacillus Calmette-Guérin, only 75% complete the recommended three doses of diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus (DPT, also referred to as DTP) vaccine. Determinants can be different for nonvaccination and dropout but have not been examined in earlier studies. We use the three-dose DPT series as a proxy for the full sequence of recommended childhood vaccines and examine the determinants of DPT nonvaccination and dropout between doses 1 and 3.

METHODS

We analyzed data on 75,728 6- to 23-month-old children in villages across India to study demand- and supply-side factors determining nonvaccination with DPT and dropout between DPT doses 1 and 3, using a multilevel approach. Data come from the District Level Household and Facility Survey 3 (2007-08).

RESULTS

Individual- and household-level factors were associated with both DPT nonvaccination and dropout between doses 1 and 3. Children whose mothers had no schooling were 2.3 times more likely not to receive any DPT vaccination and 1.5 times more likely to drop out between DPT doses 1 and 3, compared with children whose mothers had 10 or more years of schooling. Although supply-side factors related to availability of public health facilities and immunization-related health workers in villages were not correlated with dropout between DPT doses 1 and 3, children in districts where 46% or more villages had a healthcare subcentre were 1.5 times more likely to receive at least one dose of DPT vaccine compared with children in districts where 30% or fewer villages had subcentres.

CONCLUSIONS

Nonvaccination with DPT in India is influenced by village- and district-level contextual factors over and above individuals' background characteristics. Dropout between DPT doses 1 and 3 is associated more strongly with demand-side factors than with village- and district-level supply-side factors.

Determinants of childhood immunisation coverage in urban poor settlements of Delhi, India: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

Aggregate data on childhood immunisation from urban settings may not reflect the coverage among the urban poor. This study provides information on complete childhood immunisation coverage among the urban poor, and explores its household and neighbourhood-level determinants.

SETTING

Urban poor community in the Southeast district of Delhi, India.

PARTICIPANTS

We randomly sampled 1849 children aged 1-3.5 years from 13 451 households in 39 clusters (cluster defined as area covered by a community health worker) in 2 large urban poor settlements. Of these, 1343 completed the survey. We collected information regarding childhood immunisation (BCG, oral polio vaccine, diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus vaccine, hepatitis B and measles) from vaccination cards or mothers' recall. We used random intercept logistic regression to explore the sociodemographic determinants of complete immunisation.

RESULTS

Complete immunisation coverage was 46.7% and 7.5% were not immunised. The odds of complete vaccination (OR, 95% CI) were lower in female children (0.70 (0.55 to 0.89)) and Muslim households (0.65 (0.45 to 0.94)). The odds of complete vaccination were higher if the mother was literate (1.6 (1.15 to 2.16)), if the child was born within the city (2.7 (1.97 to 3.65)), in a health facility ( 1.5 (1.19 to 2.02)), belonged to the highest wealth quintile (compared with the poorest; 2.46 (1.5 to 4.02)) or possessed a birth certificate (1.40 (1.03 to 1.91)). Cluster effect due to unmeasured neighbourhood factors expressed as median OR was 1.32.

CONCLUSIONS

Immunisation coverage in this urban poor area was much lower than that of regional surveys reporting overall urban data. Socioeconomic status of the household, female illiteracy, health awareness and gender inequality were important determinants of coverage in this population. Hence, in addition to enhancing the infrastructure for providing mother and child services, efforts are also needed to address these issues in order to improve immunisation coverage in deprived urban communities.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

CTRI/2011/091/000095.

Forecasted trends in vaccination coverage and correlations with socioeconomic factors: a global time-series analysis over 30 years

BACKGROUND

Incomplete immunisation coverage causes preventable illness and death in both developing and developed countries. Identification of factors that might modulate coverage could inform effective immunisation programmes and policies. We constructed a performance indicator that could quantitatively approximate measures of the susceptibility of immunisation programmes to coverage losses, with an aim to identify correlations between trends in vaccine coverage and socioeconomic factors.

METHODS

We undertook a data-driven time-series analysis to examine trends in coverage of diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTP) vaccination across 190 countries over the past 30 years. We grouped countries into six world regions according to WHO classifications. We used Gaussian process regression to forecast future coverage rates and provide a vaccine performance index: a summary measure of the strength of immunisation coverage in a country.

FINDINGS

Overall vaccine coverage increased in all six world regions between 1980 and 2010, with variation in volatility and trends. Our vaccine performance index identified that 53 countries had more than a 50% chance of missing the Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) target of 90% worldwide coverage with three doses of DTP (DTP3) by 2015. These countries were mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia, but Austria and Ukraine also featured. Factors associated with DTP3 immunisation coverage varied by world region: personal income (Spearman's ρ=0·66, p=0·0011) and government health spending (0·66, p<0·0001) were informative of immunisation coverage in the Eastern Mediterranean between 1980 and 2010, whereas primary school completion was informative of coverage in Africa (0·56, p<0·0001) over the same period. The proportion of births attended by skilled health staff correlated significantly with immunisation coverage across many world regions.

INTERPRETATION

Our vaccine performance index highlighted countries at risk of failing to achieve the GVAP target of 90% coverage by 2015, and could aid policy makers' assessments of the strength and resilience of immunisation programmes. Weakening correlations with socioeconomic factors show a need to tackle vaccine confidence, whereas strengthening correlations point to clear factors to address.

FUNDING

UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council.

Vaccine receipt and vaccine card availability among children of the apostolic faith: analysis from the 2010-2011 Zimbabwe demographic and health survey

Introduction

Vaccine hesitancy and refusal continue to be a global challenge to reaching immunization targets, especially among those in traditional or fundamentalist religions. The apostolic faith in Zimbabwe has been historically associated with objection to most medical interventions, including immunization.

Methods

We conducted a descriptive analysis of socio-demographic characteristics and vaccine coverage among apostolic and non-apostolic adults aged 15-49 years and children aged 12-23 months using the Demographic and Health Survey conducted in Zimbabwe during 2010-2011. We used logistic regression models to estimate associations between the apostolic religion and receipt of all four basic childhood vaccinations in the Expanded Program on Immunization, receipt of no vaccinations, and availability of child vaccination card.

Results

Among children aged 12-23 months, 64% had received all doses of the four basic vaccinations, and 12% had received none of the recommended vaccines. A vaccination card was available for 68% of children. There was no significant association between Apostolic faith and completion of all basic vaccinations (aOR = 0.90, 95% CI: 0.69-1.17), but apostolic children were almost twice as likely to have received no basic vaccinations (aOR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.22-2.77) than non-Apostolic children, and they were 32% less likely to have a vaccination card that was available and seen by the interviewer (aOR = 0.68, 95% CI: 0.52-0.89).

Conclusion

Disparities in childhood vaccination coverage and availability of vaccination cards persist for apostolic in Zimbabwe. Continued collaboration with apostolic leaders and additional research to better understand vaccine hesitancy and refine interventions and messaging strategies are needed.

Interventions to increase immunisation coverage among children 12-23 months of age in India through participatory learning and community engagement: pilot study for a cluster randomised trial

OBJECTIVE

With the aim of conducting a future cluster randomised trial to assess intervention impact on child vaccination coverage, we designed a pilot study to assess feasibility and aid in refining methods for the larger study.

TRIAL DESIGN

Cluster-randomised design with a 1:1 allocation ratio.

METHODS

Clusters were 12 villages in rural Uttar Pradesh. All women residing in a selected village who were mothers of a child 0-23 months of age were eligible; participants were chosen at random. Over 4 months, intervention group (IG) villages received: (1) home visits by volunteers; (2) community mobilisation events to promote immunisation. Control group (CG) villages received community mobilisation to promote nutrition. A toll-free number for immunisation was offered to all IG and CG village residents. Primary outcomes were ex-ante criteria for feasibility of the main study related to processes for recruitment and randomisation (50% of villages would agree to participate and accept randomisation; 30 women could be recruited in 70% of villages), and retention of participants (50% of women retained from baseline to endline). Clusters were assigned to IG or CG using a computer-generated randomisation schedule. Neither participants nor those delivering interventions were blinded, but those assessing outcomes were blinded to group assignment.

RESULTS

All villages contacted agreed to participate and accepted randomisation. 36 women were recruited per village; 432 participants were randomised (IG n=216; CG n=216). No clusters were lost to follow-up. The main analysis included 86% (373/432) of participants, 90% (195/216) from the IG and 82% (178/216) from the CG.

CONCLUSIONS

Criteria related to feasibility were satisfied, giving us confidence that we can successfully conduct a larger cluster randomised trial. Methodological lessons will inform design of the main study.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN16703097.