Gonorrhoea and chlamydia in persons with HIV: number needed to screen

Sexually Transmitted Infections in People with Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are more commonly seen in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH). Routine sexual history taking and appropriate multisite screening practices support prompt identification and treatment of patients, which in turn reduces morbidity and spread of STIs including HIV. Nucleic acid amplification testing has high accuracy for diagnosing many of the major STIs. Diagnosis of syphilis remains complex, requiring 2 stage serologic testing, along with provider awareness of the myriad symptoms that can be attributable to this disease. Prevention through mechanisms such as vaccines and postexposure prophylaxis hold promise to reduce the burden of STIs in PWH.

[Pathogenesis and pathological anatomy of chlamydial infections]

The review presents modern view on the global problem of chlamydial infections. Current nomenclature of chlamydiae was adduced. Epidemiology, etiology, clinical features, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of chlamydiosis received full coverage. The potential involvement of chlamydiae in the progression of various infectious and somatic diseases was revealed. Special attention was paid to pathomorphological alterations in human tissues, which develop during primary infection with chlamydia as well as during chronic infection. Key problems were demonstrated: underestimation of prevalence of chlamydiae among humans in worldwide clinical practice, the difficulty of detection of extragenital chlamydiosis, the lack of effective methods for diagnosis and treatment of persistent forms, the paucity of descriptions of pathomorphological picture of human chlamydiosis, the absence of specific prevention of infection.

Treponema pallidum PCR screening at mucosal sites of asymptomatic men who have sex with men taking HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis

Early detection and treatment of syphilis will reduce the infectious period and transmission. We aimed to determine whether screening men who have sex with men (MSM) taking HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for syphilis using Treponema pallidum polymerase chain reaction (PCR) could detect syphilis before the appearance of syphilis antibodies in serology. MSM attending 3-monthly PrEP clinic visits in Melbourne, Australia, were screened with a PCR assay targeting the polA gene of T. pallidum from an anal swab and an oral rinse between November 2019 and March 2020. Participants were serologically screened for syphilis using chemiluminescence immunoassay. A total of 309 asymptomatic participants provided an anal swab and oral rinse sample for T. pallidum PCR screening. Two syphilis cases (0.6%) were detected: one man had a positive serology only; another man had T. pallidum detected by PCR from an anal swab and a positive serology. PCR positivity was 0.3% (n = 1) for anal swabs and 0% (n = 0) for oral rinse. In this study, T. pallidum PCR screening at routine PrEP clinic visits did not identify additional cases of early syphilis over serological screening performed at these visits. IMPORTANCE With the ongoing syphilis epidemic in men who have sex with men (MSM), we investigated the role of using Treponema pallidum polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing at the oral cavity and anus in MSM taking pre-exposure prophylaxis for the early detection of syphilis. We evaluated whether the PCR tests from these mucosal sites can detect syphilis infection early, before the development of syphilis antibodies in serology. Our study found two syphilis cases among 309 MSM, and only one syphilis case had a positive anal PCR swab, although serology was positive. We conclude that additional PCR testing is likely to be expensive and would not be cost effective for individuals who regularly screen for syphilis. However, future studies with a larger sample size are required.

Exposure to Chlamydia trachomatis Infection in Individuals Who Are Newly Diagnosed with HIV and Antiretroviral-Naïve from Belém, Northern Brazil

Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the most prevalent sexually transmitted bacteria worldwide and may increase the risk of other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This study describes the seroprevalence of C. trachomatis infection among antiretroviral-naïve patients who are newly diagnosed with HIV in the city of Belém, Pará, in the Amazon region of Brazil. A cross-sectional study was carried out between January 2018 and January 2019 in 141 people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) who were followed up in a specialized unit of the public health network of Pará. The investigation of IgG antibodies against C. trachomatis was performed by enzyme immunoassay. Sociodemographic and sexual behavior information were obtained through a questionnaire. The prevalence of IgG anti-C. trachomatis antibodies was 64.8% (92/141). The majority of individuals were young, heterosexual, single men who did not use condoms during sexual intercourse and had no history of STIs. No significant differences were found when comparing any clinical or demographic data between groups. Our results demonstrated a high rate of exposure to C. trachomatis in newly diagnosed HIV-infected individuals in the Amazon region of Brazil, and all PLHA should be screened for C. trachomatis to decrease transmission of the bacteria and prevent the clinical manifestations of chronic infection.

A Missed Opportunity: Extragenital Screening for Gonorrhea and Chlamydia Sexually Transmitted Infections in People with HIV in a Southeastern Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Clinic Setting

Background

Guidelines recommend annual screening for gonorrhea/chlamydia in sexually active people with HIV at multiple sites (urogenital, oropharyngeal, rectal). In the first year of multisite screening at our Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program clinic, we studied (1) sexual history documentation rate, (2) sexually transmitted infection (STI) screening rate, (3) characteristics associated with STIs, (4) the percentage of extragenital STIs that would have been missed without multisite screening.

Methods

Participants were ≥14 years old with ≥1 in-person medical visit at our clinic in 2019. Descriptive analyses were performed, and adjusting for number of sites tested, a log-binomial model was used to estimate the association between characteristics and STI diagnosis in men.

Results

In this cohort (n = 857), 21% had no sexual history recorded. Almost all STI diagnoses were among males (99.3%). 68% (253/375) received appropriate urogenital testing, 63% (85/134) received appropriate oropharyngeal testing, and 69% (72/105) received appropriate rectal testing. In male participants with ≥1 STI test (n = 347), Hispanic ethnicity and detectable HIV viral load were associated with an STI diagnosis. Of those diagnosed with an STI who had multisite testing, 96% (n = 25/26) were positive only at an extragenital site.

Conclusions

Screening rates were similar across all anatomical sites indicating no obvious bias against extragenital testing. In males, STIs were more frequently diagnosed in people who identify as Hispanic and those with detectable viral loads which may indicate more condomless sex in these populations. Based on infections detected exclusively at extragenital sites, our clinic likely underdiagnosed STIs prior to implementation of multisite screening.

Anatomic site-specific gonorrhea and chlamydia testing and incidence among people with HIV engaged in care at four United States clinical centers, 2014-2018

Background

The incidence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) is increasing in the United States; however, there are limited data on anatomic site-specific GC/CT among people with HIV (PWH).

Methods

We reviewed records of all PWH in care between January 1, 2014 and November 16, 2018 at four sites in the CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems Cohort (CNICS; N = 8455). We calculated anatomic site-specific GC/CT testing and incidence rates and used Cox proportional hazards models modified for recurrent events to examine sociodemographic and clinical predictors of GC/CT testing and incidence at urogenital, rectal, and pharyngeal sites. We also calculated site-specific number needed to test (NNT) to detect a positive GC/CT test.

Results

Of 8455 PWH, 2460 (29.1%) had at least yearly GC/CT testing at any anatomic site. The rates of urogenital, rectal, and pharyngeal GC were 1.7 (95%CI:1.6, 1.9), 3.2 (95%CI:3.0, 3.5), and 2.7 (95%CI:2.5, 2.9) infections per 100 person-years, respectively. The rates of urogenital, rectal, and pharyngeal CT were 1.9 (95%CI:1.7, 2.1), 4.3 (95%CI:4.0, 4.5), and 0.9 (95%CI:0.8, 1.0) infections per 100 person-years, respectively. PWH 16-39 years old experienced greater GC/CT rates at all anatomic sites while MSM experienced greater rates of extragenital infections. NNTs for urogenital, rectal, and pharyngeal GC/CT were 20 (95%CI:19, 21), 5 (95%CI:5, 5), and 9 (95%CI:8, 9), respectively.

Conclusion

Many PWH are not tested annually for GC/CT and rates of GC/CT infection, particularly rates of extragenital infections, are high. We identified groups of PWH who may benefit from increased site-specific GC/CT testing.

Evaluation of the Predictive Value of Urine Leukocyte Esterase Test in Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae Infection Among Males Attending HIV/STI Clinics in Guangdong Province, China

Leukocyte esterase test (LET) detection is a simple and inexpensive test performed by urinalysis. This study investigated the predictive value of LET for Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) infection among men attending HIV and sexually transmitted infection (HIV/STI) clinics in Guangdong Province, China. A total of 5,509 urine samples were collected from HIV and sexually transmitted infection clinics in Guangdong Province between 2017 and 2019. Specimens from 5,464 males were tested by both LET and nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT). Of 5,464 males, 497 (9.1%) tested positive for CT or NG by NAAT, with respective prevalence rates of 6.4% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 5.8-7.1%) and 3.8% (95% CI: 3.3-4.3%), including 1.2% (95% CI: 0.9-1.4%) co-infected. Compared to the HIV-negative individuals, individuals living with HIV tend to have a higher prevalence of CT, NG and co-infection with CT and NG. The LET sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) for CT were 46.4% (95% CI: 41.2-51.7%), 92.0% (95% CI: 91.2-92.7%), 28.4% (95% CI: 24.8-32.1%), and 96.1% (95% CI: 95.6-96.7%), respectively. The LET sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV for NG were 68.4% (95% CI: 62.1-74.7%), 91.8% (95% CI: 91.1-92.6%), 25.0% (95% CI: 21.4-28.5%), and 98.7% (95% CI: 98.3-99%), respectively. Compared to the HIV-negative individuals, higher sensitivity and specificity were observed for HIV-positive individuals, but there was no statistical difference. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) using economic costs per additional person CT positive and NG positive was -$238.74 and -$145.60 compared with LET positive, respectively. LET is a cost-effective test and will be valuable for predicting CT and NG infection, which is highly prevalent in low- and middle-income countries.

Galectins as potential therapeutic targets in STIs in the female genital tract

Every day, more than one million people worldwide acquire a sexually transmitted infection (STI). This public health problem has a direct effect on women's reproductive and sexual health as STIs can cause irreversible damage to fertility and can have negative consequences associated with discrimination and social exclusion. Infection with one sexually transmitted pathogen predisposes to co-infection with others, suggesting the existence of shared pathways that serve as molecular links between these diseases. Galectins, a family of β-galactoside-binding proteins, have emerged as endogenous mediators that facilitate cell-surface binding, internalization and cell invasion of many sexually transmitted pathogens, including Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis, Candida albicans, HIV and herpes simplex virus. The ability of certain galectins to dimerize or form multimeric complexes confers the capacity to interact simultaneously with glycosylated ligands on both the pathogen and the cervico-vaginal tissue on these proteins. Galectins can act as a bridge by engaging glycans from the pathogen surface and glycosylated receptors from host cells, which is a mechanism that has been shown to be shared by several sexually transmitted pathogens. In the case of viruses and obligate intracellular bacteria, binding to the cell surface promotes pathogen internalization and cell invasion. Inflammatory responses that occur in cervico-vaginal tissue might trigger secretion of galectins, which in turn control the establishment, evolution and severity of STIs. Thus, galectin-targeted therapies could potentially prevent or decrease STIs caused by a diverse array of pathogenic microorganisms; furthermore, anti-galectin agents might reduce treatment costs of STIs and reach the most vulnerable populations.

Efficacy of doxycycline versus azithromycin for the treatment of rectal chlamydia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Chlamydia trachomatis infection is the most common sexually transmitted infectious disease and carries a risk of complications. However, the optimal treatment for rectal chlamydial infection remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the efficacy of doxycycline and azithromycin for the treatment of rectal chlamydia by undertaking a systematic review and meta-analysis of published data.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and clinicaltrials.gov databases from inception to 7 July 2021 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies that compared the efficacy of doxycycline and single-dose azithromycin on rectal chlamydia cure rates. Data were synthesized using a random-effects model, and subgroup analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

All included studies were conducted in developed countries. Two RCTs and nine observational studies, with a total of 2457 patients, were analysed. Doxycycline had a higher microbiological cure rate than azithromycin (risk ratio = 1.21; 95% CI = 1.15-1.28; P < 0.05). Pooled results from two RCTs also revealed a higher microbiological cure rate for doxycycline than azithromycin (risk ratio = 1.27; 95% CI = 1.20-1.35; P < 0.05). The results remained consistent in subgroups of different study designs, countries and sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of our findings, we recommend doxycycline rather than azithromycin as a first-line treatment for rectal chlamydia in developed countries. More RCTs from developing countries are warranted.

Undetected anogenital sexually transmitted infections among young adults living with HIV and receiving antiretroviral therapy: Implications for HIV treatment as prevention

Undetected sexually transmitted infections (STIs) pose health threats to people living with HIV and when combined with uncontrolled HIV can amplify HIV transmission. The current study screened 174 self-identified men under age 36 living with HIV and receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) for urethral and rectal incident chlamydia and gonorrhea infections. Participants were also screened for biomarkers indicating alcohol and other drug use, subclinical genital inflammation, and HIV viral load. ART adherence and sexual behaviors were also assessed prospectively over 1 month. Results detected an undiagnosed STI in 32 (18%) individuals. Participants with a previously undetected STI had significantly greater HIV viremia than those who did not have an STI after controlling for several confounding variables. Participants with an undetected STI also engaged in greater condomless anal intercourse with HIV negative and unknown status partners, including partners to whom they had not disclosed their HIV status. These findings show that undetected STI are associated with incomplete ART adherence and unsuppressed HIV, all of which are important for preventing HIV transmission.

A Quality Improvement Project Using Microlearning to Increase Provider Adherence to Extragenital Sexually Transmitted Infection Screening Guidelines in Men Who Have Sex With Men

ABSTRACT

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend screening men who have sex with men who are living with HIV for sexually transmitted infections at appropriate extragenital contact sites for bacterial sexually transmitted infections. In an effort to increase provider adherence to CDC recommended guidelines at a Ryan White Clinic, microlearning educational sessions were used. A quality improvement project was designed to determine the rate of provider adherence to CDC guidelines pre/post microlearning sessions. Student t-test was used to compare the number of patients who received urine and extragenital screening to those who received urine-only screening, to before and after the microlearning sessions. The rate of extragenital screening significantly increased after the microlearning sessions (4/460 vs. 70/507, p < .0001). The rate of urine screening remained unchanged (p = 1). Although extragenital screening significantly increased, it remained low. A decision tree in the electronic medical record to prompt providers to screen was developed.

High prevalence of sexually transmitted coinfections among at-risk people living with HIV

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Concurrent sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are not uncommon in at-risk populations, for which control requires integrated testing, treatment and prevention.

METHODS

From May, 2019 to February, 2020, multiplex real-time PCR assays were prospectively performed to detect Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG), and Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) in the urine and rectal/vaginal swab specimens collected from HIV-positive patients with a history of STIs or symptoms suggestive of STIs. Patients confirmed to have acquired STIs were treated according to treatment guidelines.

RESULTS

During the study period, 430 participants (99.1% men who have sex with men and median age 37 years) were included. The overall prevalence of CT, NG, and/or TV infection was 30.0%, including 24.7%, 12.1%, and 0.2% for CT, NG, and TV infection, respectively. The factors associated with CT, NG, and/or TV infection were hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) seropositivity (AOR, 2.76; 95% CI, 1.22-6.26), recently acquired hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection (AOR, 5.62; 95% CI, 1.99-15.88), using mobile dating application (AOR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.13-3.83), and oral sex (AOR, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.04-4.32). The rates of CT, NG, and/or TV infection were 50.0% in participants with recent HCV infection, 44.2% in those with HBsAg positivity, and 35.9% in those with incident syphilis. Among participants completing test-of-cure visits, the microbiological cure rate was 91.7% and 90.0% for chlamydia and gonorrhea, respectively.

CONCLUSION

HIV-positive participants had a high prevalence of CT and/or NG, especially those coinfected with viral hepatitis and syphilis. Our results strongly support integrated STI services in the population.

Testing practices and incidence of chlamydial and gonococcal infection in the Veterans Health Administration, 2009-2019

BACKGROUND

Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae cases reached a record high in the United States in 2018. Although active duty military servicemembers have high rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea infection, trends in chlamydia and gonorrhea in the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) system have not been previously described, including among patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and young women.

METHODS

We identified all Veterans in VHA care from 2009-2019. Tests and cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea were defined based on lab results in the electronic health record. Chlamydia and gonorrhea incidence rates were calculated each year by demographic group and HIV status.

RESULTS

In 2019, testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea occurred in 2.3% of patients, 22.6% of women ages 18-24, and 34.1% of persons with HIV. 2019 incidence of chlamydia and gonorrhea was 100.8 and 56.3 cases per 100,000 VHA users, an increase of 267% and 294%, respectively, since 2009. Veterans aged <34 years accounted for 9.5% of the VHA population but 66.9% of chlamydia and 42.9% of gonorrhea cases. Chlamydia and gonorrhea incidence rates in persons with HIV were 1,432 and 1,687 per 100,000, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of chlamydia and gonorrhea rose dramatically from 2009-2019. Among tested persons, those with HIV had a 15.2-fold higher unadjusted incidence of chlamydia and 34.9-fold higher unadjusted incidence of gonorrhea compared to those without HIV. VHA-wide adherence to chlamydia and gonorrhea testing in high-risk groups merits improvement.

Optimizing Coverage vs Frequency for Sexually Transmitted Infection Screening of Men Who Have Sex With Men

Background

The incidence of bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in men who have sex with men (MSM) has increased substantially despite availability of effective antibiotics. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends annual screening for all sexually active (SA) MSM and more frequent screening for high-risk (HR) MSM. The population-level benefits of improved coverage vs increased frequency of STI screening among SA vs HR MSM are unknown.

Methods

We used a network transmission model of gonorrhea (NG) and chlamydia (CT) among MSM to simulate the implementation of STI screening across different scenarios, starting with the CDC guidelines at current coverage levels. Counterfactual model scenarios varied screening coverage and frequency for SA MSM and HR MSM (MSM with multiple recent partners). We estimated infections averted and the number needed to screen to prevent 1 new infection.

Results

Compared with current recommendations, increasing the frequency of screening to biannually for all SA MSM and adding some HR screening could avert 72% of NG and 78% of CT infections over 10 years. Biannual screening of 30% of HR MSM at empirical coverage levels for annual SA screening could avert 76% of NG and 84% of CT infections. Other scenarios, including higher coverage among SA MSM and increasing frequency for HR MSM, averted fewer infections but did so at a lower number needed to screen.

Conclusions

The optimal screening scenarios in this model to reduce STI incidence among MSM included more frequent screening for all sexually active MSM and higher coverage of screening for HR men with multiple partners.