Hydrocephalus and tuberculous meningitis in adults

Ventriculoperitoneal shunt insertion in human immunodeficiency virus infected adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Hydrocephalus is a common, life threatening complication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related central nervous system opportunistic infection which can be treated by insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS). In HIV-infected patients there is concern that VPS might be associated with unacceptably high mortality. To identify prognostic indicators, we aimed to compare survival and clinical outcome following VPS placement between all studied causes of hydrocephalus in HIV infected patients.

METHODS

The following electronic databases were searched: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE, CINAHL Plus, LILACS, Research Registry, the metaRegister of Controlled Trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, African Journals Online, and the OpenGrey database. We included observational studies of HIV-infected patients treated with VPS which reported of survival or clinical outcome. Data was extracted using standardised proformas. Risk of bias was assessed using validated domain-based tools.

RESULTS

Seven Hunderd twenty-three unique study records were screened. Nine observational studies were included. Three included a total of 75 patients with tuberculous meningitis (TBM) and six included a total of 49 patients with cryptococcal meningitis (CM). All of the CM and two of the TBM studies were of weak quality. One of the TBM studies was of moderate quality. One-month mortality ranged from 62.5-100% for CM and 33.3-61.9% for TBM. These pooled data were of low to very-low quality and was inadequate to support meta-analysis between aetiologies. Pooling of results from two studies with a total of 77 participants indicated that HIV-infected patients with TBM had higher risk of one-month mortality compared with HIV non-infected controls (odds ratio 3.03; 95% confidence-interval 1.13-8.12; p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The evidence base is currently inadequate to inform prognostication in VPS insertion in HIV-infected patients. A population-based prospective cohort study is required to address this, in the first instance.

Ventriculoperitoneal shunt insertion for hydrocephalus in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol

BACKGROUND

Hydrocephalus is a recognised complication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related opportunistic infections. Symptomatic raised cerebrospinal fluid pressure can be treated with ventriculoperitoneal shunt insertion (VPS). In HIV-infected patients however, there is a concern that VPS might be associated with unacceptably high rates of mortality. We aim to systematically review and appraise published literature to determine reported outcomes and identify predictors of outcome following VPS in relevant subgroups of HIV-infected adults.

METHODS

The following electronic databases will be searched: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE, CINAHL (EBSCOhost), LILACS (BIREME), Research Registry ( www.researchregistry.com ), the metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT) ( www.controlled-trials.com ), ClinicalTrials.gov ( www.clinicaltrials.gov ) and OpenSIGLE database. Any randomised studies, cohort studies, case-control studies, interrupted time series or sequential case series reporting survival following VPS in HIV-infected individuals will be included. If high-quality homogenous studies exist, meta-analysis will be conducted to determine 1-, 6- and 12-month mortality with comparison made between underlying aetiologies of hydrocephalus.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study will generate a comprehensive review of VPS in HIV-infected patients for publication. The primary outcome of meta-analysis is 12-month survival. If only low-quality, heterogeneous studies are available, this study will demonstrate this deficiency and will be of value in justifying and aiding the design of future studies.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42016052239.

Overview of post-infective hydrocephalus

INTRODUCTION

Post-infective hydrocephalus refers to accumulation of fluid within the cranial cavity (hydrocephalus) secondary to either pyogenic or tuberculous meningitis. Whereas in the former condition, fibrous adhesions develop in the ventricles and arachnoid villi, in the latter, the fibrosis is mainly basal.

METHODS

This is a review of the author's personal series as well as published literature on post-infective hydrocephalus.

CONCLUSION

The aim of treatment in hydrocephalus following pyogenic meningitis is to sterilize the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and then to drain the ventricles after conversion of a multiloculated cavity into a single cavity. In hydrocephalus associated with tuberculous meningitis, CSF diversion is not always necessary and should be reserved for cases where clinical deterioration occurs pari passu with increase in ventricular size and intraventricular pressure.

Tuberculous meningitis: neuroimaging features, clinical staging and outcome

Forty-two patients diagnosed with tuberculous meningitis in Kuala Lumpur Hospital based on clinical criteria, cerebrospinal fluid analysis and response to antituberculous treatment over a seven year period were included in this study. Relevant information was obtained from patients' medical case notes and neuroimaging findings were evaluated. The clinical presentation of patients was staged according to Medical Research Council for tuberculous meningitis. Fisher's Exact Test was used to determine the correlation between the neuroimaging features, clinical staging and outcome of patients. 52.4% of patients had stage 2 disease, 28.6% stage 3 and the remainder stage 1 disease. 95.2% of patients had various neuroimaging abnormalities and only 4.8% had normal neuroimaging findings. The commonest neuroimaging findings were hydrocephalus and meningeal enhancement. 47.6% of patients survived without any complication. 23.8% developed morbidity either with minor or major neurological deficit and 28.6% had died at the end of the study period. Among patients with negative neuroimaging findings, one died and another one survived without any complication. Among patients with abnormal neuroimaging findings, 25% developed morbidity, 27.5% died and 47.5% survived without complication. The only neuroimaging feature significantly correlated with clinical outcome was the presence of hydrocephalus. Therefore, hydrocephalus is important in the prognosis of the disease and should be considered an indicator of poor clinical outcome. There was no significant correlation between clinical staging and clinical outcome, nor was there a significant correlation between clinical staging and individual neuroimaging features.

Mortality associated with central nervous system tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) of the central nervous system (CNSTB) is associated with higher mortality rates than other forms of TB. Epidemiologic associations with and prognostic indicators of CNSTB have not been assessed in a large US population-based study.

METHODS

Between 1995 and 2004 and using a population-based active surveillance study, we compared patients with CNSTB to patients with TB affecting sites other than CNS (non-CNSTB) with respect to sociodemographic, clinical and Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotype variables. Risk factors associated with mortality at 180 days were compared between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

We enrolled 92 patients with CNSTB and 3570 with non-CNSTB. HIV co-infection was present in 31 (33.7%) of the CNSTB cases. In a Cox proportion hazard model, we found that CNSTB patients who died within 180 days were more likely to be older (HR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02-1.10), have a positive MTB culture from a CNS source (HR 5.11, 95% CI 1.06-24.62) and have hydrocephalus (HR 10.62, 95% CI 3.28-34.36) than patients who survived CNSTB. HIV co-infection association with mortality was not statistically significant (HR 1.74, 95% CI 0.35-8.62).

CONCLUSIONS

In our cohort, hydrocephalus was the most important predictor of mortality post-CNSTB diagnosis.

Granulomatous diseases of the central nervous system

Infectious diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), particularly those accompanied by the formation of granulomas, are a constant diagnostic challenge in some specific regions of the world, above all in developing countries. The pattern of image seen on CT or MR scan is the result of the inter-relations between the individual characteristics of the infectious agent and the capacity of each host to mount an appropriate inflammatory response to that specific type of aggression, inside one particular compartment of the CNS. Taking these parameters into account we will discuss the several patterns of image found in parasitic, bacterial, and fungal granulomatous infections.

MRI in tuberculous meningoencephalitis: report of four cases and review of the neuroimaging literature

The contribution of MRI is reported in four adult patients with tuberculous meningoencephalitis (TbM) and with autopsy correlation in one. Contrast-enhanced T1-weighted MRI revealed the characteristic basal meningeal inflammation of TbM and its focal spreading into adjacent brain. Mixed and T2-weighted pulse sequences delineated a plethora of parenchymal abnormalities. Their relation to TbM was established by a close matching of the patient's neurological findings, contrast enhancement or a change in lesion size. The latter accurately reflected the clinical course in all patients. It remained difficult, however, to distinguish between ischaemic and inflammatory changes, which in some locations were intermixed even histologically. From our experience and that of other groups, MRI provides more diagnostic information in TbM than CT. Moreover, MRI promises to be a useful tool for monitoring treatment response.

Shunt surgery for hydrocephalus in tuberculous meningitis: a long-term follow-up study

Hydrocephalus is a common complication of tuberculous meningitis. Case studies of 114 patients with tuberculous meningitis and hydrocephalus, who underwent shunt surgery between July, 1975, and June, 1986, were reviewed to evaluate the long-term outcome and to outline a management protocol for these patients based on the results. Seven factors were studied in each case: 1) age at admission; 2) grade on admission (I to IV, classified by the authors; Grade I being the best and Grade IV being the worst); 3) duration of alteration of sensorium; 4) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cell content at initial examination; 5) CSF protein levels at initial examination; 6) number of shunt revisions required; and 7) the necessity for bilateral shunts. During a long-term follow-up period ranging from 6 months to 13 years (mean 45.6 months), the mortality rate was 20% for patients in Grade I; 34.7% for patients in Grade II; 51.9% for patients in Grade III; and 100% for patients in Grade IV. Only the grade at the time of admission was found to be statistically significant in determining final outcome (p less than 0.001). Based on these results, the authors advocate early shunt surgery for Grade I and II patients. For patients in Grade III, surgery may be performed either if external ventricular drainage causes an improvement in sensorium or without selection. All patients in Grade IV should undergo external ventricular drainage and only those who show a significant change in their neurological status within 24 to 48 hours of drainage, should have shunt surgery.

Ventriculoperitoneal shunt in cryptococcal meningitis with hydrocephalus

Fourteen patients with cryptococcal meningitis were reviewed. All patients had a ventriculoperitoneal shunt for hydrocephalus. Early recognitions and prompt relief of hydrocephalus were useful for eight patients who showed rapid deterioration of consciousness or signs of cerebral herniation. There was no surgical response in four patients who had had weeks of confusion or mental change. It seems, therefore, that the duration of disturbance of consciousness or change of mentality before shunting is critical in determination of the outcome of the treatment. Ventricular shunting was effective in relieving papilledema in five patients. However, the surgery did not prevent the development of papilledema to optic atrophy and subsequent blindness in two patients. Hence, in addition to hydrocephalus with increased intracranial pressure, conditions such as direct invasion of the optic pathways by Cryptococcus neoformans or optochiasmatic arachnoiditis may be responsible for the visual failure. Ventricular shunting was also helpful in restoring paraparesis in one patient. Of the cerebrospinal fluid determinations, low protein concentration was a favorable indicator for surgery. Of the seven patients who received the surgical procedure before the start of antifungal therapy, four showed a significant improvement despite active infection of the central nervous system. None of the seven patients deteriorated because of the surgical operation. Thus, active stage of cryptococcal meningitis does not contraindicate the necessity of shunting, and premedication with antifungal drugs is unnecessary. Also, no shunt-related morbidity and mortality was seen in this study.

Symptomatic hydrocephalus and reversible spinal cord compression in Listeria monocytogenes meningitis. Case report

Central nervous system infections with Listeria monocytogenes result in varied clinical syndromes ranging from meningitis to rhomboencephalitis. A case of Listeria meningitis complicated by symptomatic communicating hydrocephalus and hydrostatic cervical cord compression is presented which clinically and radiographically improved with aggressive ventricular drainage.

Tuberculous meningitis: role of CT in management and prognosis

Serial computed tomographic scans were performed during the course of tuberculous meningitis in 25 patients aged 1-70 years. Hydrocephalus rarely occurred without other abnormalities. Marked ventricular enlargement was associated with extensive basal enhancement. Basal meningeal enhancement was not a good indicator of the clinical state although marked enhancement was a risk factor for the development of basal ganglia infarction. Infarcts were much more common in children than in adults and were sometimes asymptomatic. Radiological abnormalities sometimes developed during treatment and often did not resolve completely. Many patients had severe residual neurological problems.

Diagnostic and prognostic features of tuberculous meningitis on CT scanning

CT scans of 34 patients with severe tuberculous meningitis were reviewed. These patients were subsequently followed for a minimum period of nine months. Several diagnostic and prognostic features on CT scanning are discussed.