1
|
Hill E, Cunningham T. Modelling Alzheimer's disease in a dish: dissecting amyloid-β metabolism in human neurons. Neuronal Signal 2024; 8:NS20230020. [PMID: 38222463 PMCID: PMC10781659 DOI: 10.1042/ns20230020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
This scientific commentary refers to 'Inhibition of insulin-degrading enzyme in human neurons promotes amyloid-β deposition' by Rowland et al. (https://doi.org/10.1042/NS20230016). Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) and neprilysin (NEP) have been proposed as two Aβ-degrading enzymes supported by human genetics and in vivo data. Rowland et al. provide complementary evidence of a key role for IDE in Aβ metabolism in human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived cortical neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Hill
- MRC Prion Unit at UCL, Institute of Prion Diseases, Courtauld Building, London W1W 7FF, U.K
| | - Thomas J. Cunningham
- MRC Prion Unit at UCL, Institute of Prion Diseases, Courtauld Building, London W1W 7FF, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Oliveira FFD, Almeida SSD, Chen ES, Smith MC, Bertolucci PHF. Pharmacogenetics of angiotensin modulators according to APOE-ϵ4 alleles and the ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropsychiatr 2023; 35:346-361. [PMID: 37605989 DOI: 10.1017/neu.2023.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In Alzheimer's disease (AD), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) could reduce cerebrovascular dysfunction, while angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEis) might increase brain amyloid-β by suppressing effects of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 1, an amyloid-β-degrading enzyme. However, ACEis could benefit patients with AD by reducing the amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein, by central cholinergic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, and by peripheral modulation of glucose homeostasis. We aimed to investigate whether the ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism is associated with clinical changes in patients with AD, while considering apolipoprotein E (APOE)-ϵ4 carrier status and blood pressure response to angiotensin modulators. METHODS Consecutive outpatients with late-onset AD were screened with cognitive tests and anthropometric measurements, while their caregivers were queried for functional and caregiver burden scores. Prospective pharmacogenetic associations were estimated for 1 year, taking APOE-ϵ4 carrier status and genotypes of the ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism into account, along with treatment with ACEis or ARBs. RESULTS For 193 patients (67.4% women, 53.4% APOE-ϵ4 carriers), the ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p = 0.281), while arterial hypertension was prevalent in 80.3% (n = 124 used an ACEi, n = 21 used an ARB). ARBs benefitted mostly APOE-ϵ4 carriers concerning caregiver burden variations, cognitive and functional decline. ACEis benefitted APOE-ϵ4 non-carriers concerning cognitive and functional decline due to improved blood pressure control in addition to possible central mechanisms. The ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism led to variable response to angiotensin modulators concerning neurological outcomes and blood pressure variations. CONCLUSION Angiotensin modulators may be disease-modifiers in AD, while genetic stratification of samples is recommended in clinical studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabricio Ferreira de Oliveira
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sandro Soares de Almeida
- Department of Biophysics, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth Suchi Chen
- Department of Morphology and Genetics, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Marilia Cardoso Smith
- Department of Morphology and Genetics, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Luo HY, Gao LC, Long HZ, Zhou ZW, Xu SG, Li FJ, Li HL, Cheng Y, Li CX, Peng XY, Li L, Chen R, Deng P. Association between the NEP rs701109 polymorphism and the clinical efficacy and safety of sacubitril/valsartan in Chinese patients with heart failure. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2023; 79:663-670. [PMID: 36976322 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-023-03484-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sacubitril/valsartan is a commonly used medicine for treating heart failure (HF) patients, but the treatment effects significantly vary. Neprilysin (NEP) and carboxylesterase 1 (CES1) play an important role in the efficacy of sacubitril/valsartan. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between NEP and CES1 gene polymorphisms and the efficacy and safety of sacubitril/valsartan treatment in HF patients. METHODS Genotyping of 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the NEP and CES1 genes in 116 HF patients was performed by the Sequenom MassARRAY method, and logistic regression and haplotype analysis were used to evaluate the associations between SNPs and the clinical efficacy and safety of sacubitril/valsartan in HF patients. RESULTS A total of 116 Chinese patients with HF completed the whole trial, and T variations in rs701109 in NEP gene were an independent risk factor (P = 0.013, OR = 3.292, 95% CI:1.287-8.422) for the clinical efficacy of sacubitril/valsartan. Furthermore, haplotype analysis of 6 NEP SNPs (including rs701109) was performed and showed that the CGTACC and TGTACC haplotypes were significantly associated with clinical efficacy (OR = 0.095, 95%CI: 0.012-0.723, P = 0.003; OR = 5.586, 95% CI: 1.621-19.248, P = 0.005). Moreover, no association was found between SNPs of other selected genes in terms of efficacy in HF patients, and no association was observed between SNPs and symptomatic hypotension. CONCLUSION Our results suggest an association between rs701109 and sacubitril/valsartan response in HF patients. Symptomatic hypotension is not associated with the presence of NEP polymorphisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yu Luo
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Li-Chen Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China.
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China.
| | - Hui-Zhi Long
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Zi-Wei Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Shuo-Guo Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Feng-Jiao Li
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Hong-Li Li
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Yan Cheng
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Cai-Xia Li
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Xing-Yu Peng
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Liang Li
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
| | - Ran Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| | - Ping Deng
- School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy, Phase I Clinical Trial Centre, the Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Changsha, 410004, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chen S, Mima D, Jin H, Dan Q, Wang F, Cai J, Shi L, Wang H, Du A, Tang Y, Sun Y. The Association between Neprilysin gene polymorphisms and Alzheimer's disease in Tibetan population. Brain Behav 2021; 11:e02002. [PMID: 33314757 PMCID: PMC7994707 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a well-known neurodegenerative disease, of which the hallmark is the disposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) in the form of plaque in the brain. Neprilysin (NEP) is the major enzyme to degrade Aβ and prevent accumulation of Aβ. The present study was undertaken to elucidate the correlation between the NEP gene polymorphisms and AD in Chinese Tibetan population. METHODS Ninety-nine sporadic AD Tibetan patients and 113 healthy Tibetan controls were enrolled in this study. The genotype frequencies and allele frequencies of multiple NEP gene loci were analyzed using the case-control association analysis. RESULTS No significant correlation was found between polymorphisms of NEP gene loci (rs9829757, rs1816558, rs6776185, rs3736187, rs701109, rs989692) and the occurrence of AD in Tibetan population. However, allele C of NEP gene locus (rs701109) and allele T of gene locus (rs3736187) were possible risk factors of male AD patients in Tibetan population. CONCLUSIONS NEP gene loci (rs701109, rs989692, rs9829757, rs3736187, rs1816558, rs6776185) were polymorphic in Tibetan population. No difference was found between these loci but for that male gender combined with allele C of NEP gene locus (rs701109) and T of gene locus (rs3736187) might be risk factors for AD in Tibet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siwei Chen
- Department of Neurology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Dunzhu Mima
- Department of Neurology, People's Hospital of Tibet Autonomous Region, Tibet Autonomous Region, China
| | - Haiqiang Jin
- Department of Neurology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Qu Dan
- Clinical Laboratory, People's Hospital of Tibet Autonomous Region, Tibet Autonomous Region, China
| | - Fei Wang
- Department of Neurology, Harbin Medical University First Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Juan Cai
- Department of Neurology, Harbin Medical University First Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Lin Shi
- Shenzhen BrainNow Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Huali Wang
- Beijing Dementia Key Lab, National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Peking University Institute of Mental Health (Sixth Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Ailian Du
- Department of Neurology, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Tang
- Department of Neurology, Harbin Medical University First Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Yongan Sun
- Department of Neurology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Germline Genetic Variants of the Renin-Angiotensin System, Hypoxia and Angiogenesis in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Progression: Discovery and Validation Studies. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12123834. [PMID: 33353148 PMCID: PMC7766842 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12123834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The presence of polymorphic gene variants in the human genome provides extensive genetic (and eventually phenotypic) variation affecting both normal physiological mechanisms and cancer pathogenesis. Functional genetic polymorphisms might have predictive and/or prognostic value in lung cancer, opening novel opportunities to improve prediction and guide clinical reasoning and therapeutics in lung cancer patients. Recent knowledge pinpoints a pleiotropic role for renin-angiotensin system, particularly in the lung and mainly through locally regulated alternative molecules and secondary pathways. Dysregulation of this system play a role in cell proliferation, hypoxia and angiogenesis, which processes are involved in lung cancer progression. Here we suggest that polymorphic variants in genes coding for renin-angiotensin system might play a role in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer progression. Abstract Introduction: The renin–angiotensin system (RAS) is involved in cell proliferation, immunoinflammatory response, hypoxia and angiogenesis, which are critical biological processes in lung cancer. Our aim was to study the association of putatively functional genetic polymorphisms in genes coding for proteins involved in RAS, hypoxia and angiogenesis with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) prognosis. Methods: Genotyping of 52 germline variants from genes of the RAS and hypoxic/angiogenic factors/receptors was performed using MassARRAY iPLEX Gold in a retrospective cohort (n = 167) of advanced NSCLC patients. Validation of the resulting genetic markers was conducted in an independent group (n = 190), matched by clinicopathological characteristics. Results: Multivariate analysis on the discovery set revealed that MME rs701109 C carriers were protected from disease progression in comparison with homozygous T (hazard ratio (HR) = 0.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.2–0.8, p = 0.010). Homozygous A and T genotypes for KDR rs1870377 were at increased risk for disease progression and death compared to heterozygous (HR = 1.7, 95% CI = 1.2–2.5, p = 0.005 and HR = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.2–3.4, p = 0.006, respectively). Carriers of homozygous genotypes for ACE2 rs908004 presented increased risk for disease progression, only in the subgroup of patients without tumour actionable driver mutations (HR = 2.9, 95% CI = 1.3–6.3, p = 0.010). Importantly, the association of homozygous genotypes in MME rs701109 with risk for disease progression was confirmed after multivariate analysis in the validation set. Conclusion: This study provides evidence that MME polymorphism, which encodes neprilysin, may modulate progression-free survival in advanced NSCLC. Present genetic variation findings will foster basic, translational, and clinical research on their role in NSCLC.
Collapse
|
6
|
Xiao X, Jiao B, Liao X, Zhang W, Yuan Z, Guo L, Wang X, Zhou L, Liu X, Yan X, Tang B, Shen L. Association of Genes Involved in the Metabolic Pathways of Amyloid-β and Tau Proteins With Sporadic Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease in the Southern Han Chinese Population. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:584801. [PMID: 33240075 PMCID: PMC7677357 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.584801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The genes involved in the metabolic pathways of amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau proteins significantly influence the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Various studies have explored the associations between some of these genes and AD in the Caucasian population; however, researches regarding these associations remain limited in the Chinese population. To systematically evaluate the associations of these genes with AD, we investigated 19 genes involved in the metabolism of Aβ and tau based on previous studies selected using the PubMed database. This study included 372 patients with sporadic late-onset AD (sLOAD) and 345 cognitively healthy individuals from southern China. The results were replicated in the International Genomics of Alzheimer's Project (IGAP). Protein-protein interactions were determined using the STRING v11 database. We found that a single-nucleotide polymorphism, rs11682128, of BIN1 conferred susceptibility to sLOAD after adjusting for age, sex, and APOE ε4 status and performing the Bonferroni correction {corrected P = 0.000153, odds ratio (OR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 1.403 (1.079-1.824)}, which was replicated in the IGAP. Protein-protein interactions indicated that BIN1 was correlated with MAPT. Moreover, rare variants of NEP and FERMT2 (0.0026 < corrected P < 0.05), and the Aβ degradation, tau pathology, and tau phosphatase pathways (0.01 < corrected P < 0.05), were nominally significantly associated with sLOAD. This study suggested that the genes involved in the metabolic pathways of Aβ and tau contributed to the etiology of sLOAD in the southern Han Chinese population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuewen Xiao
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Bin Jiao
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xinxin Liao
- Department of Geriatrics Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhenhua Yuan
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lina Guo
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lu Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xixi Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xinxiang Yan
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Beisha Tang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lu Shen
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province in Neurodegenerative Disorders, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Key Laboratory of Organ Injury, Aging and Regenerative Medicine of Hunan Province, Changsha, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Nalivaeva NN, Zhuravin IA, Turner AJ. Neprilysin expression and functions in development, ageing and disease. Mech Ageing Dev 2020; 192:111363. [PMID: 32987038 PMCID: PMC7519013 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2020.111363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neprilysin (NEP) participates in development and functions of most body organs It is an important brain neuropeptidase which cleaves amyloid β (Aβ) peptide NEP dysregulation leads to development of various diseases of old age Regulation of NEP expression and activity is an important therapeutic target
Neprilysin (NEP) is an integral membrane-bound metallopeptidase with a wide spectrum of substrates and physiological functions. It plays an important role in proteolytic processes in the kidney, cardiovascular regulation, immune response, cell proliferation, foetal development etc. It is an important neuropeptidase and amyloid-degrading enzyme which makes NEP a therapeutic target in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Moreover, it plays a preventive role in development of cancer, obesity and type-2 diabetes. Recently a role of NEP in COVID-19 pathogenesis has also been suggested. Despite intensive research into NEP structure and functions in different organisms, changes in its expression and regulation during brain development and ageing, especially in age-related pathologies, is still not fully understood. This prevents development of pharmacological treatments from various diseases in which NEP is implicated although recently a dual-acting drug sacubitril-valsartan (LCZ696) combining a NEP inhibitor and angiotensin receptor blocker has been approved for treatment of heart failure. Also, various natural compounds capable of upregulating NEP expression, including green tea (EGCG), have been proposed as a preventive medicine in prostate cancer and AD. This review summarizes the existing literature and our own research on the expression and activity of NEP in normal brain development, ageing and under pathological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N N Nalivaeva
- I.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom.
| | - I A Zhuravin
- I.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - A J Turner
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Berliner D, Bauersachs J. New drugs: big changes in conservative heart failure therapy? Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2020; 55:i3-i10. [PMID: 31106335 PMCID: PMC6526100 DOI: 10.1093/ejcts/ezy421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
![]()
During the last 20 years, the prognosis for heart failure (HF) with reduced ejection fraction has steadily improved due to advances in drug treatment and the consistent implementation of guideline-recommended evidence-based drug therapy. Nevertheless, the morbidity and mortality rates of patients with HF can still be improved. The prevalence of HF is high and continues to increase steadily. Thus, timely and efficient drug treatment plays a central role in improving the quality of life and prognosis for patients with HF. Current therapeutic concepts combine inhibition of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system with blockage of the sympathetic system. New therapeutic approaches such as selective heart rate reduction, attenuation of the degradation of natriuretic peptides by neutral endopeptidase inhibition and treatment of comorbidities (e.g. iron deficiency, diabetes mellitus, hyperkalaemia) have led to a further improvement in the survival, time-out-of hospital and quality of life of affected patients. The goal of this article was to give an overview of the current standard drug therapy for HF and the value of new therapeutic approaches implemented in recent years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Berliner
- Department of Cardiology and Angiology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Johann Bauersachs
- Department of Cardiology and Angiology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rowland HA, Hooper NM, Kellett KAB. Modelling Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease Using Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Neurochem Res 2018; 43:2179-2198. [PMID: 30387070 PMCID: PMC6267251 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-018-2663-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Developing cellular models of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (sAD) is challenging due to the unknown initiator of disease onset and the slow disease progression that takes many years to develop in vivo. The use of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has revolutionised the opportunities to model AD pathology, investigate disease mechanisms and screen potential drugs. The majority of this work has, however, used cells derived from patients with familial AD (fAD) where specific genetic mutations drive disease onset. While these provide excellent models to investigate the downstream pathways involved in neuronal toxicity and ultimately neuronal death that leads to AD, they provide little insight into the causes and mechanisms driving the development of sAD. In this review we compare the data obtained from fAD and sAD iPSC-derived cell lines, identify the inconsistencies that exist in sAD models and highlight the potential role of Aβ clearance mechanisms, a relatively under-investigated area in iPSC-derived models, in the study of AD. We discuss the development of more physiologically relevant models using co-culture and three-dimensional culture of iPSC-derived neurons with glial cells. Finally, we evaluate whether we can develop better, more consistent models for sAD research using genetic stratification of iPSCs and identification of genetic and environmental risk factors that could be used to initiate disease onset for modelling sAD. These considerations provide exciting opportunities to develop more relevant iPSC models of sAD which can help drive our understanding of disease mechanisms and identify new therapeutic targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen A Rowland
- Division of Neuroscience & Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Nigel M Hooper
- Division of Neuroscience & Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Katherine A B Kellett
- Division of Neuroscience & Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wang C, Shou Y, Pan J, Du Y, Liu C, Wang H. The relationship between cholesterol level and Alzheimer’s disease-associated APP proteolysis/Aβ metabolism. Nutr Neurosci 2018; 22:453-463. [DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2017.1416942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chaoqun Wang
- School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yikai Shou
- School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Pan
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 2nd Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
- Institute of Gastroenterology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Du
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Cuiqing Liu
- College of Basic Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Huanhuan Wang
- School of Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Neprilysin has a major role in both the generation and degradation of bioactive peptides. LCZ696 (valsartan/sacubitril, Entresto), the first of the new ARNI (dual-acting angiotensin-receptor-neprilysin inhibitor) drug class, contains equimolar amounts of valsartan, an angiotensin-receptor blocker, and sacubitril, a prodrug for the neprilysin inhibitor LBQ657. LCZ696 reduced blood pressure more than valsartan alone in patients with hypertension. In the PARADIGM-HF study, LCZ696 was superior to the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor enalapril for the treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, and LCZ696 was approved by the FDA for this purpose in 2015. This approval was the first for chronic neprilysin inhibition. The many peptides metabolized by neprilysin suggest many potential consequences of chronic neprilysin inhibitor therapy, both beneficial and adverse. Moreover, LBQ657 might inhibit enzymes other than neprilysin. Chronic neprilysin inhibition might have an effect on angio-oedema, bronchial reactivity, inflammation, and cancer, and might predispose to polyneuropathy. Additionally, inhibition of neprilysin metabolism of amyloid-β peptides might have an effect on Alzheimer disease, age-related macular degeneration, and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Much of the evidence for possible adverse consequences of chronic neprilysin inhibition comes from studies in animal models, and the relevance of this evidence to humans is unknown. This Review summarizes current knowledge of neprilysin function and possible consequences of chronic neprilysin inhibition that indicate a need for vigilance in the use of neprilysin inhibitor therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Duncan J Campbell
- St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, 41 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia.,University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Higuchi Y, Hashiguchi A, Yuan J, Yoshimura A, Mitsui J, Ishiura H, Tanaka M, Ishihara S, Tanabe H, Nozuma S, Okamoto Y, Matsuura E, Ohkubo R, Inamizu S, Shiraishi W, Yamasaki R, Ohyagi Y, Kira JI, Oya Y, Yabe H, Nishikawa N, Tobisawa S, Matsuda N, Masuda M, Kugimoto C, Fukushima K, Yano S, Yoshimura J, Doi K, Nakagawa M, Morishita S, Tsuji S, Takashima H. Mutations in MME cause an autosomal-recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2. Ann Neurol 2016; 79:659-72. [PMID: 26991897 PMCID: PMC5069600 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Objective The objective of this study was to identify new causes of Charcot–Marie–Tooth (CMT) disease in patients with autosomal‐recessive (AR) CMT. Methods To efficiently identify novel causative genes for AR‐CMT, we analyzed 303 unrelated Japanese patients with CMT using whole‐exome sequencing and extracted recessive variants/genes shared among multiple patients. We performed mutation screening of the newly identified membrane metalloendopeptidase (MME) gene in 354 additional patients with CMT. We clinically, genetically, pathologically, and radiologically examined 10 patients with the MME mutation. Results We identified recessive mutations in MME in 10 patients. The MME gene encodes neprilysin (NEP), which is well known to be one of the most prominent beta‐amyloid (Aβ)‐degrading enzymes. All patients had a similar phenotype consistent with late‐onset axonal neuropathy. They showed muscle weakness, atrophy, and sensory disturbance in the lower extremities. All the MME mutations could be loss‐of‐function mutations, and we confirmed a lack/decrease of NEP protein expression in a peripheral nerve. No patients showed symptoms of dementia, and 1 patient showed no excess Aβ in Pittsburgh compound‐B positron emission tomography imaging. Interpretation Our results indicate that loss‐of‐function MME mutations are the most frequent cause of adult‐onset AR‐CMT2 in Japan, and we propose that this new disease should be termed AR‐CMT2T. A loss‐of‐function MME mutation did not cause early‐onset Alzheimer's disease. Identifying the MME mutation responsible for AR‐CMT could improve the rate of molecular diagnosis and the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of CMT. Ann Neurol 2016;79:659–672
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yujiro Higuchi
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Akihiro Hashiguchi
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Junhui Yuan
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Akiko Yoshimura
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Jun Mitsui
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ishiura
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Tanaka
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ishihara
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan.,Department of Cardiovascular medicine, Nephrology and Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hajime Tanabe
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Satoshi Nozuma
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Yuji Okamoto
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Eiji Matsuura
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Ohkubo
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Fujimoto General Hospital, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Saeko Inamizu
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Wataru Shiraishi
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ryo Yamasaki
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yasumasa Ohyagi
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Jun-ichi Kira
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yasushi Oya
- Department of Neurology, National Center Hospital, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hayato Yabe
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime, Japan
| | - Noriko Nishikawa
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Tobisawa
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Metropolitan Neurological Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nozomu Matsuda
- Department of Neurology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Masayuki Masuda
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chiharu Kugimoto
- Department of Neurology and Stroke Medicine, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Fukushima
- Department of Home-Care Promotion, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan
| | - Satoshi Yano
- Department of Neurology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jun Yoshimura
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Koichiro Doi
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Masanori Nakagawa
- Director of North Medical Center, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shinichi Morishita
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Shoji Tsuji
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Takashima
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kővári B, Báthori Á, Cserni G. CD10 Immunohistochemical Expression in Apocrine Lesions of the Breast. Pathobiology 2015; 82:259-63. [PMID: 26562027 DOI: 10.1159/000440664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In the breast, CD10 is expressed by myoepithelial cells (MECs), and apocrine metaplasia has also been mentioned as being positive with this marker. Apocrine lesions have been explored for the expression of CD10. METHODS The apocrine lesions studied included 11 cysts, 6 cases of apocrine adenosis, 2 of apocrine metaplasia or hyperplasia in papilloma, 13 ductal carcinomas in situ (DCIS) and invasive carcinomas (14 ductal and 4 lobular). RESULTS Benign apocrine lesions showed complete or partial luminal CD10 staining, although most cases included parts without staining, and 2 lesions were completely negative. The MECs were often but not always positive. Nine of the 13 cases of apocrine DCIS displayed no luminal staining, but 4 demonstrated very focal luminal positivity. The MECs around the DCIS showed a spectrum of staining from nil to strong and complete. Only 4 invasive carcinomas demonstrated luminal/membranous staining. Cytoplasmic CD10 positivity was seen focally in 4 invasive cancers and in 3 DCIS. CONCLUSION CD10 positivity is luminal/membranous in most benign apocrine lesions, the staining being nonuniversal and sometimes focal. Analogous staining in apocrine malignancies seems rarer in DCIS and even rarer in invasive apocrine carcinomas, but atypical cytoplasmic positivity may also occur. CD10 is not an ideal myoepithelial marker in apocrine lesions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bence Kővári
- Department of Pathology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Neprilysin Confers Genetic Susceptibility to Alzheimer's Disease in Han Chinese. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:4883-92. [PMID: 26362309 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9411-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, with increasing incidence all over the world. Amyloid-β (Aβ) was considered to be the original cause to AD, and many reported pathogenic or risk genes for AD were located in the Aβ generation and degradation pathways. Neprilysin (NEP), insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), and matrix metalloprotease-9 (MMP-9) are the most important Aβ-degrading proteases. Accumulating genetic evidence suggested that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of these genes confer susceptibility to AD in Caucasian populations. In this study, we screened eight SNPs within these three Aβ-degrading protease genes in 1475 individuals of two independent Han Chinese case-control cohorts. SNP rs1816558 of NEP was found to be significantly associated with AD after adjustment for ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOEε4) and the Bonferroni correction. The remaining variants were not associated with risk of AD in Han Chinese sample set. Further data mining revealed that messenger RNA (mRNA) level of NEP substantially increased during the development of AD and was positively correlated with APP expression. The combined results indicated that NEP confers genetic susceptibility to AD in Han Chinese populations.
Collapse
|
15
|
Guo X, Tang P, Liu P, Liu Y, Hou C, Li R. Meta-analysis of the association between two neprilysin gene polymorphisms and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci 2014; 346:6-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2014.07.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
|
16
|
Grimm MOW, Mett J, Stahlmann CP, Haupenthal VJ, Zimmer VC, Hartmann T. Neprilysin and Aβ Clearance: Impact of the APP Intracellular Domain in NEP Regulation and Implications in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2013; 5:98. [PMID: 24391587 PMCID: PMC3870290 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2013.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the characteristic hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ) leading to plaque formation and toxic oligomeric Aβ complexes. Besides the de novo synthesis of Aβ caused by amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), Aβ levels are also highly dependent on Aβ degradation. Several enzymes are described to cleave Aβ. In this review we focus on one of the most prominent Aβ degrading enzymes, the zinc-metalloprotease Neprilysin (NEP). In the first part of the review we discuss beside the general role of NEP in Aβ degradation the alterations of the enzyme observed during normal aging and the progression of AD. In vivo and cell culture experiments reveal that a decreased NEP level results in an increased Aβ level and vice versa. In a pathological situation like AD, it has been reported that NEP levels and activity are decreased and it has been suggested that certain polymorphisms in the NEP gene result in an increased risk for AD. Conversely, increasing NEP activity in AD mouse models revealed an improvement in some behavioral tests. Therefore it has been suggested that increasing NEP might be an interesting potential target to treat or to be protective for AD making it indispensable to understand the regulation of NEP. Interestingly, it is discussed that the APP intracellular domain (AICD), one of the cleavage products of APP processing, which has high similarities to Notch receptor processing, might be involved in the transcriptional regulation of NEP. However, the mechanisms of NEP regulation by AICD, which might be helpful to develop new therapeutic strategies, are up to now controversially discussed and summarized in the second part of this review. In addition, we review the impact of AICD not only in the transcriptional regulation of NEP but also of further genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcus O W Grimm
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany ; Neurodegeneration and Neurobiology, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany ; Deutsches Institut für DemenzPrävention, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany
| | - Janine Mett
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany
| | | | | | - Valerie C Zimmer
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany
| | - Tobias Hartmann
- Experimental Neurology, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany ; Neurodegeneration and Neurobiology, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany ; Deutsches Institut für DemenzPrävention, Saarland University , Homburg, Saar , Germany
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Xing Y, Jia J, Ji X, Tian T. Estrogen associated gene polymorphisms and their interactions in the progress of Alzheimer's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 111:53-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
18
|
Tsitsopoulos PP, Marklund N. Amyloid-β Peptides and Tau Protein as Biomarkers in Cerebrospinal and Interstitial Fluid Following Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review of Experimental and Clinical Studies. Front Neurol 2013; 4:79. [PMID: 23805125 PMCID: PMC3693096 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2013.00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) survivors frequently suffer from life-long deficits in cognitive functions and a reduced quality of life. Axonal injury, observed in many severe TBI patients, results in accumulation of amyloid precursor protein (APP). Post-injury enzymatic cleavage of APP can generate amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, a hallmark finding in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). At autopsy, brains of AD and a subset of TBI victims display some similarities including accumulation of Aβ peptides and neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau proteins. Most epidemiological evidence suggests a link between TBI and AD, implying that TBI has neurodegenerative sequelae. Aβ peptides and tau may be used as biomarkers in interstitial fluid (ISF) using cerebral microdialysis and/or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) following clinical TBI. In the present review, the available clinical and experimental literature on Aβ peptides and tau as potential biomarkers following TBI is comprehensively analyzed. Elevated CSF and ISF tau protein levels have been observed following severe TBI and suggested to correlate with clinical outcome. Although Aβ peptides are produced by normal neuronal metabolism, high levels of long and/or fibrillary Aβ peptides may be neurotoxic. Increased CSF and/or ISF Aβ levels post-injury may be related to neuronal activity and/or the presence of axonal injury. The heterogeneity of animal models, clinical cohorts, analytical techniques, and the complexity of TBI in the available studies make the clinical value of tau and Aβ as biomarkers uncertain at present. Additionally, the link between early post-injury changes in tau and Aβ peptides and the future risk of developing AD remains unclear. Future studies using methods such as rapid biomarker sampling combined with enhanced analytical techniques and/or novel pharmacological tools could provide additional information on the importance of Aβ peptides and tau protein in both the acute pathophysiology and long-term consequences of TBI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parmenion P Tsitsopoulos
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hippokratio General Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Aristotle University , Thessaloniki , Greece ; Department of Neuroscience, Division of Neurosurgery, Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Pacheco-Quinto J, Herdt A, Eckman CB, Eckman EA. Endothelin-converting enzymes and related metalloproteases in Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2013; 33 Suppl 1:S101-10. [PMID: 22903130 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2012-129043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The efficient clearance of amyloid-β (Aβ) is essential to modulate levels of the peptide in the brain and to prevent it from accumulating in senile plaques, a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology.We and others have shown that failure in Aβ catabolism can produce elevations in Aβ concentration similar to those observed in familial forms of AD. Based on the available evidence, it remains plausible that in late-onset AD, disturbances in the activity of Aβ degrading enzymes could induce Aβ accumulation, and that this increase could result in AD pathology. The following review presents a historical perspective of the parallel discovery of three vasopeptidases (neprilysin and endothelin-converting enzymes-1 and -2) as important Aβ degrading enzymes. The recognition of the role of these vasopeptidases in Aβ degradation, beyond bringing to light a possible explanation of how cardiovascular risk factors may influence AD risk, highlights a possible risk of the use of inhibitors of these enzymes for other clinical indications such as hypertension. We will discuss in detail the experiments conducted to assess the impact of vasopeptidase deficiency (through pharmacological inhibition or genetic mutation) on Aβ accumulation, as well as the cooperative effect of multiple Aβ degrading enzymes to regulate the concentration of the peptide at multiple sites, both intracellular and extracellular, throughout the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Javier Pacheco-Quinto
- Biomedical Research Institute of New Jersey, MidAtlantic Neonatology Associates, and Atlantic Health System, Morristown, NJ, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Miners S, van Helmond Z, Barker R, Passmore PA, Johnston JA, Todd S, McGuinness BM, Panza F, Seripa D, Solfrizzi V, Love S, Prince JA, Kehoe PG. Genetic variation in MME in relation to neprilysin protein and enzyme activity, Aβ levels, and Alzheimer's disease risk. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND GENETICS 2012; 3:30-38. [PMID: 22493749 PMCID: PMC3316445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Neprilysin (NEP), also known as membrane metalloendopeptidase (MME), is considered amongst the most important β-amyloid (Aβ)-degrading enzymes with regard to prevention of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Variation in the NEP gene (MME) has been suggested as a risk factor for AD. We conducted a genetic association study of 7MME SNPs - rs1836914, rs989692, rs9827586, rs6797911, rs61760379, rs3736187, rs701109 - with respect to AD risk in a cohort of 1057 probable and confirmed AD cases and 424 age-matched non-demented controls from the United Kingdom, Italy and Sweden. We also examined the association of these MME SNPs with NEP protein level and enzyme activity, and on biochemical measures of Aβ accumulation in frontal cortex - levels of total soluble Aβ, oligomeric Aβ(1-42), and guanidine-extractable (insoluble) Aβ - in a sub-group of AD and control cases with post-mortem brain tissue. On multivariate logistic regression analysis one of the MME variants (rs6797911) was associated with AD risk (P = 0.00052, Odds Ratio (O.R. = 1.40, 95% confidence interval (1.16-1.70)). None of the SNPs had any association with Aβ levels; however, rs9827586 was significantly associated with NEP protein level (p=0.014) and enzyme activity (p=0.006). Association was also found between rs701109 and NEP protein level (p=0.026) and a marginally non-significant association was found for rs989692 (p=0.055). These data suggest that MME variation may be associated with AD risk but we have not found evidence that this is mediated through modification of NEP protein level or activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott Miners
- Dementia Research Group, University of Bristol, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Frenchay HospitalBristol, UK
| | - Zoë van Helmond
- Dementia Research Group, University of Bristol, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Frenchay HospitalBristol, UK
| | - Rachel Barker
- Dementia Research Group, University of Bristol, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Frenchay HospitalBristol, UK
| | - Peter A Passmore
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, The Queen’s University of BelfastBelfast, UK
| | - Janet A Johnston
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, The Queen’s University of BelfastBelfast, UK
| | - Stephen Todd
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, The Queen’s University of BelfastBelfast, UK
| | | | - Francesco Panza
- Department of Geriatrics, Center for Aging Brain, Memory Unit, University of BariBari, Italy
- Geriatric Unit and Gerontology-Geriatrics Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, IRCCS, Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni RotondoFoggia, Italy
| | - Davide Seripa
- Geriatric Unit and Gerontology-Geriatrics Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, IRCCS, Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni RotondoFoggia, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Solfrizzi
- Department of Geriatrics, Center for Aging Brain, Memory Unit, University of BariBari, Italy
| | - Seth Love
- Dementia Research Group, University of Bristol, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Frenchay HospitalBristol, UK
| | - Jonathan A Prince
- Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Karolinska InstituteStockholm, Sweden
| | - Patrick G Kehoe
- Dementia Research Group, University of Bristol, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Frenchay HospitalBristol, UK
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Nalivaeva NN, Beckett C, Belyaev ND, Turner AJ. Are amyloid-degrading enzymes viable therapeutic targets in Alzheimer's disease? J Neurochem 2011; 120 Suppl 1:167-185. [PMID: 22122230 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07510.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
: The amyloid cascade hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease envisages that the initial elevation of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) levels, especially of Aβ(1-42) , is the primary trigger for the neuronal cell death specific to onset of Alzheimer's disease. There is now substantial evidence that brain amyloid levels are manipulable because of a dynamic equilibrium between their synthesis from the amyloid precursor protein and their removal by amyloid-degrading enzymes (ADEs) providing a potential therapeutic strategy. Since the initial reports over a decade ago that two zinc metallopeptidases, insulin-degrading enzyme and neprilysin (NEP), contributed to amyloid degradation in the brain, there is now an embarras de richesses in relation to this category of enzymes, which currently number almost 20. These now include serine and cysteine proteinases, as well as numerous zinc peptidases. The experimental validation for each of these enzymes, and which to target, varies enormously but up-regulation of several of them individually in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease has proved effective in amyloid and plaque clearance, as well as cognitive enhancement. The relative status of each of these enzymes will be critically evaluated. NEP and its homologues, as well as insulin-degrading enzyme, remain as principal ADEs and recently discovered mechanisms of epigenetic regulation of NEP expression potentially open new avenues in manipulation of AD-related genes, including ADEs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia N Nalivaeva
- Institute of Molecular & Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.,Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Caroline Beckett
- Institute of Molecular & Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Nikolai D Belyaev
- Institute of Molecular & Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Anthony J Turner
- Institute of Molecular & Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Maguer-Satta V, Besançon R, Bachelard-Cascales E. Concise Review: Neutral Endopeptidase (CD10): A Multifaceted Environment Actor in Stem Cells, Physiological Mechanisms, and Cancer. Stem Cells 2011; 29:389-96. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
|
23
|
Blomqvist ME, McCarthy S, Blennow K, Andersson B, Prince JA. Evaluation of neprilysin sequence variation in relation to CSF β-Amyloid levels and Alzheimer disease risk. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND GENETICS 2010; 1:47-52. [PMID: 21537452 PMCID: PMC3076750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/29/2009] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Neprilysin (NEP) is a principal peptidase involved in the degradation of β-amyloid (Aβ), and as such its encoding gene (MME) has been the target of numerous genetic association studies on Alzheimer disease. Here, in order to attempt replication of previous findings we have investigated several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that have been claimed to be associated with AD. A key feature of the present study is the complementary investigation of both AD risk and quantitative measures of AD severity, including cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid levels of AP1-42. In contrast to the effects of APOE, none of these measures are detectably influenced by genetic polymorphism in the MME region. We thus, fail to find support for previous results suggesting that MME impacts AD.
Collapse
|
24
|
Gough M, Parr-Sturgess C, Parkin E. Zinc metalloproteinases and amyloid Beta-Peptide metabolism: the positive side of proteolysis in Alzheimer's disease. Biochem Res Int 2010; 2011:721463. [PMID: 21152187 PMCID: PMC2989646 DOI: 10.1155/2011/721463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative condition characterized by an accumulation of toxic amyloid beta- (Aβ-)peptides in the brain causing progressive neuronal death. Aβ-peptides are produced by aspartyl proteinase-mediated cleavage of the larger amyloid precursor protein (APP). In contrast to this detrimental "amyloidogenic" form of proteolysis, a range of zinc metalloproteinases can process APP via an alternative "nonamyloidogenic" pathway in which the protein is cleaved within its Aβ region thereby precluding the formation of intact Aβ-peptides. In addition, other members of the zinc metalloproteinase family can degrade preformed Aβ-peptides. As such, the zinc metalloproteinases, collectively, are key to downregulating Aβ generation and enhancing its degradation. It is the role of zinc metalloproteinases in this "positive side of proteolysis in Alzheimer's disease" that is discussed in the current paper.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mallory Gough
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, School of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - Catherine Parr-Sturgess
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, School of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - Edward Parkin
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, School of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
Extensive β-amyloid (Aβ) deposits in brain parenchyma
in the form of senile plaques and in blood vessels in the form of
amyloid angiopathy are pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's
disease (AD). The mechanisms underlying Aβ deposition
remain unclear. Major efforts have focused on Aβ production,
but there is little to suggest that increased production of
Aβ plays a role in Aβ deposition, except for rare
familial forms of AD. Thus, other mechanisms must be involved in
the accumulation of Aβ in AD. Recent data shows that
impaired clearance may play an important role in Aβ
accumulation in the pathogenesis of AD. This review focuses on our
current knowledge of Aβ-degrading enzymes, including
neprilysin (NEP), endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE),
insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), angiotensin-converting enzyme
(ACE), and the plasmin/uPA/tPA system as they relate to amyloid
deposition in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Deng-Shun Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
- *Deng-Shun Wang:
| | - Dennis W. Dickson
- Departments of Pathology (Neuropathology) and Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - James S. Malter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
- Waisman Center for Developmental Disabilities, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Nilsson P, Iwata N, Muramatsu SI, Tjernberg LO, Winblad B, Saido TC. Gene therapy in Alzheimer's disease - potential for disease modification. J Cell Mol Med 2010; 14:741-57. [PMID: 20158567 PMCID: PMC3823109 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01038.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the major cause of dementia in the elderly, leading to memory loss and cognitive decline. The mechanism underlying onset of the disease has not been fully elucidated. However, characteristic pathological manifestations include extracellular accumulation and aggregation of the amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) into plaques and intracellular accumulation and aggregation of hyperphosphorylated tau, forming neurofibrillary tangles. Despite extensive research worldwide, no disease modifying treatment is yet available. In this review, we focus on gene therapy as a potential treatment for AD, and summarize recent work in the field, ranging from proof-of-concept studies in animal models to clinical trials. The multifactorial causes of AD offer a variety of possible targets for gene therapy, including two neurotrophic growth factors, nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor, Abeta-degrading enzymes, such as neprilysin, endothelin-converting enzyme and cathepsin B, and AD associated apolipoprotein E. This review also discusses advantages and drawbacks of various rapidly developing virus-mediated gene delivery techniques for gene therapy. Finally, approaches aiming at down-regulating amyloid precursor protein (APP) and beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 levels by means of siRNA-mediated knockdown are briefly summarized. Overall, the prospects appear hopeful that gene therapy has the potential to be a disease modifying treatment for AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Per Nilsson
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science InstituteWako-shi, Saitama, Japan
- KI-Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska InstitutetNovum, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Nobuhisa Iwata
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science InstituteWako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Shin-ichi Muramatsu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical SchoolShimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Lars O Tjernberg
- KI-Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska InstitutetNovum, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Bengt Winblad
- KI-Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska InstitutetNovum, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science InstituteWako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Huehne K, Schaal U, Leis S, Uebe S, Gosso MF, van den Maagdenberg AM, Maihöfner C, Birklein F, Rautenstrauss B, Winterpacht A. Lack of genetic association of neutral endopeptidase (NEP) with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Neurosci Lett 2010; 472:19-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2009] [Revised: 01/18/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
28
|
Zhang H, Guo T, Li X, Datta A, Park JE, Yang J, Lim SK, Tam JP, Sze SK. Simultaneous characterization of glyco- and phosphoproteomes of mouse brain membrane proteome with electrostatic repulsion hydrophilic interaction chromatography. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9:635-47. [PMID: 20047950 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900314-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Characterization of glyco- and phosphoproteins as well as their modification sites poses many challenges, the greatest being loss of their signals during mass spectrometric detection due to substoichiometric amounts and the ion suppression effect caused by peptides of high abundance. We report here an optimized protocol using electrostatic repulsion hydrophilic interaction chromatography for the simultaneous enrichment of glyco- and phosphopeptides from mouse brain membrane protein digest. With this protocol, we successfully identified 544 unique glycoproteins and 922 glycosylation sites, which were significantly higher than those from the commonly used hydrazide chemistry method (192 glycoproteins and 345 glycosylation sites). Moreover, a total of 383 phosphoproteins and 915 phosphorylation sites were recovered from the sample, suggesting that this protocol has the potential to enrich both glycopeptides and phosphopeptides simultaneously. Of the total 995 glycosylation sites identified from both methods, 96% were considered new as they were either annotated as putative or not documented in the newly released Swiss-Prot database. Thus, this study could be of significant value in complementing the current glycoprotein database and provides a unique opportunity to study the complex interaction of two different post-translational modifications in health and disease without being affected by interexperimental variations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huoming Zhang
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Lack of association of neprilysin gene polymorphisms with Alzheimer's disease in a southern Chinese community. Int Psychogeriatr 2009; 21:354-8. [PMID: 19250583 DOI: 10.1017/s1041610208008338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increasing evidence suggests that neprilysin (NEP) may be the major degrading enzyme of amyloid beta (Abeta) in the brain and the NEP gene has been proposed as a candidate gene for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Association results between the NEP gene and AD are still preliminary. This study investigates the effect of the polymorphisms of -204G/C and 159C/T in the NEP gene on the development of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (SAD) in a southern Chinese community. METHOD 236 sporadic late-onset AD patients were recruited from Guangzhou Psychiatric Hospital in southern China, and 332 healthy elderly controls were enrolled from three old age homes in suburban Guangzhou. NEP and ApoE genotype were determined by PCR-RFLP. RESULTS No differences in genotypic and allelic frequencies of -204G/C and 159C/T polymorphisms in NEP were found between AD and control group (for -204G/C genotype: chi2 = 2.34, P > 0.05; for allele: chi2 = 2.31, P > 0.05; for 159C/T genotype: chi2 = 1.34, P > 0.05; for allele: chi2 = 0.88, P > 0.05). Neither was any difference found in genotypic and allelic frequency when stratified by sex or by ApoE epsilon4 allele (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that -204G/C and 159C/T polymorphisms of the NEP gene may not be associated with SAD. Moreover, both sex and ApoE epsilon4 allele do not affect the distribution of NEP gene polymorphisms.
Collapse
|
30
|
Minocycline prevents Aβ(25–35)-induced reduction of somatostatin and neprilysin content in rat temporal cortex. Life Sci 2009; 84:205-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2008.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Revised: 11/18/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
31
|
Spencer B, Marr RA, Rockenstein E, Crews L, Adame A, Potkar R, Patrick C, Gage FH, Verma IM, Masliah E. Long-term neprilysin gene transfer is associated with reduced levels of intracellular Abeta and behavioral improvement in APP transgenic mice. BMC Neurosci 2008; 9:109. [PMID: 19014502 PMCID: PMC2596170 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-9-109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2008] [Accepted: 11/12/2008] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Proteolytic degradation has emerged as a key pathway involved in controlling levels of the Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in the brain. The endopeptidase, neprilysin, has been implicated as a major Aβ degrading enzyme in mice and humans. Previous short and intermediate term studies have shown the potential therapeutic application of neprilysin by delivering this enzyme into the brain of APP transgenic mice using gene transfer with viral vectors. However the effects of long-term neprilysin gene transfer on other aspects of Aβ associated pathology have not been explored yet in APP transgenic mice. Results We show that the sustained expression of neprilysin for up to 6 months lowered not only the amyloid plaque load but also reduced the levels of intracellular Aβ immunoreactivity. This was associated with improved behavioral performance in the water maze and ameliorated the dendritic and synaptic pathology in the APP transgenic mice. Conclusion These data support the possibility that long-term neprilysin gene therapy improves behavioral and neurodegenerative pathology by reducing intracellular Aβ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Spencer
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Lanfear DE. Genetic variation in the natriuretic peptide system and heart failure. Heart Fail Rev 2008; 15:219-28. [PMID: 18850266 DOI: 10.1007/s10741-008-9113-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2008] [Accepted: 09/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Heart failure (HF) is a modern epidemic and is one of the few cardiovascular diseases which is increasing in prevalence. The growing importance of the Natriuretic Peptide (NP) system in HF is well recognized. Laboratory tests for B-type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) have proven value as diagnostic and prognostic tools in HF and are now part of routine clinical care. Furthermore, recombinant atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (carperitide) and BNP (nesiritide) and are approved HF therapies in Japan and the US, respectively and additional natriuretic peptides (e.g., CNP, urodilatin, and designer NPs) are under investigation for use in HF. Common genetic sequence variants are increasingly being recognized as determinants of disease risk or drug response and may help explain a portion of the inter-individual variation in the human NP system. This review describes current knowledge of NP system genetic variation as it pertains to HF as well as ongoing studies and where the field is expected to progress in the near future. To briefly summarize, NP system genetic variants have been associated with alterations in gene expression, NP levels, and cardiovascular disease. The next step forward will include specific investigations into how this genetic variation can advance 'Personalized Medicine', such as whether they impact the utility of diagnostic BNP testing or effectiveness of therapeutic NP infusion. This is already in progress, with pharmacogenetic studies of nesiritide currently underway. We expect that within 5 years there should be a reasonable idea of whether NP system genetic variation will have important clinical implications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David E Lanfear
- Henry Ford Heart and Vascular Institute, Section of Advanced Heart Failure and Cardiac Transplantation, Henry Ford Hospital, 2799 W. Grand Boulevard, K14, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Miners JS, Baig S, Palmer J, Palmer LE, Kehoe PG, Love S. Abeta-degrading enzymes in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Pathol 2008; 18:240-52. [PMID: 18363935 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2008.00132.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In Alzheimer's disease (AD) Abeta accumulates because of imbalance between the production of Abeta and its removal from the brain. There is increasing evidence that in most sporadic forms of AD, the accumulation of Abeta is partly, if not in some cases solely, because of defects in its removal--mediated through a combination of diffusion along perivascular extracellular matrix, transport across vessel walls into the blood stream and enzymatic degradation. Multiple enzymes within the central nervous system (CNS) are capable of degrading Abeta. Most are produced by neurons or glia, but some are expressed in the cerebral vasculature, where reduced Abeta-degrading activity may contribute to the development of cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Neprilysin and insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), which have been most extensively studied, are expressed both neuronally and within the vasculature. The levels of both of these enzymes are reduced in AD although the correlation with enzyme activity is still not entirely clear. Other enzymes shown capable of degrading Abetain vitro or in animal studies include plasmin; endothelin-converting enzymes ECE-1 and -2; matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2, -3 and -9; and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). The levels of plasmin and plasminogen activators (uPA and tPA) and ECE-2 are reported to be reduced in AD. Reductions in neprilysin, IDE and plasmin in AD have been associated with possession of APOEepsilon4. We found no change in the level or activity of MMP-2, -3 or -9 in AD. The level and activity of ACE are increased, the level being directly related to Abeta plaque load. Up-regulation of some Abeta-degrading enzymes may initially compensate for declining activity of others, but as age, genetic factors and diseases such as hypertension and diabetes diminish the effectiveness of other Abeta-clearance pathways, reductions in the activity of particular Abeta-degrading enzymes may become critical, leading to the development of AD and CAA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Scott Miners
- Dementia Research Group, University of Bristol Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Spencer B, Rockenstein E, Crews L, Marr R, Masliah E. Novel strategies for Alzheimer's disease treatment. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2007; 7:1853-67. [PMID: 18034651 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.7.12.1853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Considerable progress has been made in recent years towards better understanding the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a dementing neurodegenerative disorder that affects > 10 million individuals in the US and Europe combined. Recent studies suggest that alterations in the processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP), resulting in the accumulation of amyloid-beta protein (Abeta) and the formation of oligomers leads to synaptic damage and neurodegeneration. Therefore, strategies for treatment development have been focused on reducing Abeta accumulation using, among other approaches, antiaggregation molecules, regulators of the APP proteolysis and processing, reducing APP production (e.g., small-interfering RNA), and increasing Abeta clearance with antibodies, apolipoprotein E and Abeta-degrading enzymes (e.g., neprilysin). The main focus of this review is on novel treatments for AD with a special emphasis on delivering neuroprotective and antiamyloidogenic molecules by gene therapy and by promoting neurogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Spencer
- University of California, Department of Neurosciences, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0624, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Wood LS, Pickering EH, McHale D, Dechairo BM. Association between neprilysin polymorphisms and sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 2007; 427:103-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2007] [Revised: 07/26/2007] [Accepted: 09/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
36
|
Lee SY, Chung Y, Elston RC, Kim Y, Park T. Log-linear model-based multifactor dimensionality reduction method to detect gene gene interactions. Bioinformatics 2007; 23:2589-95. [PMID: 17872915 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btm396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION The identification and characterization of susceptibility genes that influence the risk of common and complex diseases remains a statistical and computational challenge in genetic association studies. This is partly because the effect of any single genetic variant for a common and complex disease may be dependent on other genetic variants (gene-gene interaction) and environmental factors (gene-environment interaction). To address this problem, the multifactor dimensionality reduction (MDR) method has been proposed by Ritchie et al. to detect gene-gene interactions or gene-environment interactions. The MDR method identifies polymorphism combinations associated with the common and complex multifactorial diseases by collapsing high-dimensional genetic factors into a single dimension. That is, the MDR method classifies the combination of multilocus genotypes into high-risk and low-risk groups based on a comparison of the ratios of the numbers of cases and controls. When a high-order interaction model is considered with multi-dimensional factors, however, there may be many sparse or empty cells in the contingency tables. The MDR method cannot classify an empty cell as high risk or low risk and leaves it as undetermined. RESULTS In this article, we propose the log-linear model-based multifactor dimensionality reduction (LM MDR) method to improve the MDR in classifying sparse or empty cells. The LM MDR method estimates frequencies for empty cells from a parsimonious log-linear model so that they can be assigned to high-and low-risk groups. In addition, LM MDR includes MDR as a special case when the saturated log-linear model is fitted. Simulation studies show that the LM MDR method has greater power and smaller error rates than the MDR method. The LM MDR method is also compared with the MDR method using as an example sporadic Alzheimer's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seung Yeoun Lee
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-Dong Kwangjin-Gu, Seoul 143-747, Korea
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Shiverick K, Ino K, Harada T, Keelan J, Kikkawa F. Placental enzymes and transporters: new functions and genetic polymorphisms--a workshop report. Placenta 2007; 28 Suppl A:S125-8. [PMID: 17382383 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2007.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2007] [Accepted: 01/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K Shiverick
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Miners JS, Van Helmond Z, Chalmers K, Wilcock G, Love S, Kehoe PG. Decreased Expression and Activity of Neprilysin in Alzheimer Disease Are Associated With Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65:1012-21. [PMID: 17021406 DOI: 10.1097/01.jnen.0000240463.87886.9a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Neprilysin (NEP) degrades amyloid-beta (Abeta) and is thought to contribute to its clearance from the brain. In Alzheimer disease (AD), downregulation of NEP has been suggested to contribute to the development of cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). We examined the relationship among NEP, CAA, and APOE status in AD and elderly control cases. NEP was most abundant in the tunica media of cerebrocortical blood vessels and in pyramidal neurons. In homogenates of the frontal cortex, NEP protein levels were reduced in AD but not significantly; NEP enzymatic activity was significantly reduced in AD. Immunohistochemistry revealed a reduction of both vascular and parenchymal NEP. The loss of vessel-associated NEP in AD was inversely related to the severity of CAA, and analysis of cases with severe CAA showed that levels of vascular NEP were reduced to the same extent in Abeta-free and Abeta-laden vessels, strongly suggesting that the reduction in NEP is not simply secondary to CAA. Possession of APOE epsilon4 was associated with significantly lower levels of both parenchymal and vascular NEP. Colinearity of epsilon4 with the presence of moderate to severe CAA precluded assessment of the independence of this association from NEP levels. However, logistic regression analysis showed low NEP levels to be a significant independent predictor of moderate to severe CAA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Scott Miners
- Dementia Research Group, Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay Hospital, Frenchay, Bristol, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Vogt IR, Lees AJ, Evert BO, Klockgether T, Bonin M, Wüllner U. Transcriptional changes in multiple system atrophy and Parkinson's disease putamen. Exp Neurol 2006; 199:465-78. [PMID: 16626704 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2005] [Revised: 12/21/2005] [Accepted: 01/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Multiple system atrophy (MSA) and sporadic, non-mendelian Parkinson's disease (PD) are progressive neurodegenerative disorders with overlapping clinical symptoms and pathology. The etiology of both disorders is unknown, and complex combinations of multiple susceptibility genes and environmental factors are thought to be involved. Both disorders are characterized by ubiquitous alpha-synuclein aggregates in distinct regions and cell types of the central nervous system. In PD, alpha-synuclein-positive aggregates appear to be largely neuronal while in MSA oligodendroglial inclusions prevail. In PD patients, the alpha-synuclein pathology is thought to evolve in a rather regular pattern, starting in the brainstem and olfactory bulb and extending gradually onto the substantia nigra and ultimately the cerebral cortex while the cerebellum is largely spared. MSA pathology has not been graded in a similar way yet; neuropathological analyses revealed neurodegeneration and gliosis primarily in the brainstem, midbrain and basal ganglia and the cerebellum, while the cortex is largely spared. To identify disease-specific transcriptional patterns in MSA, we chose CNS regions differentially affected in MSA and PD for comparative gene expression profiling: putamen, cerebellum and occipital cortex. Four genes were regulated in both MSA and PD putamen and twelve in MSA and PD cerebellum. Regulated transcripts were validated using real-time quantitative RT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry was performed for the most significantly downregulated transcripts in MSA and PD putamen, GPR86 and RGS14, associated with G protein signaling and transcriptional regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ina R Vogt
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Hong CS, Goins WF, Goss JR, Burton EA, Glorioso JC. Herpes simplex virus RNAi and neprilysin gene transfer vectors reduce accumulation of Alzheimer's disease-related amyloid-β peptide in vivo. Gene Ther 2006; 13:1068-79. [PMID: 16541122 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Accumulation of insoluble aggregates of amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta), a cleavage product of amyloid precursor protein (APP), is thought to be central to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Consequently, downregulation of APP, or enhanced clearance of Abeta, represent possible therapeutic strategies for AD. We generated replication-defective herpes simplex virus (HSV) vectors that inhibit Abeta accumulation, both in vitro and in vivo. In cell culture, HSV vectors expressing either (i) short hairpin RNA directed to the APP transcript (HSV-APP/shRNA), or (ii) neprilysin, an endopeptidase that degrades Abeta (HSV-neprilysin), substantially inhibited accumulation of Abeta. To determine whether these vectors showed similar activity in vivo, we developed a novel mouse model, in which overexpression of a mutant form of APP in the hippocampus, using a lentiviral vector (LV-APP(Sw)), resulted in rapid Abeta accumulation. Co-inoculation of LV-APP(Sw) with each of the HSV vectors showed that either HSV-APP/shRNA or HSV-neprilysin inhibited Abeta accumulation in this model, whereas an HSV control vector did not. These studies demonstrate the utility of HSV vectors for reducing Abeta accumulation in the brain, thus providing useful tools to clarify the role of Abeta in AD that may facilitate the development of novel therapies for this important disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C-S Hong
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, PA 15261, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Mouri A, Zou LB, Iwata N, Saido TC, Wang D, Wang MW, Noda Y, Nabeshima T. Inhibition of neprilysin by thiorphan (i.c.v.) causes an accumulation of amyloid β and impairment of learning and memory. Behav Brain Res 2006; 168:83-91. [PMID: 16360221 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2005.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2005] [Accepted: 10/24/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
An accumulation of amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) due to an imbalance between anabolism and catabolism triggers Alzheimer's disease (AD). Neprilysin is a rate-limiting peptidase, which participates in the catabolism of Abeta in brain. We investigated whether rats continuously infused with thiorphan, a specific inhibitor for neprilysin, into the cerebral ventricle cause cognitive dysfunction, with an accumulation of Abeta in the brain. Thiorphan-infused rats displayed significant cognitive dysfunction in the ability to discriminate in the object recognition test and spatial memory in the water maze test, but not in other hippocampus-dependent learning and memory tasks. Thiorphan infusion also elevated the Abeta40 level in the insoluble fraction of the cerebral cortex, but not that of the hippocampus. There was no significant difference in the nicotine-stimulated release of acetylcholine in the hippocampus between vehicle- and thiorphan-infused rats. These results indicate that continuous infusion of thiorphan into the cerebral ventricle causes cognitive dysfunction by raising the level of Abeta in the cerebral cortex, and suggest that a reduction of neprilysin activity contribute to the deposition of Abeta and development of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Mouri
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology and Hospital Pharmacy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsuruma-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8560, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Donoso LA, Kim D, Frost A, Callahan A, Hageman G. The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol 2006; 51:137-52. [PMID: 16500214 PMCID: PMC4853913 DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2005.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of blindness in the elderly, is a complex disease to study because of the potential role of demographic, environmental, and other systemic risk factors, such as age, sex, race, light exposure, diet, smoking, and underlying cardiovascular disease which may contribute to the pathogenesis of this disease. Recently, single nucleotide polymorphisms, DNA sequence variations found within the complement Factor H gene, have been found to be strongly associated with the development of AMD in Caucasians. One single nucleotide polymorphism, Tyr402His, was associated with approximately 50% of AMD cases. We review recent developments in the molecular biology of AMD, including single nucleotide polymorphisms within the Factor H gene, which may predispose individuals to the susceptibility of AMD as well as single nucleotide polymorphisms that may confer a protective effect. Taken together these findings help to provide new insights into the central issues surrounding the pathogenesis of AMD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Larry A Donoso
- The Henry and Corinne Bower Laboratory, the Eye Research Institute, Wills Eye Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19105, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
|
44
|
Hölscher C. Development of beta-amyloid-induced neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease and novel neuroprotective strategies. Rev Neurosci 2006; 16:181-212. [PMID: 16323560 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro.2005.16.3.181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a form of dementia in which people develop rapid neurodegeneration, complete loss of cognitive abilities, and are likely to die prematurely. At present, no treatment for AD is known. One of the hallmarks in the development of AD is the aggregation of amyloid protein fragments in the brain, and much evidence points towards beta-amyloid fragments being one of the main causes of the neurodegenerative processes. This review summarises the present concepts and theories on how AD develops, and lists the evidence that supports them. A cascade of biochemical events is initiated that ultimately leads to neuronal death involving an imbalance of intracellular calcium homeostasis via activation of calcium channels, intracellular calcium stores, and subsequent production of free radicals by calcium-sensitive enzymes. Secondary processes include inflammatory responses that produce more free radicals and the induction of apoptosis. Recently, several new strategies have been proposed to try to ameliorate the neurodegenerative developments associated with AD. These include the activation of neuronal growth factor receptors and insulin-like receptors, both of which have neuroprotective properties. Furthermore, the role of cholesterol and potential protective properties of cholesterol-lowering drugs are under intense investigation. Other promising strategies include the inhibition of beta- and gamma-secretases which produce beta-amyloid, activation of proteases that degrade beta-amyloid, glutamate receptor selective drugs, antioxidants, and metal chelating agents, all of which prevent formation of plaques. Novel drugs that act at different levels of the neurodegenerative processes show great promise to reduce neurodegeneration. They could help to prolong the time of unimpaired cognitive abilities of people who develop AD, allowing them to lead an independent life.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Hölscher
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland.
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Abstract
Tremendous progress has been made in understanding the processes of the Alzheimer's disease (AD) cascade, laying the groundwork for improvements in diagnosis and treatment. Advancement has been made in understanding the genetic basis of AD, with identification of causative genes for early-onset familial AD, and the role of the polymorphism of the APOE gene in the late-onset form of the disease. Understanding cerebral degeneration and accumulation of beta-amyloid has generated hopes for discovery of disease-modifying treatments. Progress is needed in understanding the mechanisms that link beta-amyloid accumulation and neuronal death. The next 5 years will be crucial in this respect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bruno P Imbimbo
- Research and Development Department, Chiesi Farmaceutici, Parma, Italy
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Iwata N, Higuchi M, Saido TC. Metabolism of amyloid-beta peptide and Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacol Ther 2005; 108:129-48. [PMID: 16112736 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/07/2005] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The accumulation of amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta), a physiological peptide, in the brain is a triggering event leading to the pathological cascade of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and appears to be caused by an increase in the anabolic activity, as seen in familial AD cases or by a decrease in catabolic activity. Neprilysin is a rate-limiting peptidase involved in the physiological degradation of Abeta in the brain. As demonstrated by reverse genetics studies, disruption of the neprilysin gene causes elevation of endogenous Abeta levels in mouse brain in a gene-dose-dependent manner. Thus, the reduction of neprilysin activity will contribute to Abeta accumulation and consequently to AD development. Evidence that neprilysin in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex is down-regulated with aging and from an early stage of AD development supports a close association of neprilysin with the etiology and pathogenesis of AD. Therefore, the up-regulation of neprilysin represents a promising strategy for therapy and prevention. Recently, somatostatin, which acts via a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), has been identified as a modulator that increases brain neprilysin activity, resulting in a decrease of Abeta levels. Thus, it may be possible to pharmacologically control brain Abeta levels with somatostatin receptor agonists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nobuhisa Iwata
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako-shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|